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CASTILE    I^ii,^ 


PHILADELPHI^V 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2009  with  funding  from 

Ontario  Council  of  University  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/expeditionforsur02ches 


4 


THE 


EXPEDITION 


SUllVEY  OF  THE  RIVERS 

EUPHRATES  AND  TIGRIS, 

CARRIED   OX 

BY  ORDER   OF    THB    BRITISH    OOVERNMENT, 

In  the  Years  1835,  1836,  and  1837 ; 

PRECEDED  BY  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  fflSTORICAL  NOTICES  OF  THE  REGIONS  SITUATED 
BETWEEN  THE  RKEHS  NILE  AND  INDUS. 

IN  FOUE  VOLUMES. 

WITH    FOURTEEN    MAPS    AND    CHARTS,    AXD    EMBELLISHED    WITH    XIXETV-SEVEX    PLATES, 
.BESIDES    XUMEROUS    WOOD-CUTS. 


BY 

LIEUT.-COLONEL  CHESNEY,  R.A.,  F.R.S.  F.R.G.S. 

coLOSEL  IS  Asia; 
COMMANDER  OF  THE  EXPEDITION. 


13ij  5lntliariti|. 

VOLUME    THE    SECOND. 


LONDON : 
LONGMAN,   BROV^^N,   GREEN,   AND  LONGMANS. 


\^  0CT2  2J970 


'.■■^^. 


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^irr  cF  T0S5$; 


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LONDON:   PRINTBD  BT  W.  CLOWES  AKD  SONS,  STAMFORD-STKEKT. 


CONTENTS   TO   VOL.   II. 


CHAPTER    I. 

[Page  1  to  28.J 

''Seat  ot  Paradise  and  its  four  Rivers. — State  of  the  World  before  the  Deluge. — Supposed 

residence  of  Noah. — Description  of  the  first  Babylonia. — Construction  of  the  Afk. 

First  Settlements  in  Armenia.  —  State  of  Antediluvian  Knowledge.  —  Primeval 
Astronomy,  and  its  preservation  among  the  Kirghis  Kazaks. — Cycles  of  the  Ancients. 
— Traditional  History. — Record*  preserved  in  Armenia. — Shem  proceeds  to  Shinar.— 
Japhet  and  Ham  continue  in  Armenia. — Noah's  precepts. — First  Human  Immolalion 
by  Lamech  — Arkite  Worship. — Antediluvian  Idolatry  or  Sabaism. — Ham's  Sin  and 
Curse. — Trifling  change  caused  by  the  Deluge.^ — Noah's  Allotment. — Japhet  occupies 
the  northern  extremity  of  Asia  and  Europe. — Shem  occupies  Babylonia,  Syria,  &c. — 
Ham  removes  from  Asia  Minor  to  Byblus. — Possessions  of  Cush. — Ham's  Idolatry  in 
Syria. — Canaan  and  Mizraim's  Territories. — The  Emim,  Amalekites,  Philistines, 
Thamudites,  Himyarites,  and  other  Tribes  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. — The  Cushites 
invade  Babylonia  and  [expel  the  people  of  Shem. — Rise  of  Nimrud's  Kingdom,  and 
establishment  of  Ham's  Religion. — Construction  and  object  of  the  Tower  of  Babel. — 
Spread  of  Mankind  in  consequence. 


CHAPTER    XL 

[Page  29  to  60.] 

THE  DISPERSION, 

SPREAD  OF  MANKIND  EASTWARD,  NORTHWARD,  AND  WESTWARD,  FROM 
BABYLONIA. 

Limits  of  the  Territories  about  to  be  occupied. — Directions  taken  Eastward  and  Westward. 
—Noah's  Family  commingle  in  Armenia.— The  Shemitic  People  reoccupy  Babylonia. 
—The  mixed  Tribes  of  this  Territory  called  Chaldeans.— Spread  of  the  Cushites  from 
Babylonia  to  Media,  Persia,  and  Central  Asia.— Phut,  the  supposed  Leader  of  the 
Mongols. — Georgian  and  Tibetan  character. — Similarity  of  Eastern  and  Western 
Architecture. — Western  origin  of  the  Chinese.— Spread  of  the  Cushites  Northward 
and  again  Westward,  along  the  Taurus.— Second  commixture  of  the  Sons  of  Japhet 
and  Ham.— Descent  of  the  Chasdim  into  Babylonia.— The  Cushite  Dominions  centre 
in  Babylonia. — Spread  of  the  Sons  of  Togorniah,  Gomer,  and  other  Descendants  of 
Japhet.— Nimrud's  Death.— Ninus  or  Belus  II.  invades  Armenia.— Haik  and  his 
Descendants  govern  Armenia.— Tombs  of  Noah  and  his  Wife.— Haikanians  and 
Togormeans.— Aramais  changes  the  name  of  Gihon  to  Araxes.— War  of  Aram  with 
the  Medians.— Derivations  of  the  name  of  Armenia.- Settlements  of  Togormah.— 


vi  CONTENTS. 

Meshed  and  Askenaz.— Northern  spread  of  the  Sons  of  Japhet.— Ham's  Posterity  in 
Syria  and  Arabia.— The  'A.dites  and  other  lost  Tribes  of  Arabia.— Traditional 
Account  of  the  Curse  of  Ham  and  his  Descendants  in  Africa.— Cusha-dwipa,  within 
and  without.— Sanc'ha-dwi'pa.—Axumitic  or  Amharic  character.  —  Countries  of 
Habache  or  Ethiopia,  Nubia.  &c.,  first  occupied,  next  Egypt.— Architecture  carried 
inio  Greece.— Tne  Chaldtan  Kingdom  of  U'r.— Kahtan  and  his  followers  occupy 
Arabia.— Possession  of  Jerah  and  Uzal.— The  Cushites  pass  into  Africa.— Chaldeans, 
their  Lan^nase  used  in  Mesopotamia. -Derivation  of  the  name  of  Chaldean.— The 
Chaldean  Tribes. -The  Chald^an  Nation  and  Priests —Chaldean  Philosophy,  &c. 


CHAPTER     III. 
[Page  61  to  86.] 

STATE  OF  AR.VIUA  FT-OJI  THE  PKPARTURE  OF  ABEAH.4.M  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  JOB. 

Abraham  quits  U'r  of  the  Chaldees.— Tiie  Patriarch  proceeds  from  Haran  to  Damascus, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt. — Settlement  of  Abraham  and  Lot. — Invasion  and  Discomfiture 
of  the  Assvriai!  Kings. — March  of  the  latter  thi'ough  the  Desert. — Destruction  of 
Sodom  from  nat.iral  and  supernatural  causes. — The  Alliance  of  Lot's  Daughters  with 
the  people  of  the  country,  originates  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites. — Birth  of  Ishmael 
and  Isaac. — Expiilsicui  of  the  former. — Territory  of  Ishuia'ers  Descendants. — The 
Sons  of  Keturah  and  the  Midiunites.- State  of  Egypt  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to 
that  of  Joseph. — Historical  interest  of  Epypt. —  Invasion  of  the  Hyk-sos,  part  coming 
through  Abyssinia. — Their  Dominion  in  Egypt,  and  Period  of  their  Expulsion. — The 
Sons  of  Esau  occupy  Blount  Seir — Mingled  People  of  Arabia. — Amalekites,  Edomites, 
Saracens.  &c. — The  Horites.  Eliphaz  the  Temamte. — Position  of  the  land  of  Uz. — 
'  Period  of  Job's  Trial. -^The  Localities  about  O'rfuh  correspond  with  tlie  circumstances 
in  the  book  of  Job.  — State  of  Knowledge  in  Arabia  in  the  time  of  Job  — The  Tobbai 
of  Yemen, — E.^peditiou  of  the  Himyarites  into  Central  Asia.— Samarcand  founded. — 
Language  and  written  Character  of  the  Himyarites. — Inscriptions  found  in  Yemen, 
also  at  Hisn  Gliorab,  Nakb-el  Hajar,  &c.,  and  others  near  San'a. — Ard-es-Saba,  or 
Land  of  Sabii. — Himyari  Inscription  found  near  'Aden. — Traces  of  that  People  in 
distant  Countries — Tlie  Hebrew  Language,  its  Cognates  and  written  Character. 


C  H  A  P  T  E  R    I  V. 

[Page  87  to  110.] 

GLANCE  AT  TIi::  Ml  EXICIA.V,  EGYl'TLVN,  JEWISH,  AND  ARAIUAX  HISTORIES, 
iKOM  B.C.  162;3  TO  B.C.  Ii522. 

Successive  Colonies  pioeeed  from  Arabia  into  Egypt.— Commerce  of  the  Egyptians  main- 
tained principally  by  Land.— The  Sepulchres  furnish  a  Pictorial  History  of  the 
Country.— Cotton.  Linen.  Porcelain,  and  other  Manufactures.— Alphabetical  Writing 
in  use  antecedently  to  the  construction  of  the  Pyramids.  — Costumes  of  the  various 
People.— Pieii  Hangings  and  Carpets  manufactured.  — Dyeing  in  use;  also  Metals, 
C-hariots,  and  Household  Utensils.— System  of  Cultivation  pictorially  represented. — 
Use  of  the  Himyaritic  character  by  the  .\rabs  in  the  time  of  Jo.seph.— Agricultural 
Products,  and  Caravan  Trade  to  distant  Countries.— Products  and  Caravan  Trade  of 
the  Pha-nicians.— I'osition  of  their  Territory.— Settlements  of  the  Phccnicians  pre- 
vi()U.sly  to  the  coming  of  the  Shepherds.— Commencement  of  Sea  Navigation  and  rise 
of  Tyre.- Colonies  planted  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic,  &c.— Rapid  rise  of 
the  Egyptians  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Shepherds.— The  Egyptians  become  jealous 


COXTKXTS.  V,I1 

of  tlie  Hebrews. — Forced  Servitiule  of  the  latter. — Coraniencement  of  their  flight  from 
the  Land  of  Goshen. — Pursued  by  Pharaoh. — Passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  near  Suez. — 
Advanced  State  of  the  Kdouiites  and  Midianites. — Jethro  visits  Moses. — Arab  Polity 
made  the  basis  of  Moses'  Government. — Moses  conducts  the  People  to  Mount  Sinai. — 
I'romulgation  of  the  Moral  Law. — Guided  by  Hobab,  the  Israelites  advance  to  Kadesh- 
Barnea,  and  the  southern  borders  of  Canaan. — Ketreat  from  thence  after  being  defeated 
by  the  Anialekites. — Destruction  of  Korah  and  his  Companions. — Journey  to  Ezion 
Cieber  and  Mount  Hor;  and  eventually  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Pisgah.— Limited  extent 
of  the  country  traversed  during  the  Exodus. — Passage  of  the  Jordan. — Some  of  the 
ancient  Inhabitants  are  driven  into  Egypt,  others  settle  in  Armenia. — War  between 
Armenia  and  Assyria. — Progress  of  the  Egyptian  Kingdom. — Sesostris  and  his  Con- 
quests. 


CH  APTEE    v. 

[Page  111  to  143.] 

OUTLINE  OF  EGYPTIAX  AND  JEWISH  HISTORY,  I'ROM  THEIR  SETTLEMENTS  IN 
PHKNICIA  AND  PALESTINE,  IN  158-t  B.C.,  TO  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE 
ASSYRIANS    UNDER    SENNACHERIB,    ABOUT    709    B.C. 

Egyptian  Keligion  and  Philosophy  carried  into  Greece. — The  Shepherds  settle  in  Phoe- 
nicia, and  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine.— Colonies  proceed  from  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  to 
Greece.— Origin  of  the  Argonautic  Voyage. — The  Fleet  returns  from  Colchis  to 
ByamtimiL,  plunders  Troy,  and  proceeds  to  Spain. — Some  of  the  Argonauts  return  to 
Greece  by  sea,  others  by  land,  with  the  booty  acquired. — Lydia  and  Assyria. — Ninus 
succeeds  to  the  Throne  of  the  latter  Kingdom. — He  conquers  Bactria,  and  marries 
Semiramis. — This  Queen  becomes  a  great  conqueror,  atd  founds  the  City  ef  Shemi- 
ramgerd. — Inscriptions  regarding  Semiramis  found  near  Lake  Van. — Ninus  succeeds 
and  organizes  the  Kingdom. — Period  of  the  Trojan  War.—  Menmon  ser^'es  at  the 
siege  with  an  Armenian  contingent. — Establishment  of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom. — 
David  succeeds  Saul,  and  is  acknowledged  by  the  Twelve  Tribes.  He  makes  Jeru- 
salem the  capital,  and  establishes  his  dominion  over  Judea,  Syria,  and  a  part  of 
Mesopotamia. — Accession  of  Solomon. — The  Court  and  Regal  Establishments  of  this 
Monarch. — Cost  of  the  great  Temple  at  Jerusalem. — Solomon  erects  another  Temple 
for  his  Egyptian  Queen,  and  constructs  Tadmor  and  the  other  Store  Cities. — Inquiry 
concerning  the  position  of  Ophir. — Visit  of  the  Queen  of  the  South,  or  Abyssinia. — 
Her  Posterity  by  Solomon  reign. — Saba  and  Slieba  Synonymous. — TJie  Himyarites 
and  Saba?ans  of  Africa  the  same  people. —  Early  Land  Trade,  and  difficulties  attending 
Ship  Caravans  or  Mercantile  Fleets. — Products  of  the  Countries  on  the  Mozambiqae. 
— Distance,  and  Time  required  for  a  Voyage  to  this  Coast. — The  other,  or  Eastern 
Voyage,  was  probably  founded  on  a  previous  Caravan  Trade  to  India. — Sanscrit 
Names  of  the  Merchandize. — ^Aurea  Chersonesus  supposed  to  be  Ophir. — Distance. 
and  Time  required  for  a  Coasting  Voyage  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca  — Trade  by 
Barter. — The  Tyrians  employed  by  Solomon. — Tiie  Tyrian  Hercules,  and  eaily 
Colonies  of  Tyre. — Establishment  of  Carthage,  and  various  Settlements  made  by  this 
cduimercial  kingdom  in  Spain  and  elsewhere.- — Accession  of  Kehoboam,  and  separation 
of  the  Ten  Tribes. — Shishak  invades  Judea. — Consolidation  of  the  Armenian  King- 
dom.— Invasion  of  Zerah  the  Ethiopian. — The  Kings  of  Assyria,  according  to  Ctesias. 
— Invasion  of  Judea  by  Pul. — Tiglath  Pileser  carries  the  Jews  captive  into  Assyria. — 
Nabonassar,  and  Works  of  Semiramis  at  Babylon. — Second  Captivity  of  the  Jews,  by 
Shalmaneser,  and  interchange  of  the  Ten  Tribes  with  the  .\ssyrians. — Sennacherib 
succeeds  Shalmaneser  ;  subjects  the  Babylonians,  and  invades  Judea. — Siege  of  Jeru- 
salem and  destruction  of  the  Assyrians.  -Sennacherib  flit-s  to  Nineveh  ;  is  assassinated 
by  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer,  his  sous. — Profane  Accounts  of  the  Discomfiture  of 
the  Invaders. 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    VI. 

[Page  144  to  168.] 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  SENNACHERIB,  ABOUT  709  B.C.,  TO  THE  FALL  OF 
BABYLON,  538  or  636  B.C. 

Hezekiah's  Treasures.— Babylon  and  Ninevehunited.— E<;batana  taken.— March  to  Cilicia. 
— Chinilidanus  and  the  Scythian  Invasion.— Cyaxares.—Nabopolasar  and  Nineveh.— 
Saracus  destroys  himself.— Nabopolasar  governs  Nineveh.— Pharaoh  Necho's  Fleets 
and  invasion  of  Babylonia,  Carchemish,  &c.— Nebuchadnezzar  as  the  General  of  his 
father  invades  Palestine  and  Egypt.— Daniel  carried  captive.— The  Army  returns  by 
two  routes  to  Babylonia.  -Nebuchadnezzar  mediates  between  the  Lydians  and  Medes. 

March  to  Jerusalem. — Plunder  of  the  Temple.— Nebucliadnezzar  adorns  Babylon. — 

Rebellion  of  Zedekiah.— Jeremiah's  prophecy.— Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  Jerusalem, 
and  carries  Captives  to  Babylon.— Judea  laid  waste. — Tyre  besieged  and  taken. — Nebu- 
chadnezzar attacks  Egypt  and  carries  Spoils  to  the  Temple  of  Belus. — Commerce, 
Canals,  and  Works  of  Nebuchadnezzar. — Nebuchadnezzar's  Prophecy. — He  loses  his 

reason. He  resumes  the  throne. — His  Death  and  Character. — Evil-Mcrodach  succeeds 

and  is  Assassinated.— Neriglessor  succeeds.— His  War  -with  Cyrus.— An  Embassy 
comes  from  India  to  Babylon. — Depravity  of  the  Babylonians. — Belshazzar  ascends 
the  throne  of  Babylon. — His  mother,  Nitocris,  prepares  for  a  siege. — Advance  of 
Cyrus. — The  river  Gyndes  drained  by  means  of  numerous  Channels. — Babylon 
beleagured. — The  stratagem  of  diverting  the  River. — Assault  of  Babylon. —  Babylonia 
added  to  Assyria. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

[Page  109  to  200.] 

GLANCE  AT  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  MEDO-PERSIAN'  EMPIRE  UNDER  DARIUS  THE 
MEDE,  CYKU.S,  CAMBYSES,  DARIUS  HYSTASPES,  XERXES,  ARTAXERXES,  AND 
DARIUS    NOTHUS,    FROM    536  B.C.    TO    404  B.C. 

Cyrus  the  Great  visits  Persia.  -His  Accession  and  Forces.— Daniel's  authority. — Prepa- 
rations for  Building  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. — Cyrus'  Decree. — The  Medes  and 
Persians  become  one  Nation. — Cambyses  succeeds. — Invasion  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. — 
His  Death. — Snierdis  usurps  the  Throne. — His  Death. — Stratagem  and  Accession  of 
Darius  Hyst.ispes.— Rebellion  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia. — Darius  marches  to  quell  the 
latter.—  Revolt  and  Capture  of  Babylon,  according  to  Herodotus. — A  Revolt  in  the 
Upper  Provinces  recalls  Darius. — His  authority  is  established. — Organization  of 
the  Empire. — Posts  established. — Use  of  Firnuins. — The  Temple  at  Jerusalem  Rebuilt. 
— Voyage  of  Scylax. — Invasions  of  Scythia  and  Greece. — Zerd-husht,  or  Zoroaster,  and 
the  Ruligion  of  the  Magi. — Invasion  of  Greece. — Battle  of  Marathon. — Fresh  Arma- 
ments of  Darius. — His  Death. — Character. — Xerxes'  Succession. — Invasion  of  Greece. 
—  Contingents. — March. — Bridge  over  the  Hellespont. — Thrace. — TherniopylsE. — 
Salamis. —  lietreat  into  Asia. — Battles  of  Plata;a  and  Mycale. — Death  of  Xerxes. — 
His  Character. — Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  or  Ahasuerus,  succeeds. — Esther. — The 
Jews. — Reception  of  Themistocles  at  the  Court  of  Assyria.— Double  Victory  of  the 
Greeks  on  the  Coast  of  Pamphylia.  — Peace  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Assyrians. — 
Xerxes  Murdered. — Sogdianus  and  Darius  Nothus. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

[Page  201  to  250.] 

THE  REIGN  OF  AKTA\ERXP:S,  SON  OF  DARIUS  XOTHUS  ;  INVASION  OF  CYRUS,  AND 
MARCH  OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND  GREEKS  FROM  BABYLONIA.  FROM  404  TO 
o60  B.C. 

Nature  of  Eastern  Governments.— Cyrus  appointed  Satrap  of  Lesser  Asia. — Origin  of  his 
Rebellion. — His  Government  and  Annaments. — Cyrus  advances  through  Asia  Minor. 
— His  March  from  Myriaudrus  to  the  Rivers  Chains,  the  Daradax,  and  Euphrates. — 
Advance  from  Thapsacus  to  the  River  Araxes  and  Towns  of  Corsote  and  CarmandEe. 
— March  from  the  Pilic  towards  Babylon, — Battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  Death  of  Cyrus. — 
Commencement  of  the  Retreat. — The  Greeks  reach  the  Median  Wall,  and  cross  the 
River  Tigris. — March  to  Opis,  Larissa,  Mespila,  and  Jebel  Jiidf. — Advance  through 
Kurdistan  to  the  Rivers  Centrites  and  Teleboas. — Passage  of  the  Rivers  Euphrates, 
Phasis,  and  Harpasus. — Advance  to  Gymnias  and  Mount  Theches. — March  to  Trebi- 
zonde  and  Cerasunt. — The  Mossynceci,  Chalybes,  and  Tibarenians. — City  of  Cotyora. 
— Voyage  to  Harmeae,  and  thence  along  the  Coast  of  Paphlagonia  to  Heraclea. — 
Separation  and  Defeat  of  the  Greeks  — The  Greeks  re-unite  and  Defeat  the  Troops  of 
Phamabazus. — The  Greeks  join  Seuthes,  and  take  service  under  the  Lacedaemonians. 
Xenophon  resigns  the  Command.— State  of  Greece  and  Asia  at  tlie  close  of  the  King's 
Reign. — Character  and  Death  of  Artaxerxes. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

[Page  251  to  296.] 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  MARCHES  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT  TO  HI.? 
ENTRANCE  INTO  BABYLON. 

Resou'-ces  of  Macedonia,  and  her  Constitution. — Philip's  Accession  and  Wars. — Battle  of 
Cha?ronea. — Assassination  of  the  King  and  succession  of  Alexander. —  Appointed 
Leader  of  the  Greek  Confederacy.— Civil  and  Military  state  of  Macedonia. — Alex- 
ander's Campaigns  on  the  Danube  and  against  the  Illyrians. — Preparations  and  Inva- 
sion of  Asia. —  Situation  of  Persia  under  Darius  Codomauus. — Government  and  weak- 
ness of  the  Satrapies  when  invaded. —  Alexander  crosses  the  Hellespont,  trusting  to 
success  for  his  resources. — Battle  of  the  Granicus. — Advance  to  Sardis  and  Ephesus 
into  Caria. — Winter  there. — The  Married  Soldiers  visit  Greece.^Telmessus  and  other 
cities  of  Lycia  taken. — Alexander  passes  Mount  Climax,  and  marches  to  Celsenae  and 
Gordium. — Asia  Minor  submits. — Cilicia,  Campestris,  and  rugged  Cilicia  invaded. — 
Approach  of  Darius. — Battle  of  the  Issus.— Visit  to  the  Captives. — Darius'  Baggage, 
&c.,  taken  at  Damascus. — Invasion  of  Phoenicia. — Capture  of  Tyre  and  Gaza.—  Sub- 
jection of  Egypt.^Visit  to  the  Oasis  of  Amnion. — Settlement  of  the  Government  of 
Egypt. — March  to  Thapsacus  and  through  Mesopotamia. — Passage  of  the  Tigris. — 
Preparations  of  Darius. — Battle  of  Arbelu. — March  to  Babylon  and  Restoration  of  the 
celebrated  Temple. 


CHAPTER    X. 
[Page  297  to  338.] 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  ALEXANDER  IN  SOUTHERN,  NORTHERN,  AND  EASTERN  PERSIA,  ALSO 

IN  BACTRIANA,  SOGDIANA,  AND  EASTWARD  OF  THE  RIVER  INDUS. 
March  to  Susa,  the  Persian  Gates,  and  Persepolis. — Advance  to  Ecbatana. — Treasure 
found  in  those  Cities. — Advance  to  the  Caspian  Gates. — Pursuit  and  Death  of  Darius. 


X-  ' 


CONTENTS. 


-  Invasion  of  Hyrcania.— Campaigns  in  Khorasan  and  Drangiana.— Alexandria  and 
Caucasum  J.uilt.— Invasion  of  Bactria.— Passage  of  the  Oxus.- -March  to  Maracauda 
and  the  Jaxartes.-Siege  of  Cyropolis.— Acti^rity  of  Spitameues.— Warlike  People 
north  of  the  Paropamisus.- Capture  of  the  Fort  of  Oxyartes.- Alexanders  Marriage 
to  Roxana.-Expedition  into  Margiana.— Hill  Fort  of  the  ParKtacaj  taken.-Winter 
at  Zariaspa,  and  Death  of  Clitus.— Return  acro.ss  the  Paropamisus,  and  March  to  the 
Indus.— Siege  of  Aomas.— Visit  to  Nysa.— Alexander  passes  the  Indus  and  defeats 
Porus.— Sakala  taken.— The  Army  refuses  to  cross  the  River  Hyphasis. 


CHAPTER    XL 

[Page  339  to  378.] 

MARCH  OF  ALEXAXDKU  FROM  THE  IXDUS  TO  SUSA  AND  IJABYLOX  ;    AND  VOYAGE 
OF  NEARCHUS  TO  THE  FORMER  CITY. 

Preparations  for  the  return  of  the  Army  and  Fleet.— Projected  Trade  with  India  as  the 
basis  of  the  intended  Commerce. — Alexander  abandons  his  purposed  Conquests  in 
Eastern  India. — Descent  of  the  Indus  and  despatch  of  Forces  under  Crdterus  and 
Hephaestion. — Alexander  crosses  the  Desert. — The  Difficulties  of  the  March.— He 
reaches  Kirmun. — Slow  descent  of  Nearchus. — Halt  at  Kartichee. — Advance  to  the 
River  Arabius,  and  along  the  coast  of  the  Oritje. — Voyage  to  Cape  'Arabah,  the  Town 
of  Mosarna,  and  the  extremity  of  the  Coast  of  the  Ichthyophagi. — The  Fleet  reaches 
Cape  Jask  and  Harmozia. — Nearchus  meets  Alexander. — Voyage  continned  to  Diri- 
dotus  or  Teredon. — Ascent  of  the  Pasitigris  to  Agines  and  Susa. — Ancient  and  modern 
Distances  of  the  V^oyage. — Games  and  Sacrifices  at  Susa. — Asiatics  and  Europeans  to 
be  united  bj^  Marriages  and  other  nieans. — Discontent  of  the  Army. — The  general 
employment  of  .Asiatic  Mercenaries. — Former  project  of  Commerce. —  Geography  of 
the  Kiirun  and  Kerkhah. — Alexander  ascends  the  Tigris  to  Opis. — Bunds  and  Dikes, — 
Mutiny  at  Opis. — Alexander  goes  to  Susa. — Advance  across  the  Zagros  into  Media. — 
Visit  to  the  Nisaan  plains. — March  against  the  Cosscei  and  to  Babylon. — Alexander's 
preparations.—  Reinforcements  of  vessels  and  troops. — His  gigantic  prt>jects,  anil 
Death. — Digression  on  the  Coarse,  Risings,  Flooding,  &c.,  of  the  Indus. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
[Piige  379  to  400.] 

THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  ALEXANDER,  FROM  323  B.C.  TO  2-itJ  B.C. 

State  of  the  Empire  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  Death. — Threatened  Hostilities. — Arrange- 
ments for  the  Succession. — The  various  Governors  retain  their  situations. — Roxana 
puts  Statiia  and  her  Sister  to  Death. — Eumenes  enters  Cappadocia.— Deatli  of  Per- 
diccas. — Defeat  and  Blockade  of  Eumenes. — Invasion  of  Phoenicia,  and  March  towards 
Babylonia. — The  Army  of  Eumenes  escapes  from  an  Inundation,  and  enters  Susiana. 
— Eurydice  and  Philip  put  to  Death  by  Olympias.— Campaigns  in  Susiana.— March 
through  the  Cossa-an  Mountains.— Campaign  in  Media. — Drawn  Battle,  and  Death  of 
Eumenes.— Antigonus  settles  the  minor  Governments. — Combinations  against,  and 
Preparations  of  Antigonus.— Antigonus  marches  into  Asia  Minor. — Demetrius  Defeated 
near  Gaza. — The  Nabatheaus,  and  I'.xpeditions  of  Antigonus  against  Petra. — Roxana 
and  her  son  Alexander  murdered  by  Cassander.— Barsine,  Hercules,  and  Olympias 
put  to  Death. — Antigonus  and  the  other  successors  of  Alexander  assume  regal  titles,  - 
Expeditious  of  Antigonus  and  Demetrius :  they  proceed  against  Egypt,  and  are  re- 


CONTENTS.  XI 

pulsed. — Demetrius  besieges  Rhodes,  and  fails  iu  repeated  Attacks. — Sieges  of  Fortresses 
in  ancient  and  modern  times. — Seleucus  extends  his  Empire  into  India. — His  Treaty 
with  Sandrocottus,  and  March  into  Asia  Minor. — Forces  assembled  under  Seleucus  and 
Antigonus  near  Ipsus. — Result  of  the  Battle. — Subdivision  of  Alexander's  Empire  into 
four  great  Kingdoms. — Demetrius  is  taken,  and  dies  in  Captivity. — Death  and  Cha- 
racter of  Seleucus.— Accession  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. — Prosperity  of  Egjpt  under 
this  Monarch. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

[Page  401  to  446.] 

GLANCE  AT  THE  rAUTHIAX  AND  KOMAN  AVARS,  Fl!OiI  222  n.C.  TO  A.P.  G'M. 

Seleucus  Callinicus  invades  Parthia. — His  Death. — Parthia  becomes  independent. — Antio- 

chus  the  Great'succeeds. -"Suppression  of  the  Rebellions  in  Media  and  Persia Ptolemy 

Philopater  gains  Palestine  and  Ccelo-Syria,  and  visits  Jerusalem. — Increase  of  the 
Roman  power  in  Asia. — Demetrius  Nicutor  invades  Parthia,  and  is  taken  prisoner. — 
Extension  of  the  Parthian  Dominions. — Judicious  Polity  of  Mithridates. —  .\ntiochus 
Sidetes  invades  Parthia,  and  is  killed  in  battle. — Pacorus,  King  of  Parthia,  seeks  the 
friendship  of  the  Romans. — Campaign  of  Lucullus  iu  Armenia. — Pontus  becomes  a 
Roman  province. — Crassus  invades  Parthia. — Surena  takes  the  Field. — Fate  of  the 
Roman  army. — Surena's  Triumph  at  Ctesiphon. — Surena's  Death. — Circuitous  march 
of  Antony  into  .Media. — Siege  of  the  Capital. — Retreat  from  Praaspa  to  the  Araxes. — 
Augustus  proclaimed  Emperor. — Preparations  of  ./Elius  Callus. — March  of  the  Roman 
Army  into  Arabia  Felix. — Return  of  the  Expedition  to  Egypt. — Siege  of  Jotapata  by 
the  Romans. — Sta^e  of  Jerusalem.— Siege  and  Capture  of  the  City. — Massacre  of  the 
Inhabitants. ^Trajan's  Accession. — Invasion  of  Assyria,  and  descent  of  the  River 
Euphrates.— The  jSahr-Malka  opened  for  the  passage  of  his  Fleet. — Capture  of  Ctesi- 
plion,  and  descent  to  the  Persian  Gulf. — Return  of  Trajan. — Siege  of  Atra. — Severus 
descends  the  Euphrates.— Passage  of  the  Nahr-Malka,  and  Capture  of  Ctesiphon. — 
Second  and  third  Siege  of  Atra. — Retreat  of  Severus. — Wars  of  Sapor,  and  Capture 
of  Valerian. — Invasion  of  tne  Romiin  Provinces  in  Europe  by  the  Goths,  &c. — Rise  of 
Odenatus,  Prince  of  Palmyra — He  makes  War  on  Sapor.  — Death  of  Odenatus.— 
Zenobia  seizes  some  of  the  Roman  Provinces. — Her  contests  with  Aurelian.' — Siege 
and  Fall  of  Palmyra. — Galerius  Defeats  the  Persians.— Wars  of  Sapor  II.  and-Con- 
stantine. — Remarkable  Siege  of  Nisibis.  — Rise  of  Julian. —  His  preparations  for  War. 
— Descent  of  the  River  Euphrates  with  a  Fleet  and  Army  to  Anatho. ^Fearful  Hur- 
ricane encountered  when  approaching  this  City. — Descent  of  the  River  continued. — 
Siege  and  Capture  of  PerisaLoras,  cS:c.— Julian  crosses  Mesopotamia  to  Ctesiphon. — 
Retreat  and  Death  of  Julian. — Jovian  succeeds  and  effects  a  Ketreat  with  the  Roman 
Army. — Belisarius  is  Defeated  by  the  Persians. — Chosroes  invades  Syria,  and  Cap- 
tures Antioch. — Chosroes  is  routed  by  Justinian. — Second  Invasion  of  the  Roman 
Territories,  and  total  Defeat  of  Chosroes. — Rebellion  of  Varanes  put  down  by 
Chosroes. — Decline  of  the  Persian  power. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

[Page  447  to  470.] 

GLANCE  AT  ARABIAN  HISTORY  DURING  THE  REIGN  OF  THE  EARLIER  KHALIPHS, 
FROM  A.D.   40  TO  1097. 

Early  connection  of  Arabia  with  other  Countries. — Central  situation  and  geographical 
position  of  this  Territory. — Flood  of  El  Arim. — Foundation  of  the  kingdoms  of  Ghas- 
san  and  Hiriih.— Conquests  of  the  Tobbai. — Invasion  and  Conquest  of  Yemen  by  the 


^\[  CONTENTS. 

Abyssinians.-State  of  Eeligion  amongst  the  Arabs  up  to  the  time  of  Muhammed.- 
War  of  the  Elephant.-Subjection  of  Yemen  by  the  Persians.— The  plans  of  Mu- 
hammed  favoured  by  circumstances.- Early  life  of  the  Prophet,  and  commencement 
of  his  Ministry.- Attractive  Doctrines  of  the  new  Eeligion.— Accession  of  Abu  Bekr 
and  'Omar.-Character  of  the  latter  Prince.-The  Dress,  Arms,  &c.,  of  the  Arabs, 
adapted  for  difficult  enterprises.-Conquests  of 'Omar.-Accession  of 'Othmau.-The 
Berbers:  commencement  of  the  Moorish  dynasty  in  Africa.— Ayeshah  commences  a 
Civil  War  against  'Ali. -Invasion  of  Spain  by  the  Moors.— Arab  Conquests  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  elsewhere.— Fiscal  arrangements  of  'Omar  ben  'Abd-el-'Aziz.— 
The  Moors  penetrate  into  France.— Commencement  of  the  reign  of  the  Abassides.— 
Baghdad  occupied.-Rise  of  Hariin-el-Eashid.- State  of  the  Khaliphat  during  his 
rei^.— Intercourse  cultivated  between  Arabia  and  Europe.— Temporary  division  of 
his  Territory.— Accession  of  Mamiin.— He  encourages  Philosophy  and  Literature- 
Assemblies  of  Learned  Men  at  the  court  of  Baghdad.— Cultivation  of  the  Persian, 
Indian,  and  Greek  Languages  encouraged.— Style  of  refreshments  at  the  Khaliph's 
palace.— His  liberality.— Revenue  of  the  principal  Court  Physician.— Mu'tasem's 
accession  and  contests  with  Justinian.— His  encouragementof  Architecture.— Military 
and  Civil  organization.— Extensive  privileges  of  Muslims.— Formation  of  regular 
Troops  in  Arabia.— Discontent  in  consequence  at  Baghdad.— Construction  of  the  city 
of  Sammarrah.— A  cartel  established  for  the  exchange  of  Muslim  prisoners,  &c.— 
Wars  with  the  Greek  Empire.— Recitals  of  the  Rawi  to  the  Khaliph  at  night.— Muta- 
wakkel  builds  a  great  palace.— Learned  Men  in  the  time  of  Mamun.— Subdivision  of 
power  in  Arabia.— Origin  of  the  Huns  and  Turkish  Tribes.— Conquests  of  Mahmiid. 
Ghi'zni  and  the  Afghans.— Rise  and  progress  of  the  Seljukian  dynasties. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

[Page  471  to  504.] 

PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  WESTEKK  ASIA  FROM   THE  TWELFTH  TO 
THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

State  of  the  Seljukian  rulers  in  the  Eleventh  Century. — Peter  the  Hermit  visits  Jerusalem, 
and  urges  a  Crusade. — The  state  of  Europe  fayourable  to  such  an  enterprise.— Pro- 
gress of  the  first  Crusaders  through  Europe  and  Lesser  Asia. — Favourable  disposition 
of  the  Fatimites. — Capture  of  Antioch. — Divided  state  of  the  Muslims. — Capture  of 
Jerusalem,  and  Massacre  of  the  People. —The  Khaliph  Niir-ed-din,  and  his  General, 
Saliih-ed-di'n.— Change  in  Salah-ed-din's  character. — Tei-mination  of  the  Fatimite 
dynasty  of  Egypt. — Death  of  Nur-ed-di'n,  and  rise  of  Salah-ed-din. — Campaign  in 
Palestine. — Defeat,  and  return  to  Egypt.— Salah-ed-din's  Campaign  in  Mesopotamia, 
Syria,  and  Yemen. — Frank  and  Egyptian  Fleets  in  the  Red  Sea.— Capture  of  Aleppo, 
Sinjiir,  Nisi'bin,  Damascus,  &c. — Defeat  of  tlie  Crusaders  at  Hatti'n. — Salah-ed-din 
takes  Jerusalem. — Tyre  is  retained  by  the  Crusaders. — The  Franks  being  reinforced 
besiege  ' Akka. — Saliih-ed-din  encloses  the  besiegers. —  Progress  of  the  Siege. — Obsti- 
nate defence  of  the  Muslim  Garrison. — Salilhed-din  marches  towards  Kdniyeh. — The 
Franks  are  reinforced  from  Europe. — 'Akka  is  closely  pressed. — The  Kings  of  France 
and  England  arrive  to  assist  in  the  Siege. — Fresh  efforts  of  Saldh-ed-diu  to  relieve 
'Akkii. — Several  Battles  are  fought. — The  Fortress  capitulates. — The  Crusaders  march 
against  'Askulan. — Defeat  of  Salah-ed-di'n. — Treaty  of  Peace  with  Richard  Cocur  de 
Lion.— Death,  and  Character  of  SaUih-ed-di'n. — The  Franks  are  joined  by  a  Fifth 
Armament  from  Europe. — They  are  repulsed  in  Egypt. — Frederic  II.  arrives,  and 
makes  a  Treaty. — Louis  IX.  is  defeated  near  Mansourah. — Battle  between  the  Tem- 
plars and  Ilospitallicrs. — Louis  IX.  lands  in  Africa,  and  dies  near  Tunis. — The 
Franks  arc  driven  out  of  Palestine. — Separation  of  the  Shi 'ah  and  Sunnie  Creeds, — 
Limits,  &c.,  of  Mongolia. — Rise  of  Genghis  Khan.— Origin  of  the  name. — Consolida- 


CONTENTS.  XI 11 

tion  of  his  Kingdom. — Invasion  of  China. — Subjection  of  Kharism,  Khorasan,  Persia, 
&c. — Extent  of  his  territories. — Part  of  Russia  is  subjected. — Kiptshak  becomes  a 
Russian  Province. — The  Persian  successes  of  Genghis  Khan. — Origin,  and  titles  of 
Tamerlane. — Turkistan  subjected. — Fresh  Conquests  meditated  by  Tamerlane. — Kho- 
ra-san  and  Southern  Russia  subdued.— Campaign  in  Siberia,  and  against  Toktamish. — 
Taimiir  subjects  Southern  Persia,  Baghdad,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  &c. — Taimur's 
Campaigns  in  India,  Anadoli,  Syria,  &c. — Capture  of  Baghdad. — Defeat  of  Bajazet. — 
Death  of  Tai'mur. — Taimiir  and  Alexander  compared. — Taimur's  Successors,  and 
subdivision  of  his  Ten'itories. — Persia,  and  the  Sophi  Dynasty. — Nadir  Shah  and  his 
Successors. — The  Seljukians  of  Riim,  and  rise  of  the  'Osmanli  Turks. — Saltan  Murad 
reigns  at  Adrianople,  and  conquers  most  of  European  Turkey. — Career,  and  death  of 
Bajazet,  and  temporary  Restoration  of  the  Seljukides. — Success  of  Sultan  Murad  II. — 
Capture  of  Constantinople,  and  first  use  of  Gunpowder. — Sultan  Suleiman  extends  his 
Conquests  in  Europe,  transports  a  Fleet  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  sails  to  India. — Organi- 
zation of  his  Empire. — Yemen,  Georgia,  Cyprus,  and  Daghestan  are  added  to  the 
Turkish  Territories. — Extent  of  the  latter  in  the  time  of  Muhammed  III. — Turkey 
comes  into  warlike  Collision  with  European  Powers. — Treaties  of  Belgrade  and 
Kuchuk  Kainarji. — The  French  invade  Egypt  and  Syria. — War  of  Russia  and  Eng- 
land against  the  Porte,  in  1S06. — Accession  and  Reforms  of  Sultan  Mahmiid  II. — 
F2ffects  of  these  changes. — Rebellion  in  Greece. — Battle  of  Navarino. — Russian  War 
of  1828  and  1829. — Loss  of  Territory,  and  present  Limits  of  Turkey. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

[Pago  505  to  537.] 

INTERCOURSE  BETWEEX  EUROPE  AND  ASIA. 

Settlement  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Egyptian  races. — The  similarity  of  the  Monuments  of 
Art  denotes  a  common  origin  of  the  People. — First  settlement  in  Bactria. — Spread  of 
Religion  and  Knowledge  from  thence  to  Hindustan,  to  China,  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  America. — Resemblance  of  the  People  of  the  latter  country  to  those  of  Central 
Asia.— The  Syro-Arabian  race,  and  extent  of  their  Territorj-. — The  Scythian  people 
and  their  early  Conquests. — Character,  Government,  &c.,  of  the  ancient  Scythians. — 
Their  settlement  in  Mesopotamia,  and  on  the  borders  of  Egypt. — Affinity  of  the 
European  and  Asiatic  Languages. — Inroads  of  the  Kimmerians,  the  Scythians,  and 
Franks,  into  Europe. — Connexion  of  the  Scandinavians  and  Normans  with  the  East.  — 
Settlements  in  Europe  previous  to  the  Irruption  of  the  Black  Sea. — Settlement  of  the 
Celts  in  different  parts  of  Europe. — The  Scandinavian  worship  handed  down  from 
Asia. — Colonies  from  Spain  and  Barbary  settle  in  Ireland. — Centi-al  Asia  connected 
with  Greece  through  Asia  Minor. — Relations  of  the  latter  country  with  Persia. — 
Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  derived  their  knowledge  in  part  from  Asia. — The 
Grecian  Sages  seek  instruction  in  Asia.— Democritus. — Philosophy  and  Astronomy 
first  cultivated  in  Asia. — Orpheus  the  supposed  founder  of  the  Greek  religion. — 
Thales  studied  in  Phoenicia  and  Egypt. — Pherecydes  the  Tutor  of  Pythagoras. — Solon 
visits  Egypt  and  Lydia. — Ctesias. — Hecateus. — Hellanicus,  the  cotemporary  of  Hero- 
dotus, writes  a  histoiy  of  Persia  and  Babylon. — Pythagoras  visits  the  Egyptians,  the 
Chaldeans,  Persians,  and  Scythians,  and  returns  to  Greece. — Plato  visits  Egypt, 
acquires  Eastern  learning,  and  makes  Philosophy  attractive. — Aristotle  derived  his 
knowledge  from  the  East. — Plato's  philosophy  was  founded  upon  that  of  the  Persians 
and  Indians.— Democritus  is  instructed  by  the  Magi  and  Chaldeans,  and  travels  to 
India  and  Ethiopia. — Antiquity  of  the  Magian  and  Indian  tenets. — The  Greeks 
improve  upon  Eastern  Literature. — Herodotus  and  his  Acquirements. — Isocrates  and 
his  Pupils. — Astronomy,  Mechanics,  Geometry,  Mineralogy,  Botany,  and  Medicine, 
derived  from  the  East. — Hippocrates.— Galen. — Intercourse  with  the  East,  by  Mer- 


Xiv  CONTENTS. 

chants  and  Travellers.— Journey  of  Marco  Polo.— Genoese  Commerce.— Travels  of 
Jeukinson  and  others.— Queen  Elizabeth  encourages  Commerce  with  Babylon,  &c.— 
Travels  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela  and  others.— The  Author  visits  Asia,  and  descends  the 
'  Euphrates  in  1830.— The  French  Republic  attempts  to  open  a  Commerce  through 
E^-pt._pians  of  Napoleon.— Proposed  Expedition  to  the  mouth  of  the  :Prontes,  and 
his  subsequent  plan  of  combined  operations  against  India. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

[Page  538  to  566.] 

LITERATURE  AXD  SCIENXE  OF  THE  EAST. 
State  of  Oriental   Literature  considered  at  four  different  periods.— Asiatic   Civilization 

.  during  the  first  period.— Thales  and  other  Sages  acquire  Knowledge  in  the  East. — 
Intercourse  between  Asia  and  Europe. — Second  Period  :  Literary  intercourse  com- 

,  raenced  by  Alexander  the  Great. — Library  and  School  of  Alexandria. — The  people  of 
the  East  were  prepared  for  Christianity. — Influence  of  the  change  of  Religion  upon 
Literature. — Spread  of  Learning  and  Civilization  from  Alexandria. — Rome  becomes 

-..  the  centre  of  the  Christian  world. — Third  period:  Rise  of  the  Arab  nation. — The 
Arabs  resort  to  literature  as  an  occupation,  and  become  the  medium  of  modern 
Civilization. — Study  of  the  Koran,  and  practical  use  of  Astronomy,  Geometry, 
Grammar,  and  Jurisprudence. — Learned  men  employed  at  Baghdad. — History, 
Novels,  and  learned  works. — Music  and  Literature  cultivated  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
eighth  century. — Bede's  knowledge  of  Eastern  Countries,  and  use  of  Arabic  names, 
&c.— The  Benedictine  Monks.— Their  friendly  relations  with  the  Arabs.— The  Monks 
spread  a  knowledge  of  the  East. — The  modern  Sciences  cultivated  at  Baghdad. — 
Pursuits  of  Al  Miimiim. — Rare  Works  collected.— Sanscrit  and  other  Works  translated. 
— Cultivation  of  Astronomy.— The  Abbot  of  St.  Gallen. —Arabic  Manuscripts 
;  collected  and  preser\'ed  in  Europe. — The  Moors  introduce  Arabic  Learning  into 
Europe. — Rhymes  of  Olfrid. — European  Versification  like  the  Arabic— Proven^ale 
Poetry,  and  Rhymes  of  Boethius. — Lyric  and  romantic  Poetry. — The  Italians  adopt 
the  Arabic  Poetry. — Mathematical  Sciences  studied  in  Spain. — First  use  of  Indian 
Notation. — Arabic  studied  in  the  schools  in  France  and  Spain. — Spread  of  Arabic 
I^aniing  in  Europe. — Learned  Arabs  of  the  Eleventh  and  Twelftli  Centuries. — 
Progress  of  Oriental  studies  in  Africa.  — Gerhard  of  Cremona  translates  the  Almagest 
and  other  works. — Raymond,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  encourages  Oriental  studies. — 
Abii-l-Senna  and  other  works  translated. — First  translation  of  the  Koriin. — Hermannus 
translates  Aristotle's  works. — Coustantinus  introduces  Arabic  medicine  into  Italy. — 
Travels  and  Acquirements  of  Constautinus. — Adelard  of  Bath,  and  his  translation  of 
Euclid,  &c.— Astronomical  Tables  prepared. — Adelard's  Treatise  on  the  Astrolabe. — 
Arabic  Seminaries  in  France  and  Spain. — Samuel,  a  Jew  of  Fez. — Translation  of  EI 
Battaui's  works.— Roger  of  Hereford. — Daniel  Morley. — The  Emperor  Frederic  II. 
encourages  Eastern  Learning.— His  Circular  to  the  Colleges,  &c.— Michael  Scot  and 
his  Translations.— Alphonso  encourages  the  study  of  Astronomy.— Fourth  period : 
Superiority  of  Western  Literature  over  that  of  Eastern  Countries. 


CHATTER    XVIII. 
[Page  567  to  603.] 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  COMMERCE. 
Proposed  Notice.— Ancient  Commerce  of  India.— Trade  overcomes  the  difficulties  caused 
by  Wars,  &c.— Various  branches  of  ancient  Commerce.— Trade  of  Egypt  and  the 
Ishmaelites.— Commerce  of  Arabia  with  Tyre.— Routes  from  Tyre  to  Palmyra  and 


CONTENTS.  XV 

Rain  Ion. — Route  to  Central  Asia.— Trade  of  the  Hindus,  eastward  and  westward. — 
Trade  with  Asia  in  the  time  of  Pliny. — Koutes  to  Eastern  China  and  India,  through 
l?;ilkh,  &c.— Commerce  on  the  Southern  Shores  of  the  Euxine. — Limited  extent  of  the 
Greek  Commerce  by  Sea. — Commerce  of  the  Rhodians,  Phrygians,  Milesians,  and 
-Carians. — Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor. — Limits  of  their  Voyages. — Commerce  of 
the  Plioenicians,  Carthaginians,  and  Gauls  with  Britain. — Nature  of  this  Trade. — 
ICarly  Trade  of  the  Hindus,  and  Merchandise  in  demand. — Trade  from  the  Persian 
Gulf,  F:irs,  Sec,  to  China.— The  earliest  Navigation  was  probably  that  of  the  Persian 
Gulf. —  Early  Navigation  of  the  Persians,  the  Arabs,  and  Hindus. — Commerce  in  the 
time  of  Nebuchadnezzar. — The  black  Jews  settle  in  Malabar. — Arab  Vessels  in  the 
time  of  Nearchus. — Commerce  encouraged  by  Alexander's  successors. — Route  from 
E;rypt  to  India. — Discovery  of  the  Trade  Winds. — Direct  voyages  made  to  India,  in  ) 
tiie  time  of  Augustus,  from  the  Southern  Coast  of  Arabia. — Mii^iammed  enjoins  Trade  1 
as  a  religious  duty. — Mercantile  cities  of  the  Arabs. — Extensive  range  and  intercom- 
iiiuuication  of  their  Coumierce. — Mekkah  becomes  one  of  the  centres  of  Trade.^Pros- 
perity  of  the  Arabs  in  the  time  of  the  Abassides. — Etiects  of  Luxury. — Mutawakkel  \ 
establishes  Trading  Factories. — Learned  Men  accompany  the  Caravans. — Precious 
Stones  and  other  valuable  Commodities  are  exchanged  throughout  the  Arabian  Empire. 
—Furs,  &c.,  brought  from  the  Northern  Regions  across  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas, 
and  European  goods  sent  into  Khorasun. — Trade  in  Silk,  Pearls,  Carpets,  rich  Cloths, 
&c.,  partly  by  barter,  partly  by  coin. — Exports  of  Glass,  Carpets,  Cloth,  &c. — Swords 
were  not  sent  abroad. — Costly  stuffs.  Cloths^  and  other  fabrics. — Embroidered  stuffs 
representing  Historical  and  Geographical  subjects. — Commerce  from  Basrah  to  India, 
China,  and  Africa. — Change  of  system  in  Trading  with  China. — A  Hindu  Physician 
sent  by  land  to  Hariiu-el-Hashid. — Eastern  Commerce  carried  on  by  Jews,  through 
the  Red  Sea,  &c. — Route  through  Aleppo  to  India,  and  through  Barbary  to  Baghdad. 
— Arabian  Trade  chiefly  confined  to  Eastern  Countries. — Trade  by  a  circuitous  route 
between  Constantinople  and  India. — ^"enice  becomes  a  trading  Port. — Rise  of  Com- 
merce in  England. — Merchants  settle  in  Constantinople. — Rapid  progress  of  Venetian 
Trade. — Genoa  becomes  a  mercantile  Republic. —  Trade  of  this  Port  with  India  through 
the  Black  Sea.^ — Colonies  established  on  the  Shores  of  the  Euxine. — Trade  of  the 
Genoese  with  Europeans. — England  shares  indirectly  in  Eastern  Commerce. — A  , 
Company  called  the  Merchant  Adventurers  established  in  England. — Scale  of  Duties 
fixed  for  foreign  Trade. — Exports  from  England  to  Flanders,  &c.- — The  ^'enetian 
Trade  opened  with  India  through  the  Red  Sea. — Bruges  becomes  a  mercantile  Depot. 
— Prosperity  of  Commerce  in  France. — Discovery  of  the  Western  Coast  of  Africa. — 
Discovery  of  America. — Rise  of  Antwerp. — Trade  drawn  to  Lisbon. — Various  routes 
to  Iiidia. — The  River  Euphrates  becomes  the  principal  line. — Vojages  of  Rauwolf, 
Balhi,  and  Newberrie. — Patent  of  Queen  Elizabeth  for  Trade  by  this  Route. — Appli- 
cation of  the  Merchants  for  a  Loan.— Voyages  of  Fitch  and  Newberrie  along  the 
Iji-phrates. —  Queen  Elizabeth  keeps  a  fleet  of  Boats  on  the  Euphrates. — Consequent 
cIK'apMe^:s  of  Goods  from  India. — Establishment  of  the  East  India  Company. — Colonial 
Trude  of  England,  and  its  advantages. — Increase  of  Exports  and  Imports  during  Five 
Centuries. — The  Turkey  or  Levant  Companies  of  England  and  France. — State  of  the 
'i'rade  of  the  Levant,  of  Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and  Mesopotamia. — Trade 
of  lh?  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs. — Partial  and  proposed  Navigation  of  the  Euphrates. 
—  Facilities  and  advantages  of  opening  the  River  Euphrates. — Openings  for  commercial 
enterprise  on  the  Rivers  of  JMesopotamia. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

[Page  G04  to  G32.] 

ARCIIITECTUKE,  SCULPTURE,  ETC.,  OF  I'UAN,  SYRIA,  AND  ARABIA. 
Ruins  in  Babylonia. — Kiln-burnt  and  Sun-dried  Bricks. — Construction  of  the  Pyramids. 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


—Cement  and  Layers  of  Reeds.— Some  Pyramids  of  Brick,  others  of  Stone.— 
Pyramids  of  Mexico,  &c.— Excavations  in  Assyria  and  elsewhere— Great  Fire 
Temple  near  Ispahan.— Singular  Sepulchral  Excavations.— Ancient  Causeways  and 
Roads.—  Canals.— Bunds.— Dikes.— Tunnels.— Arches.— Ancient  Mines.— Rocks  re- 
moved by  Fire.— Phoenician  and  Assyrian  remains. — Tomb  of  Cyrus. — Ancient 
Writing,  Sculpture,  and  Painting.— Ruins  of  Persepolis.— Floating  and  Stationary 
Bridges. — Cements,  &c. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
[Page  633  to  665.] 

BOATS  AND  HYDRAULIC  WORKS  OF  THE  EAST. 

Logs,  Rafts,  and  inflated  Skins.— Boats  of  Branches  and  Wicker-work,  covered  with 
Bitumen.— The  Boats  of  Hit,  and  their  Construction.— Dimensions,  &c.,  of  Noah's 
Ark.— Round  Boats  of  Mesopotamia.— Canoes  of  Reeds  and  of  Timber.— Wooden 
Boats  of  Hit  and  'A'nah.— Ferry-boats,  and  mode  of  using  them. — Sea-going  Boats. — 
Persian  and  Arab  Boats.— Trankeys  and  Bagalas. — Early  use  of  the  Compass.— 
Chinese  Vessels  and  Boats. — Subaqueous  Walls. — Water-baskets. — Water-levers. — 
Bullock-rollers. — Water-wheels. — Persian  Wheels. — Kanats  or  Kahreezes. — Souterazi. 
— Cisterns. — Reservoirs,  Tanks,  and  Cisterns  in  Syria,  India,  &c. 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 


No.  of 
Plate. 

39.  Mount  Ararat       .... 
30.  Birs  Nimriid         .... 

Frontispiece. 
To  face  page  25 

3L  Ruins  of  Nineveh 

,           39 

34.  Great  Mosque  and  interior  of  Ur'fa 

41.  Tyre 

40.  Straits  of  Bab^l-Mandeb 

1 

;    2 

,         127 

CI.  Ruins  of  Babylon 
50.  Ruins  of  Beles 

,          163 
,          213 

2.  Ferry  on  the  Aras 
49.  Sardis          .... 

,          229 
,          265 

36.  Gaza 

281 

1 0.  Island  of  Nearchus 

,         350 

32.  Ruins  of  Siis         .          ,          . 

,         356 

46.  Cedars  of  Lebanon 

,         389 

47.  Tadmor  or  Palmyra 

83.  Membij        .... 

38.  Acre 

27.  Elath  or  Eziongeber 

4.5.  Part  of  Dhahab— Gold— On  the  Re 

dSea 

,         428 
433 

,         480 
569 

,          585 

48.  Persepolis    .... 

,          620 

It  has  been  necessary  to  alter  the  order  of  succession  of  a  few  of  the  Plates;  but  they 
will  easily  be  found  by  reference  to  the  above  pages. 


EXPEDITION 


EUPHRATES   AND    TIGRIS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Seat  of  Paradise  and  its  four  Rivers. — State  of^the  "World  before  tlie  Deluge 
— Supposed  residence  of  Noah. — Description  of  tlie  first  Babylonia. — 
Construction  of  the  Ark. — First  Settlements  in  Armenia. — State  of  Ante- 
diluvian Knowledge. — Primeval  Astronomy,  and  its  preservation  among 
the  Kirghis  Kazaks. — Cycles  of  the  Ancients. — Traditional  History. — 
Records  preserved  in  Armenia. — Sliem  proceeds  to  Shinar. — Japhet  and 
Ham  continue  in  Armenia. — Noah's  precepts. — First  Human  Immolation 
by  Lamech. — Arkite  Worship. — Antediluvian  Idolatry  or  Sabaism. — 
Ham's  Sin  and  Curse. — Trifling  change  caused  by  the  Deluge. — Noah's 
Allotment. — Japhet  occupies  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia  and  Europe. 
— Shem  occupies  Babylonia,  Syria,  &c. — Ham  removes  from  Asia  Minor 
to  Byblus. — Possessions  of  Cush. — Ham's  Idolatry  in  Syria. — Canaan  and 
Mizraim's  Territories. — The  Emim,  Amalekites,  Philistines,  Thamudites, 
Himyarites,  and  other  Tribes  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. — The  Cushites 
invade  Babylonia  and  expel  the  people  of  Shem. — Rise  of  Nimrud's  King- 
dom, and  establishment  of  Ham's  Religion. — Construction  and  object  of 
the  Tower  of  Babel. — Spread  of  Mankind  in  consequence. 

The  precedino'  volume  contains  an  account  of  the  four  great  The  first 

~  .  .  I'll  o        volume 

rivers  of  Western  Asia,  also  of  the  countries  which  they  fer-  descriptive. 
tilize,   together  with    a    general   description    of  the    territory 
stretching  eastward  and  westward  of  those  streams,  as  far  as 
the  banks  of  the  Indus  in  the  former,  and  those  of  the  jSTile  in 
the  latter  direction. 

Several  circumstances,  in  addition  to  those  briefly  enume- 
rated in  the  Twelfth  Chapter,  appear  to  connect  that  part  of 
the  world  which  contains  the  rivers  in  question  with  the  ter- 

VOL.  II.  B 


EDEN  AND  ITS  FOUR  RIVERS. 


[chap.  I. 


Eden  repre- 
sented by 
ancient 
Armenia. 


Its  sub- 
divisions. 


ritory  of  Eden,  with  which  also  ancient  Armenia,  the  post- 
diluvian seat  of  mankind,  appears  to  be  identified.  According 
to  the  limits  already  traced,^  the  country  whither  Adam  was 
driven  to  tabernacle  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  garden  of  Eden ' 
seems  to  be  the  mountainous  district  near  Sinjar,  which  may 
be  said  to  overlook  the  plain  of  Shinar,  from  whence  Cain 
went  forth  subsequently  to  dwell  in  the  land  more  eastward,  in 
which  he  built  the  city  of  Enoch,  and  became  a  husbandman. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  one  section 
of  the  Tauric  chain  forms  the  water-shed  of  this  part  of 
AVestern  Asia,  and  that  from  its  bosom,  probably  issuing  from 
a  basin  or  mass  of  waters,^  flow  the  rivers  Araxes  and  Halys 
on  the  northern,  and  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  on  the  southern, 
slopes  of  these  mountains. 

It  is  manifest,  from  the  comprehensive  language  of  Moses,* 
that  to  our  first  parents  there  had  been  allotted  an  extensive 
territory,  whose  subdivisions,  namely,  Cush,  Havilah,  and 
Ashur,  were  watered  by  four  great  rivers.  It  has  been  seen 
that  one  of  these  had  changed  its  name  from  Gihon  to  Araxes, 
while  the  scriptural  names  of  the  third  [the  Hiddekel,  Dekel.  or 
Dijlath  (going  before  Assyria)]  and  fourth  rivers,  as  well  as  the 
country  which  they  enclose  [Mesopotamia  (Aramnaharaim)], 
having  been  happily  preserved,  the  southern  portions  of  the 
primeval  settlement  are  thus  unquestionably  identified. 

It  has  been  seen  that  in  the  tract  within  the  river  Araxes, 
there  are  numerous  traces  of  the  ancient  people  of  Cush  :  and 
again,  in  that  which  is  within  the  Halys  are  found  the  gold, 
pearls,  and  other  productions  of  the  land  of  Havilah.'* 
•  On  reference  to  the  index-map,  it  may  be  observed  that  the 
presumed  locality  of  Paradise  and   the  postdiluvian  seat  of 

'  Sec  the  index-map,  and  vol.  I.  from  p.  267-277. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  III.,  verse  24,     Bellamy's  translation. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  note  at  page  268. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  II. 

*  At  page  415  of  the  Chronicon  Paschale,  the  Moschi  and  the  Macrones 
as  Cushites,  and  the  river  of  the  Ethiopians,  are  mentioned  in  connexion 
with  one  part  of  Armenia,  and  in  another  part  of  this  kingdom  the  Gym- 
nosophystcc  arc  amongst  the  people  of  Ilavilah,  For  other  particulars  con- 
cerning the  latter  tract,  and  also  that  of  Cusli,  see  above,  p.  273-277. 


CHAP.  I.]  SUBJECTS  PROPOSED  FOR  THIS  VOLUME.  3 

mankind  comprised  extensive  countries.     The  former  was  sur- watered  by 
rounded   and    fertilized   by    four    great   rivers,   which   flowed  ^n'^'^ bounded 
towards  the  cardinal  points,  while  four  inland  seas  were  situ-  ^y  ^°°'"  ^^^• 
ated  near  its  borders,  namely,  the  Mediterranean  westward,  the 
Euxine  towards  the  north,  the  Caspian  on  the  east,  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  towards  the  south.^ 

As  the  extensive  region  spreading  from  hence  to  the  Nile, 
and  again  to  the  Indus  in  the  opposite  direction,  was  the 
theatre  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  the 
v/orld,  it  has  been  thought  proper,  before  entering  upon  an 
account  of  the  British  expedition  to  the  two  principal  rivers 
within  the  limits  of  this  territory,  to  offer  some  brief  notices  of 
those  events.  The  leading  circumstances  connected  with  the 
spread  of  the  human  race  will  be  also  stated,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  some  light  may  be  thrown  upon  scriptural  history,  by 
means  of  the  positive  and  descriptive  geography  collected  for 
this  work.  The  changes  to  which  the  political  states  of  the 
countries  were  successively  subjected  by  the  incursions  of 
Sesostris  and  Cyrus — the  movements  of  the  multitudinous 
armies  of  Xerxes,  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  and  the  wars  of 
his  successors — will  also  be  described,  and  there  will  be  added  a 
brief  notice  of  the  influence  which  the  eastern  campaigns  of 
this  mighty  conqueror  had  upon  the  progress  of  commerce  and 
civilization  in  Europe. 

With  reference  to  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed  the  old  traces  of  the 
world,  not  only  are  its  effects  to  be  traced  on  the  earth  in  a 
striking  manner,  but  the  fact  is  acknowledged  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  almost  every  land,  as  a  circumstance  known  by  tra- 
dition from  their  ancestors,  whether  savage  or  refined :  and 
this  event,  the  most  awful  ever  recorded,  is  invariably  attri- 
buted to  the  same  cause. 

Ovid  relates  that  previously  to  the  Deluge  violence  reigned  Depraved 

,>.-,,  state  of  the 

as  far  as  the  earth   extended,  and  all  men  seemed  to  have  old  world, 
entered  into  a  compact  to  be  wicked.^     Another  writer,  who 
enters  more  fully  into  the  subject,  says  that  there  was  in  these 
times  a  great  resort  of  people  of  various  nations,  who  inhabited 
Chaldea,  and  lived  in  a  lawless  manner,  like  the  beasts  of  the 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  269,  270.  *  Met.,  lib.  I.,  p.  24. 

b2 


APOSTASY  OF  THE  OLD  WORLD. 


[chap.  I. 


Uuion  of  the 
Caiuites  and 
Sethites. 


Antediluvian 
population. 


field.'  From  these  passages,  as  well  as  from  the  book  of 
Genesis,  we  learn  that  every  imagination  of  man's  heart  was 
only  evil  continually.'  AVith  respect  to  the  expressions,  "  Sons 
of  God,  and  daughters  of  men,"  ^  it  appears  that  the  descend- 
ants of  Seth,  who  for  a  long  period  had  maintained  the  worship 
of  the  true  God,  represent  the  former ;  and  that  the  nomad 
and  fallen  race  of  the  Cainites,  whom  they  joined  probably  in 
Babylonia,  were  the  latter.^  This  decided  falling  off  com- 
menced amongst  the  Sethites  about  a.m.  10/3,'  but  an  addi- 
tional period  of  583  years  elapsed  before  the  fallen  race  had 
become  men  of  renown,''  or  mighty  men  and  giants,  not  in 
stature  but  in  apostasy,  as  the  original,  Xephilim,  has  been 
translated  by  Bishop  Home.  This  was  just  before  the  Deluge, 
when  it  is  supposed  mankind  became  sufficiently  numerous  to 
people  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  Arabia  Felix,  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  part  of  Central  Asia,  Assyria,  and  Syria.  In  the  last 
country.  M^e  are  told  that  the  names  of  Genus  and  Genea,"  and 
those  of  their  descendants,  were  conferred  upon  the  mountains 
which  they  occupied,  as  Casius,  Lebanon,  and  Brathu.®  Very 
little  has  reached  us  concerning  the  countries  just  mentioned 
at  this  remote  period,  but  with  respect  to  Babylonia  and  the 
adjoining  territory  we  are  better  informed.  Noah's  separation 
from  the  sons  of  Seth,  to  avoid  their  wickedness,  is  expressly 
stated  by  the  Jewish  historian  :^  and  that  he  continued  in  a 
great  measure  to  live  apart,  is  probable  from  the  circumstance 
of  his  maintaining  his  righteousness ;  it  may  also  be  inferred 
that  his  distance  from  Babylonia  was  not  very  great,  from  his 

'  From  Alexander  Polyliistor  :  see  the  Cosmogony  an*  Deluge.  Ancient 
Fragments  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  22.     W.  Pickering,  London,  1832. 

*  Gen.  chap.  VI.,  v.  5.  »  Ibid.,  v.  2. 

*  Compare  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  d'Herbelot.  Art.  Aulad,  with  the 
Chronology  and  Antiquity  of  the  most  Ancient  Nations  of  the  World,  by  J. 
Jackson,  vol.  I.,  p.  203. 

"  Ibid.,  vol.  I.,  p.  60.  «  Gen.,  chap.  VI.,  v.  4. 

^  These  individuals  are  supposed  to  represent  Cain  and  his  wife;  the  former 
name  having  been  derived  from  Cain  by  successive  transformations  which  may 
be  easily  traced.     "NVIiittaker's  Univers.  Hist.,  vol.  I.,  p.  47. 

»  From  tlie  Cosmogony  of  Sanchoniatlio  Aiiciont  Fragments  by  Isaac 
Pre-ston  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  5,  6.     W.  Pickering,  London,  1839. 

*  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I ,  c.  iii.  s.  1, 


CHAP.  I.]         noah's  preparations  for  the  deluge.  5 

preaching  faith  and  repentance  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  and  Noah's 

1  1  •    •     •  •         IT         1  T        •  1  cn-     •  '         1  preaching. 

the  adjoining  region.  In  the  districts  about  bmjar,  the  seat 
of  the  Sethites,  bordering  on  Paradise,"  Noah  might  have  found 
the  requisite  materials  for  building  the  Ark,  namely,  bitumen 
and  Gopher  wood,"*  so  that  this  vast  structure  might  have  been 
prepared  in  the  course  of  a  short  time  by  his  family  alone. 
Berossus,  in  his  Babylonian  Antiquities,  states  that  Babylonia 
is  a  country  situated  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  pro-  Products  of 
ducing  abundantly  wheat,  barley,  ocrus,  and  sesame;  the  lakes  *^^"P°^^™^^* 
produced  the  roots  called  gongae,  which  are  fit  for  food,  and 
in  point  of  nutriment  similar  to  barley ;  also  that  there  were 
palm-trees,  apples,  and  a  variety  of  fruits,  likewise  fish  and 
birds,  both  those  of  flight  and  those  which  frequent  the  lakes : 
he  adds,  that  the  country  bordering  upon  Arabia  was  without 
water  and  barren,  but  the  parts  lying  an  the  other  side,^  that  is 
Susiana  and  the  Cossoean  or  Cordyean  mountains,  were  fertile. 
Berossus  further  states  that  Cannes,  or  Xisuthrus  (Noah)^, 
appeared  on  the  shores  of  the  Erythrean  sea,*^  bordering  upon 
Babylonia,  where  he  was  enjoined  to  write  a  history  of  the 
beginning,  procedure,  and  conclusion  of  all  things,  and  deposit 
it  in  Babylonia,  at  Sippara,  the  city  of  the  Sun  ^  it  is  added 
that  he  was  also  ordered  to  build  a  vessel,  and  take  with  him  Noah's 
into  it  his  children  and  his  friends,  and  everything  necessary  to 
sustain  life,  together  with  the  different  animals,  both  birds  and 
quadrupeds,  and  then  to  trust  himself  fearlessly  to  the  deep.^ 

Jos,  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  c.  iii.,  sec.  1. 

*  Georgius  Cedrenus,  p.  17.     Bekker,  Bonn,  1838. 

^  Other  timber,  but  more  particularly  the  pine,  the  cedar,  and  cypress 
contend  for  this  lionour  ;  all  three  are  found  in  this  part  of  the  country,  but 
the  similarity  of  Gopher  to  the  Hebrew  Goupher  and  the  Arabic  Kafiir  give 
a  preference  to  the  last,  the  Cupressus  sempervirens,  which  may  be  said  to 
be  almost  indigenous  to  the  districts  near  Babylon. 

■*  Ancient  Fragments  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  21,  22.  W.  Pick- 
ering, London,  1832. 

*  Eusebius,  Canon.  Chronici.  in  the  Greek.     Fol.,  Amst.  1658,  pp.  6,  8. 

*  The  Persian  Gulf  was  thus  called.  Vincent's  Commerce  of  the  Ancients, 
&c.,  vol.  II.,  p.  4. 

'  2  Kings,  c.  XVII.  24.  31  v. 

^  Ancient  Fragments  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  26,  27,  compared  with  Gen. 
chap.  VI.,  VII. 


6  THE  FLOOD  COVERS  THE  EARTH.        [CHAP.  I. 

Noah  is  said  to  have  obeyed  the  Divine  admonition ;  but  the 
vessel  which  he  constructed  is  described  as  having   been  five 
stadia  in  length,  by  two  stadia  in  breadth,  whereas  the  dimen- 
sions given  by  Moses  are  much  less.^ 
Stability  of  In  a  Subsequent  part  of  this  work  it  will   be  seen^  that  this 

the  ark.  floating  habitation  might  have  been  prepared  in  Upper  Meso- 
potamia, even  by  a  single  family,  without  any  serious  difficulty  : 
the  decks  with  the  firm  walls  and  roofs  braced  with  cross  beams, ^ 
in  addition  to  those  dividing  and  supporting  the  necessary  com- 
partments, would  give  sufficient  stability,  particularly  as  the 
structure  was  to  be  floated  without  being  launched ;  and  the 
coating  of  pitch  within  as  well  as  without,  perfected  the  work. 
The  Miihammedan  writers  tell  us,  that  during  the  progress 
of  his  operations,  Noah  was  tauntingly  charged  with  having 
become  a  carpenter  ;  and  that  he  was  constantly  reviled  for  his 
useless  labour  in  preparing  a  vessel,  where  it  could  not  by  any 
possibility  be  conveyed  to  the  water.^  But  his  task  being 
Swelling  of  accomplished,  the  increase  of  the  waters  commenced,  according 
to  the  Babylonian  records  quoted  by  Berossus,^  on  the  15th  of 
the  Chaldean  month,*  Jiar  or  Jar,  the  second  from  the  vernal 
equinox  ;  and  the  swelling  floods  having  raised  the  Ark  fifteen 
cubits  above  the  culminating  point  of  Mount  x\rarat,  the 
triumph  of  faith  was  complete,  when  the  patriarch  of  the  old, 
and  the  progenitor  of  the  new  world,  sailed  upon  what  has  been 
happily  called  a  shoreless  ocean,"  which  covered  the  remains  of 
the  animal  and  human  inhabitants  of  the  former  world.^  From 
the  accounts  handed  down  by  the  Chaldean  writers,  it  appears 

'  Gen.,  chap.  VI.,  v.  15. 

*  See  Chapter  on  tlie  Arts  and  Sciences  of  I'ran  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 
^  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  c.  iii.,  s.  2. 

*  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  Noah  ;  also  p.  9  French  translation  of  Muhammed 
Tabari's  Chronicles,  translated  by  M.  Dubeux. 

*  Cory's  Anc.  Fragments,  p.  33. 
"  Apufl  Syncel.,  pp.  30,  38. 

'  The  Just  ones  toiled  on  tlie  sea,  Avhich  had  no  land.  From  the  Elegy  of 
Aeddon  :  see  Mythology  and  Rites  of  the  British  Druids,  by  Edward  Davies, 
p.  495.     J.  Booth,  London.     1809. 

"  Bisliop  Burnet,  in  his  Theory  of  the  Earth,  states  that  tliere  were 
10.737,413,240  souls  ;  but  the  number  of  antediluvians  have  been  computed 
at  519,755,813,889. 


CHAP.  I.]  NOAH's  descent  IN  ARMENIA.  7 

that,  Avheii  the  flood  had  been  some  time  upon  the  earth,  and  i^ecrease  of 
Mas  again  abated,  Xisuthrus  sent  out  birds  from  the  vessel, 
which,  not  finding  any  food,  nor  any  place  whereupon  they 
might  rest  their  feet,  returned  to  him  again. ^  After  an  interval 
of  some  days,  he  sent  them  forth  a  second  time,  and  they  now 
returned  with  their  feet  tinged  with  mud.  He  then  made  a 
trial  with  these  birds  for  the  third  time,  when  they  returned  to 
him  no  more ;  from  this  he  judged,  that  the  surface  of  the 
earth  had  appeared  above  the  waters."  He  now  made  an  open- 
ing in  the  vessel,  and  upon  looking  out,  found  that  it  was 
stranded  upon  the  side  of  some  mountain:  he  immediately 
quitted  it  with  his  wife,  his  daughter,  and  the  pilot. 

Having  paid  his  adoration  to  the  earth,  and  constructed  an  Noah's  altar 
altar,  he  oflfered  sacrifices  to  the  gods  f  and  disappeared,  after 
admonishing  his  family  to  pay  due  /egard  to  religion,  and 
return  to  Babylonia,  in  order  that  they  might  search  for  the 
writings  deposited  in  Sippara,  also  called  Pantibibla,^  which 
they  were  to  make  known  to  all  mankind :  he  informed  them 
that  the  place  where  they  were  was  the  land  of  Armenia.^  It  in  Armenia. 
Mas  pretended  that  some  part  of  the  vessel  remained  till  recent 
times  in  the  Corcyrsean  mountains  of  Armenia,  where  the 
people  of  the  country  used  to  scrape  off"  the  bitumen,  with 
which  it  was  outM^ardly  coated,  and  make  use  of  it  as  an 
alexipharmic  and  amulet.  The  story  related  by  Berossus  is 
given  nearly  in  the  same  w^ords  by  other  profane  writers, 
particularly  Abydenus  and  Apollodorus,''  and  it  agrees  with 
that  given  by  Moses.  Indeed,  the  express  mention  of  a  coating 
of  bitumen  by  the  ancient  authors,  and  the  place  of  descent 
being  generally  fixed  in  Armenia,  are  remarkable  circum- 
stances. We  find  in  this  part  of  the  country  the  mountain 
Baris,   or  Barit,   i.  e.,  of  the  ark  or    ship;'    also  Masis  and 

'  Cory,  pp.  27,  28.     \Y.  Pickering,  1832. 

^  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  28;  Gen.  chap.  VIII.,  v.  11,  12. 

^  And  Noah  builded  an  altar  unto  the  Lord,  Gen.  chap.  III.,  v.  20. 

*  Probably  from  the  Chaldee  Sephar,  a  book,  or  record. 

^  Cory's  Anc.  Fragments,  pp.  28,  29. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  30-35. 

■  Valpy's  edition  of  Stephanus'  Thesaurus,  p.  322  ;  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iii. 
s.  6;  and  Bryant's  IMythology,  vol.  II.  p.  357. 


8 


STATE  OF  KNOWLEDGE  IN  THE  OLD  WORLD.        [cHAP.  I. 


Mountain  of 
the  ark. 


Place  of 
descent. 


Progress  of 
knowledge 


in  the  old 
■world. 


Mesezousar,  or  mountain  of  the  ark.'  In  the  Hebrew,  we  meet 
with  Har-Irad,  or  mountain  of  descent,'  and  Shamanim  (moun- 
tain of  the  eight),  all  denoting  that  the  Patriarch  first  touched 
the  earth  at  this  place.  As  a  farther  commemoration  of  this 
important  event,  we  find  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  in  question, 
a  district  and  town  called  Arnohwote,  or  Noah  placed  foot,^ 
also  a  spot  called  Akhooree,  that  is,  he  (Noah)  planted  a  vine- 
yard,^ and  in  the  same  vicinity  was  built  the  city  of  Nakhchivan, 
probably  the  Aporateeioii  of  Josephus  ;^  the  place  from  which 
the  first  colonies  emigrated,  taking  with  them  the  knowledge 
that  had  existed  in  the  former  world. 

The  extent  of  this  knowledge  may  be  fairly  presumed  to 
have  been  considerable,  having  been  acquired  during  sixteen 
centuries ;  unless  we  suppose  that  man  in  his  original  state, 
although  possessing  in  an  eminent  degree  the  requisite  powers 
of  body  and  mind,  continued  for  so  long  a  period  without 
instruction,  or  the  benefit  of  experience.  This,  however,  would 
be  incompatible  with  his  nature,  his  wants,  and  his  aptitude  for 
learning  and  improvement.  Indeed  we  are  warranted  in 
believing  that  the  reverse  was  the  case.  A  knowledge  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  world,  had,  as  we  know,  been  imparted 
to  mankind  at  the  creation;^  and,  amongst  those  nations  who 
have  had  the  least  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  it  may 
be  seen  that  a  clear  stream  of  knowledge  has  descended  through 
succeeding  generations.  The  arts  of  life  evidently  belonged 
to  the  earliest  state  of  the  old  world :  the  Cainites,  for 
instance,  who  were  by  many  years  the  older  of  the  two  sections 
of  mankind,  invented  weights  and  measures,''  and  worked  in 
metals,®  being  artists  in  general.'     They  were  likewise   mu- 


'  Tavernier's  Travels,  book  I.,  ch.  ii. 

*  Bryant's  Mythology,  vol.  III.,  p.  5. 

*  Derived,  according  to  Moses  Choronensis,  from  the  Armenian  words 
— Ar,  placed  ;  Noh,  Noah  ;  and  wote,  foot. 

*  From  the  Armenian— Aivh,  he  planted ;  and  oor,  vines.     No.  VIII., 
p   339,  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

*  Or  Apobaterion  :  Antiq.,  lib.  I.,  c.  iii.,  sec,  5. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  I.,  v.  27  ;  chap.  II.,  v,  19,  20. 

'  Jos.,  lib.  I.,  c.  ii.  s.  2.  «  Gen.,  chap.  IV.,  v.  22. 

"  lubal  Cain,  translated  into  English,  is  brassfounder  or  artist. 


CHAP.  I.]  ASTEONOMY  OF  PRIMEVAL  AGES.  9 

sicians,^  and  also  acquainted  with  the  more  ordinary  arts  of  Hfe. 
They  were  shepherds,"  agriculturists,  and  architects  ;  they  were 
also  skilled  in  the  formation  of  defensive  works  •,  for  they  con- 
structed the  fortified  city  of  Hanock  or  Enoch ;  and  they  were 
the  first  who  made  the  sword.' 

A  very  advanced  state  of  science  was  no  doubt  the  result  of  Knowledge 
that  knowledge  which  had  been  imparted  by  the  Creator  to  Adam.^ 
Adam,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  lived  during  three-fourths 
of  the  whole  antediluvian  period,  to  transmit  this  knowledge  to 
his  descendants.  We  are  therefore  warranted  in  believing  that 
the  progress  of  the  antediluvians  must  have  exceeded  any 
estimate  founded  upon  the  present  life  of  man. 

We  are  informed  that  Seth's  line  persevered  in  the  worship 
of  the  true  God,  and  in  the  contemplation  of  His  wisdom,  also 
in  the  study  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  result 
of  which,  it  appears,  they  engraved  on  two  pillars,  one  of 
stone,  the  other  of  brick;''  and  it  is  added,  that  Enoch  was  SetVs line 
the  promoter  of  new  inventions  or  discoveries,  as  astrology,  astronomy, 
or  astronomy.^  Even  if  these  circumstances  had  not  been 
noticed  by  Josephus  ^  and  other  ancient  writers,  we  could  not 
doubt  that  some  kind  of  knowledge  of  the  latter  science  must 
have  existed  almost  from  the  origin  of  the  human  race ; 
indeed,  the  concerns  of  life,  even  in  the  very  rudest  state 
of  society,  would  have  rendered  this  indispensable,  and  the 
necessity  M'ould  be  still  greater  in  the  agricultural  state,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  duration  of  the  seasons,  and  regulate  the 
operations  connected  with  seed-time  and  harvest,  as  objects 
of  this  nature  could  not  be  accomplished  without  dailv  obser- 
vations: these  attentively  made,  must,  in  the  course  of  time, 
have  enabled  the  ancients  to  determine  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  with  considerable  precision,"  without  anv  other 
assistance  than  such  as  was  derived  from  the  fields  as  an  horizon, 

'  Gen.,  chap.  IV.,  v.  21.  *  Verse  20. 

"  Gen.,  chap.  IV.,  v.  17.  22  ;  Jos.,  lib.  I.,  c.  ii. 

*  Georgius  Cedrenus,  p.  16.     Bekker,  Bonn,  1838. 

*  Euseb.  Preep.,  lib.  IX.,  c.  17,  p.  419. 

*  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  c.  ii.,  sec.  3. 

"^  Historical  Account  of  Astronomy,  by  John  Narrien,  E.-q.,  F.R.A.S.  and 
F.R.S.,  pp.  38,  55,  &c. 


10 


REMAINS  OF  PRIMITIVE  ASTRONOMY.  [cHAP.  I. 


The  Kirghis 
Kazaks. 


Pastoral 
astronomy. 


Notions  con- 
cerning cer- 
tain clusters 
of  stars. 


and  the  features  of  the  country,  as  points  to  mark  the  heliacal 
risings  and  settings,  and  the  motions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars. 

That  a  certain  amount  of  astronomical  knowledge  may  in 
this  way  be  obtained,  is  proved  by  that  which  has  descended 
from  father  to  son,  among  the  remains  of  a  primitive  people  of 
the  present  day,  who  wander  with  their  flocks  over  the  vast 
steppes  of  Central  Asia.  Constantly  living  in  the  open  air, 
the  Kirghis  Kazak,  under  the  shade  of  a  rock,  a  cave,  or  a 
tent,  watches  the  motion  of  the  sun  during  the  day,  and  the 
more  interesting  spectacle  presented  by  the  heavens  on  a  serene 
night.  Like  the  earliest  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians,  he  has  no 
other  means  of  measuring  time  than  those  atlbrded  by  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  distributing  his  days  by  the  heavens,  as  a 
European  does  by  his  watch.  Having  no  other  occupation 
than  his  pastoral  cares,  he  studies  the  celestial  arch  almost 
without  being  aware  that  he  is  doing  so,  and  soon  becomes 
familiar  with  its  principal  phenomena,  adding  to  this  know- 
ledge, like  his  prototype  of  Chaldea,  a  system  of  astrology,  in 
accordance  with  the  rude  principles  of  which,  he  peoples  the 
heavens  with  good  and  evil  spirits,  who  preside  over  the  days 
of  the  year,  and  to  whose  influence  he  supposes  all  living  beings 
to  be  subject.  By  such  means  he  professes  to  be  able  at  plea- 
sure to  intimidate  his  enemies,  or  console  and  encourage  his 
friends.  The  names  in  use  for  the  constellations  seem  to 
denote  a  common  origin  with  those  of  the  ancient  astronomers. 
The  North  Pole,  more  particularly  as  a  directing  point,  occu- 
pies the  first  place  in  the  heavens,  and  is  called  the  Iron  Stake  ; 
Venus  takes  the  name  of  the  Shepherd,  as  rising  when  the 
cattle  are  brought  home,  or  taken  out  to  pasture ;  the  Great 
Bear  they  compare  to  seven  Avolves  following  a  grey  and  a 
white  gelding ;  the  Pleiades  to  wild  sheep,  and  when  absent, 
supposed  to  be  bringing  grass  for  the  terrestrial  sheep ;  the 
Milky  Way  is  called  the  road  of  the  birds,  emigrating  north 
and  south.' 


'  Alexis  (le  Levchine.  Description  des  hordes,  «S:c.,  des  Kirghis-Kazaks, 
traduite  du  Russe  par  Ferey  de  Pigny,  revue  par  E.  Charriere.  Paris,  1840, 
p.  386,  and  some  preceding  pages. 


CHAP.  I.]         WEEKLY  AND  LUNAR  CYCLES.  1 1 

It  may  here  be  observed,  with  reference  to  this  subject,  that  Early  know- 
a  week,  or  a  period  of  seven  days  (which  coincides  with  that  i^eelTiyf 
of  the  creation,  and  also  with  a  phase  of  the  moon),  appears 
to  have  been  the  first   step   taken  by  mankind  towards  the 
measurement  of  time. 

Syncellus   states    that   from  Adam   to   the    165th    year    of 
Enoch,    years    of  seven  days   only    were   used ;    and    in  the 
earliest  ages,  the  weekly  period  prevailed  among  the  Arabians, 
and  other  oriental  nations,  as  the  Assyi-ians,  Egyptians,  Indians, 
&c.'     To  this  succeeded  the  lunar  circle  of  thirty  days,^  which  i""ar,  and 
continued  for  many  ages  to  be  the  established  year,  without 
any  longer  measure  of  time.     Afterwards,   twelve  such  revo- 
lutions, each  commemorated  by  the  festival  of  the  new  moon,^ 
comprised  the  longer  period  of  360  days.     This  discovery  is  annual 
ascribed  to  Enoch,  to  whom,  by  God's  command,  the  knowledge  ^'^^^^  ^' 
of  the  month,  the  tropics,  and  the  year  just  mentioned,  were 
revealed  ;"*  and  it  is  evident  that  the  latter  period  continued  in 
use,  up  to  the  time  of  Moses,  from  150  days  being  given  to 
the  five  months  of  the  deluge.^ 

The  collected    fragments   of  ancient   authors^  leave   little 
doubt  that,  at  a  remote  period  of  the  world,  a  knowledge  was 
obtained  of  other  cycles,   as  the  Saros,  Neros,  Sossos,   &c.'' ;  Saros,  Neros, 
the  last  was  merely  a  day,  and  one  of  the  others  may  have  been 

'  Compare  Scaliger,  de  Emendat.  Temporum,  pp.  6,  9,  and  Pref.  p.  xlvi. ; 
Selden,  de  Jure  Nat.  et  Gent.,  lib.  III.  c.  xix  ;  Syncellus,  from  Alexander 
Polyhistor,  p.  33 ;  Spectacle  de  la  Nature,  t.  VIII.  p.  53. 

*  Diod.  Sic.,  lib.  I.  p.  5  ;  Varro,  apud  Lactant.  Instit.,  lib.  II.,  xiii.,  p.  169  ; 
Plin.,  lib.  VII.,  sec.  48  ;  Plutarch  in  Numa,  cap.  xviii. ;  ex  Eudoxo 
Proclus.  in  Tim.  p.  31  ;  Stobocus,  Pliys.,  p.  21  ;  Gemin.,  p.  34;  Suidas,  in 
voce,  HXtoc,  vol.  I.,  p.  1659.  (Gaisford,  Oxford,  1834.)  Syncellus,  p.  41. 
Edit.  Goar.     Paris,  1642.     Folio. 

*  It  was  celebrated  by  many  ancient  nations.  Spencer,  de  Leg-.  Hebr.  Ritual, 
lib.  III.,  sec.  1,  dissert.  4. 

*  Jewish  Tradition  from  the  book  of  Enoch.  Apud  Syncellus,  p.  41, 
Goar  Ed.     Paris,  1642.     Folio. 

*  Compare  Genesis,  ch.  VII.,  v.  24,  with  Mr.  Richard  Allen's  Dissertation, 
p.  144,  et  seq.;  also  p.  291  of  Whiston's  Theory  of  the  Earth.  London, 
1755. 

*  Translated  from  Berossus,  Abydenus,  Megasthenes,  Nicholas  Damas- 
cenus,  Eupolemus,  and  others,  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.  W.  Pickering, 
London,  1832.  ^  '  Ibid.  p.  32. 


12 


LESSER  AND  GREATER  CYCLES. 


[chap.  I. 


year, 


Traditional 
historj-, 


the  astronomical  period  of  600  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
the  sun  and  moon  return  to  the  same  positions  nearly  in  the 
heavens,  which  they  occupied  at  its  commencement.^  The 
The  canicular  ancients  wcre  also  acquainted  with  the  cynic  or  canicular  year, 
by  some  called  the  heliacal,  and  by  others  the  eniautus,  or  the 
yeai\  being  the  interval  between  two  heliacal  risings  of  Sirius. 
They  are  supposed  also  to  have  discovered  what  they  called 
the  great  year,  in  which  they  imagined  that  the  sun,  moon, 
and  all  the  planets  complete  their  courses,  and  return  to  the 
same  sign  of  the  zodiac  from  which  they  originally  set  out.^ 

That  such  periods  are  mentioned  by  those  writers,  goes  far 
to  show  that  they  had  been  previously  determined,  and  handed 
down,  either  by  written  testimony,  or  the  streams  of  traditional 
history  radiating  from  a  common  centre,  which,  although 
dimmed  by  a  mixture  of  error,  are  found  everywhere  to  pre- 
serve essential  marks  of  truth ;  nor  is  it  difficult  to  imagine, 
and  even  to  follow  the  links  of  such  a  chain.  One  individual 
would  have  been  sufficient  to  transmit  a  knowledge  of  the 
events  which  preceded  the  flood.  Lamech,  for  instance,  (son 
of  Methuselah,)  lived  from  the  time  of  Adam  to  that  of  the 
second  progenitor  of  mankind ;  from  "svhom  again  the  three 
patriarchs,  Eber,  Isaac,  and  Levi,  would  have  sufficed  to  carry 
the  chain  down  to  Moses  himself.  Such  a  link  would  equally 
prevail  among  the  correlatives  of  this  branch  in  Arabia,  where 
Yaafar,  the  great-grandson  of  Himyar,  might  have  carried 
down  the  traditionary  chain  from  Shem  to  Jethro  (the  father- 
in-law  of  Moses).  The  historian  of  the  early  Hebrews  only 
gives  a  complete  genealogy  of  the  line  of  Seth,  which  he  con- 
tinues through  that  of  Shem,  M'hilst  he  brings  down  the  other 
great  antediluvian  branch  only  to  the  daughter  of  Lamech ;  but 
if,  as  will  be  presently  noticed,  Naamah  was  in  reality  the  wife 
of  Ham,  a  further  account  would  naturally  have  been  preserved 
by  some  of  this  race.  Sanchoniatho,  their  historian,  gives,  like 
Moses,  and  with  a  certain  degree  of  resemblance  in  the  names, 
ten  generations  from  Adam  to  Ham,  whilst  the  records  pre- 

'  Josephus,  lib.,  I.  c.  3. 

*  From  Censoriiuis :  see  Ancient  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Con',  Esq.,  p.  323. 
W.  Pickering,  London,  1832. 


and  its  pre 
seryatioD. 


CIIAF.  I.]  FIRST  LOCATIONS  OF  NOAH's  SONS.  1 3 

served  amongst  the  sons  of  his  eldest  hrother  (Japhet)  are 
still  more  minute,  for  which,  as  will  be  seen,  the  earliest  loca- 
tions of  his  descendants  in  the  vicinity  of  Ararat  afforded 
peculiar  advantages. 

Owing  to  the  difficulties  of  the  language,  and  exaggerated  Central 

^     _  .  ,  "^  ,  ,  .  Armenia. 

accounts  of  the  dangers  in  traversing  this  mountainous  region, 
Armenia,  especially  the  tract  occupied  by  the  Kurds,  has  seldom 
been  visited  ;  and  as  late  as  the  year  1831  the  populous  districts 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  namely,  Gurun,  Mala- 
tiyah,  'Ain-tab,  Sis,  and  'Ain-zarbah,  which  formed  part  of 
Armenia  Minor,  may  be  said  to  have  been  scarcely  known. 

The  Armenians,  as  we  learn  from  Moses  Choronensis,  Antiquity  of 
Michael  Chamish,  and  others,  trace  their  language,  and  the  language, 
line  of  their  kings  back  to  the  Deluge,  and,  the  people  having 
lived  almost  entirely  apart  from  the  pest  of  the  world,  within 
the  deep  recesses  of  the  Taurus,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the 
former  was  long  preserved  among  them  in  its  original  state. 
We  are  informed  by  one  of  the  writers  just  mentioned  that 
Xoah's  family  remained  in  Armenia  Major  some  considerable 
time  subsequent  to  the  Deluge,  where  they  intermarried  ;  ^  but 
at  a  later  period  there  was  a  separation  of  the  families,  and  the 
people  may  from  that  time  be  considered  as  divided  into 
separate  tribes.  Shem,  the  eldest,  by  appointment,  was  the 
first  to  seek  another  country;  and  we  are  told  that  he  pro- 
ceeded in  a  north-western  direction,  to  the  foot  of  a  lofty 
mountain,  bounded  by  an  extensive  plain,  delightfully  watered 
by  a  river  passing  through  the  middle  of  the  tract.  Here  he 
remained  for  a  short  time,  when,  having  given  his  name 
(Shem)  to  the  mountain,  and  left  Taron,  one  of  his  youngest 
sons,  at  the  town  that  he  had  built,  which  afterwards  bore  the 
name  of  Tamberan,  he  proceeded  thence  towards  the  south- 
east, a  course  which,  presuming  he  quitted  the  plain  of  Erz- 
Eiim,  would  carry  him  to  the  land  of  Shinar. 

Ham,  now  become  the  last  by  inheritance,  appears  to  have  Settlements 
continued  near  Mount  Ararat,  Japhet  being  already  settled 
westward  of  that  mountain  *,  so  that  the  temporary  locations  of 

'  History  of  Armenia,  by  Father  Michael  Chamish,  translated  from  tlie 
original  Armenian,  by  Johannes  Avdall,  Esq.  Calcutta,  1827. 


14 


POSTDILUVIAN  THEOLOGY  AND  MORALITY.  [CHAP.  I. 


Noah's 
religious 


and  moral 
precepts. 


Noah's  three  sous  were  within  reach  of  the  moral  and  religious 
instruction  of  the  Patriarch.  Therefore  it  probably  was  in  the 
fruitful  valleys  of  Central  Armenia  that  Xoah  delivered  the 
celebrated  precepts  which  were  intended  to  restore  the  purity 
of  the  Divine  Law,  and  which  have  become  an  interesting 
link  between  the  antediluvian  and  postdiluvian  religions : — 

1.  Not  to  follow  strange  worship^  or  idolatry. 

2.  Not  to  blaspheme  the  name  of  God. 

3.  Not  to  commit  murder. 

4.  Not  to  commit  incest. 

5.  To  abstain  from  theft  and  rapine. 

6.  To  appoint  just  judges  and  judicatures,  &c. 

7.  Not  to  eat  flesh  with  the  blood  of  it.* 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  and  second  refer  to  man's  duty 
towards  his  Creator,  the  former  being  manifestly  intended  to 
overcome  that  idolatrous  worship  which  probably  had  ah'eady 
been  given  to  the  heavenly  bodies  instead  of  their  great  Creator 
himself 

The  next  four  regulated  man's  duty  towards  his  neighbour, 
and  the  last  forbade  cruelty  to  other  creatures,  though  it  per- 
mitted the  use  of  flesh  for  food  as  well  as  for  sacrifices.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Cainites  had  not  confined  the  latter  to  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  or  even  to  animals,  for  Lamech,  the  earliest 
polygamist,  is  supposed  to  have  immolated  a  human  being — 
his  own  son : — 

"  Ye  wives  of  Lamech,  hearken  to  my  speech,  for  I  have 
slain  a  man  to  the  wounding  of  myself,  and  a  stripling  to  my 
own  bruising."" 

The  primeval  religion  and  strict  moral  code,  which  were  to 
be  thus  restored  for  the  guidance  of  Noah's  posterity,  appear 
however  to  have  undergone  some  modifications,  one  of  which 
was  introduced  in  order  to  commemorate  the  recent  catas- 
trophe, and  the  signal  deliverance  of  Noah  and  his  family.^ 

'  Bishop  Patrick's  Preface  to  the  Book  of  Job. 

*  Gen.  IV.,  V.  23  ;  and  read  p.  201  of  Frederick  von  Schlegel's  Philosophy 
of  Hist.,  translated  by  James  Brunton  Kobinson,  Esq.     Bohn,  London,  1847. 

^  In  a  recent  work  it  has  been  ably  shown,  that  the  Arkite  worship  was 
at  one  time  extensively  in  use  throughout  the  greatest  part  of  the  world, 


CHAr.  I.]  COMMEMORATION  OF  THE  DELUGE.  15 

That  Noah's  iirst  altar,  and  well-known  sacrifice,  should  The  Arkite 
have  had  a  direct  reference  to  the  vessel  constructed  by " 
Almighty  command,  and  from  which  he  had  recently  escaped, 
seems  to  be  quite  natural ;  and  it  is  equally  probable  that  the 
continued  use  of  this  type  was  expressly  enjoined  to  his 
descendants.  The  ark  was  the  constant  symbol  used  to  repre- 
sent an  altar,  and  this  was  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  probably 
from  Luban  or  the  ]\Ioon,  one  of  the  names  of  Mount  Ararat: 
it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  ancient  stone  found  near  Dundalk, 
a  ship's  hull  is  plainly  represented.^  It  is  believed  that  the 
Druids  were  in  reality  Arkites ;'  also  that  Stonehenge  and 
Avebury  in  Wilts,  Manister  Grange  (near  Limerick),  the  four- 
teen circles  of  large  stones,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sligo,  called 
the  Giant's  Grave,  and  other  similar  structures  at  home  and 
abroad,  are  the  remains  of  structures  ^which  were  sepulchral, 
and  at  the  same  time  connected  with  a  system  of  religious 
worship  that  once  generally  prevailed  in  Great  Britain  and^ 
throughout  the  ancient  world ;  but  probably,  like  that  which  is 
exemplified  in  the  Chinese  temples  dedicated  to  Kwan-Ya'n, 
or  the  Goddess  of  Mercy  and  of  the  Sea,^  more  or  less  mixed 
with  idolatry. 

Doubtless  the  primeval  worship,  as  renewed  by  Noah  imme-  '"'ere  added  to 
diately  after  the  Deluge,  was  free  from  this  taint,  which  how-  -worship. 
ever   must  have   followed   at   a   later    period,    since   it   was 
expressly  forbidden  by  the  first  and  second  commandments;^ 

dating  from  the  Descent  itself.  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  by  the  Rev.  Vernon 
Harcourt.  See  also  the  Mythology  and  Eites  of  the  British  Druids,  pp.  90, 
91,  107,  178,  180,  492,  493,  494,  495.     J.  Booth,  London.     1809. 

^  Naoi  is  the  Irish  word  for  Ship,  and  hence  Naiads  or  Shipmen.  Har- 
court's  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  vol.  II.  p.  23.  ^  Ibid,  vol.  I.,  p   75. 

^  Arkite  rites  prevailed  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  and  the  rites  of  Bacchus 
or  Noah  were  duly  celebrated,  pp.  184,  131.  Davies'  Mythology  of  the 
British  Druids.     Booth,  London.     1809. 

*  The  Sea-God  was  Cannes,  and  the  Fish-God  of  the  Babylonians,  Dagon. 
Ciironological  Antiquities,  &c.,  by  John  Jackson,  vol.  I.,  p,  209.  London, 
1752. 

^  Arkite  theology  embraced  some  memorials  of  the  history  of  the  Deluge, 
together  M'ith  an  idolatrous  commemoration  of  Noah,  of  his  family,  and  of 
his  Sacred  Siiip  ;  and  in  many  countries  the  worship  of  the  host  of  heaven  has 
existed  in  conjunction  therewith.     Ibid,  to  492. 


16  IDOLATRY  OF  HAM.  [CHAP.  I. 

and  it  appears  elsewhere  from  Scripture  that  Sabaism  was 
liable  to  judicial  punishment  in  the  time  of  Job.'  But  from 
the  existence  of  a  city  (Sipparah)  dedicated  to  the  Sun,  as 
well  as  from  the  first  of  Noah's  precepts  "  forbidding  strange 
worship,"  it  would  appear  that  this  and  other  kinds  of  idolatry- 
must  have  existed  previously. 

Sabaism  Sanchoniatho  attributes  Sabaism  to  Genus  and  Genea  (Cain 

and  his  wife),  who  stretched  forth  their  hands  towards  the  Sun, 
as  the  only  Lord  of  Heaven,  adding  that  the  first  men  wor- 
shipped those  things  on  which  they  themselves  lived  -^  it  is  also 
stated  by  Maimonides,  from  tradition,  that  in  the  time  of  Enos 
the  children  of  Adam  began  to  sin  greatly.  They  built 
temples,  and  made  images  to  represent  the  heavenly  bodies 
which  they  worshipped,  saying  that  God  had  created  the  stars 
to  govern  the  world  and  had  given  them  honour  by  setting 
them  on  high.^  Moreover  it  is  presumed  that  idolatrous 
images  of  some  kind  were  in  use,  even  in  Noah's  family  ;  for  in 
a  modern  version  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  we  read  that  Ham, 
the  father  of  Canaan,  exposed  the  religious  symbols  of  his 
father,  which  he  declared  to  his  brethren  without ;  that  is,  he 
strove  to  overturn  the  worship  of  God ;  and  for  this  purpose 
he  endeavoured  to  place  the  unclean  things,  or  idolatrous 
images,  within  the  tabernacle  of  the  true  worship,  as  he  had 
already  done  in  the  tabernacles  of  his  son  Canaan.^  It  is 
added  that  when  Noah  had  ended  his  wine-offering  (for  he 
knew  that  his  younger  son  had  offered  for  himself),  he  declared 
the  divine  command  regarding  Ham's  posterity.* 

is  renewed  by       Now,  assuuiiug  this  to  be  the  morc  correct  reading,  it  fol- 

Haai.  .  .  .    , 

lows  that  Ham's  sin  regarded  the  cherubim,  and  the  religious 
ceremonies  confided  by  Noah  to  Shem,  who  had  been  chosen 
high  priest,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  ambitious  brother.  The 
latter,  instead  however  of  submitting,  was  induced  to  set  up  his 
own  laws,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  previous  or  antediluvian 
idolatry  on  which  they  were  based  was  in  consequence  renewed. 

'  Cli.  XXXI.,  V.  26,  27,  28. 

*  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  pp.  5,  6. 

*  Vide  llottinger,  Smegma  Orient.,  p.  322. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  IX.,  v.  22.     Note  by  Bellamy. 
'  Ibid.,  V.  24.     Bellamy's  Translation. 


CHAP.  I.]  noah's  allotment.  1 7 

This,  as  will  be  presently  seen,  appears  to  have  speedily  taken 
a  more  settled  form  in  Syria,  from  whence  it  was  spread  over 
Greece  by  the  issue  of  Japhet,  whilst  it  prevailed  amongst  the 
descendants  of  Sheni  in  Arabia,  and  likewise  in  Babylonia, 
where  it  is  understood  that  Serucb  (Serug)  afterwards  intro- 
duced the  use  of  painting  as  part  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  idol-worship  respecting  persons  who  had  been  deified.' 

In  addition  to  the  religious  precepts  he  inculcated,  Noah 
made  such  a  distribution  of  the  earth  as  would  enable  his  de- 
scendants to  find  space  in  different  directions  for  their  rapidly  Trees  and 
increasing  members ;  and  the  knowledge  of  the  old  world  the  flood, 
which  he  must  have  possessed  would  have  enabled  him  to  allot 
the  most  desirable  tracts.  Neither  trees  nor  plants  appear  to 
have  formed  a  part  of  what  was  preserved  in  the  ark,  and  as 
we  know  that  the  olive  and  the  vine  s^urvived  the  Deluge,  it 
may  fairly  be  concluded  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  did  not 
experience  anv  great  alteration,  a  circumstance  which  is  in 
some  degree  established  by  geological  examinations.' 

The  position  of  Central  Armenia  greatly  facilitated  the  im- 
mediate extension  of  the  postdiluvian  people.  The  opening 
between  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  Seas  necessarily  conducted 
one  section  towards  the  tracts  lying  in  that  direction.  The  Mankind 
Mediterranean  Sea  conducted  another  portion  towards  Arabia  ^^^^^ 
and  Africa,  whilst  the  slopes  of  the  Taurus  would  carry  a 
third  eastward,  and  a  part  also  westward  of  Mount  Ararat. 
The  first  region  called  Garbia,  or  the  North,  according  to 
'Abu-1-Faraj,  fell  to  Gomer,  Magog,  Madai,  Javan,  Tubal, 
Meshech,  Tiras,^  and  other  branches  hereafter  to  be  noticed. 

This   in   the    sequel    comprised    Spain,    France,    and    the 
countries  of  the  Greeks,  Sclavonians,  Bulgarians,  Turks,  and 
Armenians ;  so  that  it  included  the  whole  of  Asia  north  of  the  into  Europe, 
Taurus,  and  probably  also  the  tracts  extending  through  Europe 
to  the  Atlantic."     To  the  children  of  the  second  son,  as  the 

'  From  Epiphaniiis,  see  p.  54  of  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments. 

*  Researches  in  Babylonia,  Assyria,  &c.,  by  "NV.  Francis  Ainsworth,  F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S.,  Geologist  to  the  Euphrates  Expedition.  J.  W.  Parker,  London, 
1838.  '  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  2. 

*  'Abu-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  8,  compared  with  Bochart's  Phaleg, 
chap.  XIV.,  and  Muller's  Sammlung  RiissischerGeschichte.    II.  Stuck,  p.  3. 

VOL.  n.  C 


IS  THE  SHEMITIC  PEOPLE  OCCUPY  SYRIA.  [CHAP.  I. 

heir,  was  allotted  what  has  been  denominated  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  namely,  Armenia,  Shinar,  and  the  rest  of  Mesopotamia, 
with  Assyria,  Media,  and  Persia,  as  far  as  the  Indus,  likewise 

Asia,  Palestine  and  Arabia.     To  the  sons  of  Ham,  the  last  by  allot- 

ment, were  given  Cush  and  the  region  about  the  Persian  Gulf, 
namely,  Susiana,  and  the  principal  part  of  the  territory  lying 
in  the  second  or  western  direction :  Canaan  having  Palestine, 

Palestine,  &c.  &c. ;  ISIizraim,  Egypt  and  Lybia.^  But  according  to  'Abii-1- 
Faraj,^  Ham  also  had  Teman  or  Idumea,^  as  well  as  Ni- 
gritia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Ethiopia,  Scindia,  and  India  east  and 
west  of  the  river  Indus.  This  allotment,  though  made  by 
Divine  appointment,^  w^as  only  partially  followed  by  the  sons 
of  Noah  w^hen  they  quitted  the  patriarch  in  Armenia.     The 

Shem  followers  of  Shem,  it  is  true,  occupied,  in  the  first  instance,   a 

StoaT^  P^rt  of  the  countries  destined  for  them,  for,  having  proceeded 
from  Armenia,  accompanied  by  a  portion  of  the  sons  of  Japhet, 
they  took,  as  already  mentioned,  a  south-easterly  direction, 
and  in  all  probability  followed  the  course  of  the  rivers  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  to  the  plain  country.^  In  allusion  to  this 
change,  Eusebius  states,  that  the  sons  of  Noah  were  the  first 
who  descended  from  the  mountains,  and  having  fixed  their 
habitations  in  the  plains,  they  persuaded  others  who,  on  account 
of  the  recent  flood  had  been  afraid  to  venture,  to  follow  their 
example.  The  plain,  it  is  added,  which  was  thus  occupied,  is 
called  Shinar,  and  God  commanded  them  to  send  forth  colonies 
to  people  the  earth.^ 

and  part  of  Being  thus  in  possession  of  Mesopotamia  as  a  centre,   the 

Shemitic  people  appear  to  have  gradually  extended  their  limits 
westward,  from  the  borders  of  Assyria  to  those  of  Syria  and 
Samaria ;''  and  we  know  that  their  high-priest  Mclchizedek 
was  at  Salem,  when  Abraham  came  into  the  country,  where  he 
probably  had  been  settled  for  some  time. 

But  the  most  powerful,  and  by  far  the  most  numerous,  of 
these  branches,  was  that   of  Ham,  who  appears  to  have  con- 

'  Hales'  Cliron.  Hist.,  vol.  I.,  p.  354.  *  Hist.  Dyn.,  p.  16. 

'  Jeremiah,  chap.  XLIX.,  v.  7,  20.  *  Euseb.  Chron.,  p.  10. 

'  Euseb.  according  to  Polyhistor,  I.,  c.  v.,  and  Jos,,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv.,  s.  i. 

"  Wem.  7  'Abii-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dyn.,  p.  16. 


Syria. 


CHAP.  I.]  EXTENSION  OF  IIAM's  TERRITORY.  19 

tinued  at  no  great  distance  from  Mount  Ararat;  one  of  his  Ham's 
grandsons,    Havilah,   occupying,    it   is  supposed,    part  of  the  Asia  Mnior. 
eastern  side  of  Lesser  Asia;  and  Ludim,   another  grandson,  a 
tract  lying  to  the  westward  of  the  river  Halys.     This  branch 
appears  to  have  occupied  what  afterwards  became  the  territory 
of  Lydia,    for   ^ve  find    them    subsequently   at    Smyrna   and 
Umbria  taking  the  name  of  their  leader,  Tyrrhenus  the  son  of 
Atys,  who   had  conducted   them  thither.^     Three   of  Ham's 
sons,  namely,  Cush,  Mizraim,  and  Phut,  appear  to  have  been  They  reign 
born  in  Persea,"  a  name  which  was  equally  applied  to  the  tract  *"     o^'^icia. 
beyond  the  Jordan,  and  the  country  on  the   other  side  of  the 
Euphrates ;  but  the  latter  was  first  occupied  after  the   flood. 
Subsequently  to  the  allotment.  Ham  appears  to  have  proceeded 
from  Asia  Minor^  to  the  more  central  position  of  Byblus,'*  in 
Phoenicia,^  his  sons  being  viceroys  ovec  the  different  countries 
of  which   they  had    originally    obtained  unlawful    possession. 
Cush  or  Cutha  was  king  of  the  territory  called  Kusdi  Nimriid,''  Cush  iu 

Shinar. 

or  Sinaar,  which  took  the  name  of  Babel  after  the  dispersion. 
But  or  Put,  the  Chaldaic  of  Phut^  or  Pha,^  was,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, sovereign  of  the  extensive  regions  lying  eastward  of 
Babylonia,  which  from  Khous,  son  of  Ham,  were  called 
Kusdi  Khorasan.^  At  Byblus,  Ham  appears  to  have  renewed 
his  idolatrous  practices ;  and  Bishop  Cumberland  thinks  it 
more  than  probable  that  Niemaus,  who  is  mentioned  by  San- 
choniatho  as  being  one  of  the  wives  of  Chronus  or  Ham, 
was  Naamah,  the   sister  of  Tubal  Cain,  for  (he  adds)  it  is  not 

'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  Ixxiv.  xciv. 

*  P.  13  of  Ancient  Fragments,  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.,  W.  Pickering, 
1832;  and  Cumberland's  Times  of  First  Planting  of  Nations,  p.  174,  com- 
pared with  Scaliger,  pp.  116,  197. 

^  Manes,  son  of  Jupiter,  supposed  to  be  Jupiter  Hammon,  or  Ham,  founded 
the  Lydian  Monarchy  :   Cumberland's  Sanchoniatho,  p.  472. 

*  Once  Gebel  of  the  Amorites,  and  now  Jubeil  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia  : 
see  above,  vol,  I.,  p.  453. 

^  Cumberland's  Sanchoniatho,  p.  11. 

*  St.  Martin,  Memoires  sur  I'Armenie,  tome  II.,  pp.  72,  373.  Euseb., 
Prsep.  Evan.,  lib.  IX;  Syncel.,  Chron.  44.     Euseb.,  Chron.  13. 

'  Wise's  Fabulous  Ages,  p.  9. 

*  The  Bhud  of  the  East.  Harcourt's  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  vol.  I.,  p.  91. 
'  St.  Martin,  Memoires  sur  I'Armenie,  tome  II.  p.  392,  393. 

c2 


suu 


20  HAM,  OR  CHROXrS,  DEIFIED.  [cHAP.  I. 

likely  that  Moses  would  have  noticed  this  woman  only  if  she 
had  not  been  a  person  of  great  fame  in  the  world,  as  well  as 
the  last  of  Cain's  line,'  and  therefore  the  last  of  the  "  daughters 
of  men." 
Ham's  The  circumstance  itself  is  of  no  trifling  importance ;  for  if  the 

Cainite  ^ife.    gyppogition  .of  a  Cainite  wife  be  correct,  it  would,  in  a  great 
measure,  explain  the  cause  of  Ham's  apostacy.     He  had,  we 
are  told,  studied  the  science  of  astrology  before  the  flood,  and, 
knowing  that  he  could  not  introduce  his  books  into  the  Ark, 
Early  he  engraved  his  sacrilegious  inventions  on  metals  and  rocks, 

astrology,  ^yj^j^^j^  \^q  fouud  again  after  the  flood,  and  thus  perpetuated  the 
knowledge  he  had  acquired.-  This  seems  to  be  the  means  by 
which  idolatry  spread  among  the  followers  of  Ham,  who  ele- 
vated their  leader  to  the  rank  of  Patriarch  of  the  Deluge,  to 
the  exclusion  of  Noah  himself. 
Worship  of  the  Bel,  who  is  generally  called  Saturnus,^  was  considered  as 
the  primary  object  of  worship ;  and  we  are  told  that,  when 
there  were  great  droughts,  the  people  of  Phoenicia  stretched 
forth  their  hands  to  heaven,  and  towards  the  sun,  for  him  they 
supposed  to  be  God,  calling  him  Beelsamin.  This,  in  the 
Phoenician  dialect,  signifies  Lord  of  Heaven  ;^  and  Ham 
appears  to  have  added  the  worship  of  the  moon,^  dedicating 
moon,  and  their  city  to  Baaltis,®  or  Ashtaroth,  from  Astarte,'  one  of  his 
wives,  and  the  Queen  of  Byblus  and  Melcander.^  The  serpent, 
as  an  emblem  of  the  sun,  being  also  that  of  time  and  eternity, 
was  in  some  way  or  other  connected  with  those  luminaries  in 
Phoenicia,  and  its  worship  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Nimriid, 
and  became  general  amongst  the  people  of  Chaldea.'     Ham 

*  Bishop  Cumberland's  Sanchoniatho,  p.  108. 

*  Cassianus,  Collatio  VIII.  cap.  xxi. 

'  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.  IX.  cap.  xvii.,  xviii. 

*  Whicli  is  equivalent  to  Zeus.  See  Sanciioniatho  :  Ancient  Fragments  by- 
Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  5,  6.     TV.  Pickering,  London,  1832. 

*  Bel  the  Sun,  Belthis  the  Moon :  Jackson's  Antiquities,  «&;c.,  vol.  III., 
p.  24,  note. 

'  Mistress,  from  Ba'al;.  Sanchoniatho,  from  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments, 
p.  15 ;  and  Abydenus,  apud  Euseb.  Praep.,  lib.  IX.,  c,  xli.,  p.  456. 

^  Ibid.,  p.  14.  8  Plutarch,  de  Iside. 

"  Compare  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  17,  with  Lucian,  de  Diis  Syris  ; 
Syncel.  I.,  c.  iii.,  p.  49;  and  Euseb.  Praep.,  lib.  IX.,  chap.  17. 


CHAP.  I.j  THE  CANAANITES  AND  PHILISTINES.  21 

or  Chroims,   whom   the  Phoenicians   called   II,   was   after  his  i^am  assigned 
death  deified,  and  assigned  to  the  planet  which  bears  his  name,  Saturn. 
Bel,    Belus,  or  Saturnus  ;^  and   in  later  times    the   Chaldean 
creed   became  a  part  of  Sabaism,  which,  according  to  Sancho- 
niatho,  had  been  founded  by  Cain  and  his  sister-wife.^ 

It  appears  that  Canaan  was  born  at  Byblus,^  and,  his  elder  The  Canaan- 
brother  Mizraim  having  already  passed  on  to  govern  the  region 
southward,  he  received  the  territory  afterwards  occupied  by 
the  descendants  of  his  eleven  sons,  namely,  the  Hivites,  the 
Avim,*  Anakim,  &c. :  this  tract  took  his  name,  its  limits 
being  Sidon  to  the  north,  and  Gaza  to  the  south.'^  Adjoining 
this  tract,  to  the  south-westward,  were  the  Pathrusim  and 
Casluhim,  of  whom  came  the  Philistines  and  Caphthorim, 
both  from  the  branch  of  Mizraim ;  and  the  former  were  already 
a  considerable  people,  under  a  king  of  their  own,  when  Abraham 
came  into  the  country.®  From  the  preceding  circumstances,  it 
may  safely  be  inferred  that  the  migration  of  the  children  of  Ham 
took  place  almost  simultaneously  with  that  of  Shem ;  and  the 
fact  of  having  made  their  way  from  Asia  Minor  into  Syria, 
is  indicated  by  the  question  propounded  in  the  book  of  the 
prophet  Amos,  "  Have  I  not  brought  the  Philistines  from  Philistines. 
Caphtor,  and  the  Syrians  from  Kir  ?"  ^ 

In  addition  to  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Canaanites,  &c., 
at  the  time  that  the  children  of  Israel  quitted  Egypt,  other 
sections  of  the  giant  race  of  Ham  appear  to  have  inhabited  the 
country  westward  of  the  river  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea. 
One  branch  of  the  Amalekites,*  as  well  as  the  Amorites,^ 
occupied  antecedently  the  tract  near  the  present  Wadi  El 
Ghor,  where  they  were  at  the  period  of  Abraham's  arrival  in 
the  country.     In  the  tracts  north-westward  of  these,  at  short 

'  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  17  ;  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evangel.,  lib.  IX., 
chap.  17. 

*  Euseb.,  Prajp.  Evang  ,  lib.  I.,  p.  34. 

^  Cumberland's  Times  of  the  First  Planting  of  Nations,  pp.  176,  177. 
London,  1724. 

*  Deut,  chap.  II.,  v.  23.  =*  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  15-20. 
®  Gen.,  chap.  XX.,  v.  2.                          ''  Amos,  chap.  IX.,  v.  7. 

"  According  to  the  Arabs,  the  father  of  the  tribe  was  Amalek,  a  son  of 
Ham.  "  Gen.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  7. 


22 


REMAINS  OF  THE  AMALEKITES. 


[chap. 


The  Emim, 
&c. 


The  Horites 

and 

Thamudites. 


The 
Amalekites 


distances  from  one  another,  were  the  Emim,'  the  Zuzim,^  the 
Rephaim,^  and  the  gigantic  Zamzummim  ;*  the  Horims  of 
Mount  Seir  being  immediately  southward  of  the  last.^ 

As  these  sections  of  the  line  of  Ham  had  been  the  earliest 
occupants  of  that  tract  of  country  which  was  in  possession  of 
the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Horites,  during  the  exodus  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  it  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  them, 
particularly  the  first  and  the  last,  may  have  constituted  the 
lost  tribe  of  Thamud.  To  this  people  belonged  the  exten- 
sive tract  of  pasture-land  lying  between  Hijaz  and  the  borders 
of  Syria,  which  is  known  by  the  general  name  of  El  Hadjar:'' 
they  lived  in  caverns  excavated  in  the  mountains,  such  as  those 
of  Wadi  Petra  and  Wadi  El  Kari,"  in  which  they  had  wells  ;^ 
but  it  is  added®  "  they  were  destroyed  by  a  storm  from  heaven," 
as  a  punishment  for  their  obstinacy  in  not  listening  to  a  pro- 
phet sent  from  God,  expressly  to  warn  them  and  turn  them 
from  their  impiety.'" 

Towards  the  interior  of  Arabia  are  traces  of  another  portion 
of  the  ancient  Amalekites,  namely,  Imlik,  Amalek,  or  Ama- 
leka,  whose  giant  size  passed  into  a  proverb  to  express  anything 
great.'*  The  remains  of  this  people,  according  to  the  Arabs,  are 
between  Bahrein  and  Iladramaiit,  and  also  again  towards  Sana 
and  Taif ;  there  are,  besides,  two  sections  along  the  shores  of 
the  Red  Sea,  where  they  dwell  under  the  names  of  Obail  and 
LafF,  who  are  said  to  have  formed  part  of  the  Amalekon ;'-  and 
the  situations  indicated  are  in  accordance  with  the  gradual  ex- 
tension of  this  great  tribe  to  the  southward,  from  the  shores  of 

•  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  10,  1 1.  «  Gen.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  5. 
Ibid.  •>  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  20. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  6;  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  12. 

Edrisi,  ed.  .Jaubert,  tome  V.  Eecueil  de  Voyages  et  Memoires,  &c.,  par 
la  Societe  de  Geog.,  Paris,  1836. 

^  Arabic  MSS.,Nos.  7357  and  7505,  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by 
Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

'  Numerous  tanks  and  cisterns  still  exist. 

'  Arabic  MSS.  as  above. 

'"  The  locality,  the  warning,  and  the  catastrophe,  mentioned  by  the  Arabian 
geographer,  agree  with  the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain. 

Arabic  MSS.,  Nos.  7357  and  7505,  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by 
Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D.  >«  ibid. 


CHAP.  I.]         THE  HAMITES  OCCUPY  MESOPOTAMIA,  ETC.  23 

Palestine.  Some  of  the  people  occupied  intermediate  places 
between  the  present  cities  of  Mekkah  and  Medina,'  also  towards 
San  a,  and  others  united  with  the  Himyarites  at  Thifar  ;^  the 
remainder  passed  into  Assyria. 

The  'Adites,  another  branch  of  this  people,  seem  either  to  The  'Adites. 
have  taken  a  more  southerly  course  in  the  outset,  or  else  they 
migrated  from  Yemen  towards  the  country  between  Bahrein  and 
Hadramaiit,^  instead  of  passing  into  Africa  with  the  bulk  of  the 
Arabian  Cushites  and  the  followers  of  Mizraim.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that,  during  the  first  migrations,  the  latter  branches, 
generally  speaking,  proceeded  to  the  more  distant  countries, 
such  as  Yemen,  Africa,  &c.,  whilst  the  sons  of  Canaan  remained 
in  Syria  and  Phoenicia.'* 

We  learn,  however,  from  Berossus,  that  the  principal  branch  Progress  of  the 
of  the  Hamites  had  taken  quite  another  direction,  and  proceeded 
from  Armenia  towards  Babylonia  by  a  circuitous  route.^  They 
followed  a  northerly  course,  probably  keeping  for  a  time  near 
the  banks  of  the  Gihon  or  Araxes,  till  they  approached  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian  Sea  where  they  turned  southward 
and  entered  Susiana ;  from  which  fine  tract  they  afterwards 
moved  westward®  into  the  plain  of  Shinar.  Having  driven  a 
portion  of  the  sons  of  Shem  from  the  latter  towards  Assyria,  and 
the  higher  parts  of  Mesopotamia  about  O'rfah  and  Haran,  they 
erected  temples  and  built  cities,  so  that  the  country  was  again  intoBabyionia. 
inhabited  ;'  an  expression  which  seems  to  imply  that  it  had  been 
occupied  at  the  time  of  the  Flood. 

Such  is  the  Phoenician  and  Chaldean  account  of  this  period : 
it  is  derived  from  tradition,  and  possibly  from  some  records 
which  it  is  supposed  had  been  preserved,  such  as  the  pretended 

'  Arabic  MSS.,  Nos.  7357  and  7505,  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by- 
Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

*  Jihan  Numa,  p.  495. 

'  According  to  Arabic  MSS.  7357  and  7505,  near  the  desert  of  Ahkaf. 

*  Where  we  have  Sidon,  and  Heth,  and  the  Jebusite,  and  the  Amorite,  and 
the  Girgasite,  and  the  Hivite,  and  the  Arkite,  and  the  Sinite,  and  the  Arva- 
dite,  and  the  Zemarite,  and  the  Hamathite,  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  15-18. 

*  Berossus,  from  the  Ancient  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  29. 

®  And  it  came  to  pass  as  they  journeyed  from  the  east,  that  they  found  a 
plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  and  they  dwelt  there.  Genesis,  chap.  XI.,  v.  2. 
^  Syncel.,  Chro.  31  ;  Euseb.,  Chro.  p.  8. 


24 


EXTENSION  OF  NIMRUD  S  POWER. 


[chap.  I. 


Ancient 
writings. 


Nimriid 
builds  or 
restores 


books  of  Adam,'  and  those  of  Seth,  of  Noah,  Enoch,  and  Jasher,* 
the  contemporary  of  Moses.  These  writings  are  now  lost,  with 
the  exception  of  the  two  last,  one  of  which  is  considered  to  be 
apochryphal  f  but,  be  this  as  it  may,  such  a  work  must  at  one 
time  have  been  extant  in  some  way  or  other,  since  we  are  told 
that  Enoch,  who  was  the  seventh  from  Adam,  also  prophesied, 
&C.''  Moses  naturally  derived  his  information  from  his  own 
line,  that  of  Shem ;  but  doubtless  records  of  some  kind  had 
been  preserved  in  the  line  of  Ham  also,^  and  it  will  be  recol- 
lected that  Sanchoniatho,  like  Moses,  gives  the  same  number  of 
generations  from  Adam  to  Ham. 

We  learn  that  the  acquisition  of  the  plains  of  Dura  by  the 
children  of  the  latter  was  followed  by  an  increase  of  ter- 
ritory, which  was  at  first  made  gradually  by  Cush,®  but  sub- 
sequently on  a  greater  scale  by  his  son  Nimriid,"  who  in 
the  beginning  caused  to  revive  or  make  famous,  all  the  prin- 
cipal places  in  his  kingdom,  as  BabeV  Erech,®  Accad,'^  and 

'  Part  of  one  of  the  three  sacred  books  of  the  Sabean  Mandaites  (now 
called  the  Christians  of  St.  John),  of  which  an  account  has  been  given  in  the 
Journal  des  Savans,  Paris,  1819,  by  Sylvestre  de  Saci,  has  been  published 
under  the  title  of  "  Codex  Nasaraeus,  Liber  Adami  appellatus,"  5  vols.  4to. 

^  Jasher  appears  to  have  been  the  son  of  Caleb  and  Azubah;  compare 
1  Chron.  chap.  II.,  v.  18,  with  Joshua,  chap.  X.,  v.  13,  and  2  Samuel,  chap. 
I.,  v.  18. 

'  The  book  of  Enoch  the  prophet,  supposed  for  ages  to  be  lost,  translated 
from  an  Ethiopic  MS.  by  the  Eev.  Richard  Lawrence,  LL.D.,  Archbishop 
of  Cashel. 

■*  General  Epistle  of  Jude,  v,  14. 

*  Josephus  mentions  (lib.  L,  cap,  iii.,  sec.  8),  Antediluvian  Eecords. 
"  Called  an  Ethiopian. — Euseb.,  Chron.  Armen.  I.,  p.  53. 

^  The  giant  warrior  of  the  Syrian  version;  tlie  Nebroth,  Nebrod,  and 
Nimrud,  or  terrible  giant  of  the  Arabs  (Euseb.,  Chron.  Armen,  ed.  in  folio, 
pp.  37,  39)  ;  the  Zohak,  or  Zohauk,  of  the  Persians  (see  Bibl.  Orient.,  Art. 
Dhohak)  ;  also  the  well-known  Belus  of  the  Greek  writers,  and  the  Nimrod 
of  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  8,  9. 

'  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  10,  Bellamy's  translation, 

•  Now  the  mount  of  El  'Assayah.— See  above,  vol.  I,,  p.  116.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  city  and  tower  were  built  to  commemorate  the  descent  of  the  Ark, 
and  that  it  represents  the  A'rcaa  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  city  of  the  Ark. 
Compare  Ilarcourt's  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  vol.  I.,  p.  196,  with  Bryant's 
Ancient  Mythology,  vol.  II.,  p.  524. 

'»  Tiie  celebrated  mound  of  'Akar  Kuf— See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  117. 


CHAP.  I.]  HE  ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  IDOLATRY.  25 

Calneh/  all  of  which  are  within   the  limits,  as  now  defined,  f'e  eight 
of  the  land  of  Shinaiv  cities. 

Pursuing  his  conquests,  we  are  told  that  Nimriid  went  forth 
to  war  against  Assyria,  and  there  he  built  Nineveh,  and  the 
city  Rehoboth,^  and  Calah,*  and  Kesen,  between  Nineveh  the 
great  city  and  Calah.^  On  this  occasion  no  doubt  some  of 
the  sons  of  Asshur  were  expelled  for  the  second  time,  the 
remainder  being  subjected  ;  the  Pyramid  at  Nimriid  or  Pesen  ® 
Avas  probably  constructed"  as  a  step  towards  the  establishment 
of  the  conqueror's  secular  and  priestly  authority  :  for,  (as  it  has  Nimrud  aims 
been  rendered)  he  (Nimrud)  profaned  to  be  mighty  in  the  authority! 
earth;  -  concerning  which  thing  it  shall  be  said,  like  Nimriid 
the  mighty  destroyer  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah.'  This 
appears  to  allude  to  his  determination  to  abolish  the  remains  of 
the  primeval  patriarchal  worship,  of  which  no  doubt  the 
Cherubim  was  the  type ;  and  to  establish  throughout  his 
dominions  the  religion  which  had  been  adopted  by  his  grand- 
father in  Phoenicia.  There  was  ah'eady  a  temple  on  the 
mount  at  Erech  ^°  dedicated  to  the  moon,^^  and  it  is  probable 
that  at  this  time  the  patriarchal  worship  was  much  corrupted 
among  the  Shemitic  people  of  Mesopotamia. 

'  Or  Chalanne,  afterwards  Carchemish,  on  the  Mesopotamian  Khabur. 
— See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  117.  ^  Ibid. 

^  Below  the  Khabiir. — See  above,  pp.  52,  119. 

*  Now  Sar-piili  Zoliab,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Zagros,  and  on  the  high  road 
leading  from  Baghdad  to  Kirmdu-Shah,  vol.  IX.,  p.  36,  of  Royal  Geog. 
Journal. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  11,  12.  See  the  Holy  Bible,  containing  the 
authorized  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  20,000  emend- 
ations.    London,  Longman,  Brown,  and  Co.,  1842. 

■^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  21,  22. 

"^  The  recent  excavations,  and  the  interesting  Assyrian  remains  found 
beneath  this  structure,  have  determined  this  site. 

"  Committed  profanation  by  abolishing  the  true  worship,  and  substituting 
idols,  in  order  to  become  popular. — Note  on  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  8,  Bellamy's 
translation. 

'  Gen.,  chap   X.,  v.  9,  Bellamy's  translation. 

'"  Irka,  Irko,  or  'Irkah.  Compare  Bryant's  Mythology,  vol.  II.,  p.  524, 
and  Harcourt's  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  vol.  I.,  p.  194. 

"  The  Babylonian  Juno. — Jackson's  Chronology  of  the  most  Ancient 
Kiijgflom-J,  vol.  III.,  p.  33. 


26 


OBJECT  OF  THE  TOWER  NEAR  BABYLON.  [cHAP.  I. 


Nimnid 
proposes  to 
build  a  city 
and  a  tower. 


The  tower 
intended  to 
serve  as  a 
tomb. 


A  temple 
with  an 
observatory. 


With  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  his  religion,  as  well  as 
the  consolidation  of  his  power,  Nimriid  is  supposed   to  have 
said,  "We  will  build  for  us  a  city  and  tower,  with  its  head  like 
heaven ;  which  we   will  make  as  a  monument  to  render  our 
name  (D'^i^  Shaim,)  famous;   lest  we  should  be  scattered  on  the 
face  of  the  whole  earth."  ^     A  building  was  therefore  meditated 
which    should  be  superior  to  all  other  structures ;  its  dimen- 
sions were  to  be  stupendous,  that  it  might  be  visible  through- 
out a  large  portion  of  Babylonia,  and  become  a  grand  land- 
mark,  as  well  as  the  centre  of  Nimriid's  priestly  and  secular 
power.     According  to  Eupolemus,^  the  city  existed  previously, 
and  the  tower  was  erected  not  within  its  circumference,  but  in 
its  vicinity  ;^  Birs,  or  Baris,  the  name   cf  the  tower,  signifies 
high  ;  and  the  dome  or  top  is   supposed  to  have  represented 
the  heavens,  and  to  have  been  ornamented  with  the  zodiacal 
constellations,^  on  which  the  Sabaism   of  the  Chaldeans  was 
afterwards  partly  based.'     Like  the  later  structures  of  the  same 
description  in   Egypt,   it  was  intended  to  serve  as  the  tomb 
of  the  founder,  Nimnid  or  Belus  ;®  and  in  the  temple   there 
was  to  have  been  an  image  holding  a  sword  as  a  protection 
against   men   and   demons.^     When  Babylon    was  visited    by 
Herodotus,  the  court,   as  well  as  the  temple  on  the  summit, 
were  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Belus  f  the  ruins  of  which,   as  well 
as  those  of  the  observatory  on  the  summit,  still  remained  in 
the  time  of  Diodorus  Siculus.^     But  whatever  may  have  been 
the  symbol    of  worship    originally  represented   on    Nimriid's 
temple,  afterwards  that  of  Bel,  "^  the  chief  object  of  its  construc- 

'  Gen.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  4,  Bellamy's  translation. 

*  Euseb.,  Praep.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xiv.,  p.  416,  and  cap.  xvii.,  p.  418, 
«  Ibid. 

*  Gen.,    chap.    XI.,  v.    4,   note  by  Bellamy;  and  Bryant's  Mythology, 
vol.  I.,  p.  477 ;  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  41,  42. " 

*  For  an  account  of  the  Chaldeans,  see  the  latter  part  of  the  next  chapter. 
«  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  730,  and  Arrian,  Exped.  Alex.,  lib.  VII.,  cap. 

17,  compared  with  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,   cap.  26,  and   Diod.  Siculus,  lib.  II., 
cap.  9. 

^  See  the  Jerusalem  Targura. 

®  Ilerod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  clxxxi.,  clxxxii. 

"  Diod,  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ix. 

"•  Prideaux's  Connexion  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  vol.  I.,  p.  96. 


CHAP.  I.j  POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  SHEMITIC  PEOPLE.  27 

tion,  namely  to  prevent  the  dispersion  of  the  people  over  the 
face  of  the  earth,  was  frustrated  ;  and  the  ruins  are,  to  this  day, 
a  monument  of  the  failure  of  their  presumptuous  undertaking. 

The  Shemites,  as  has  been  said,  occupied  Upper  Meso-  The  Shemites 
potamia,  with  a  part  of  Syria,  and  they  continued  to  dwell  Habei. 
in  those  regions  up.to  the  period  in  question ;  the  seat  of  their 
government  being  Salem,  and  their  ruler  the  mysterious  high- 
priest  Melchizedek,^  who  was  of  the  line  of  Sheni,  if  not  the 
patriarch  himseh?  In  a  late  edition  of  the  Bible  it  is  stated, 
with  reference  to  the  passage  relating  to  the  destruction  of 
Babel,  that  Melchizedek  received  a  command  from  between 
the  Cherubim  to  go  down  to  Babel  and  confound  the  vain 
words  of  the  people.  Jehovah  said,  "  Behold  another  people,^ 
all  of  them  with  vain  lip  :  even  at  this  time,  they  profane  with 
their  offerings ;  and  now  shall  nothing  be  restrained  from  them 
of  all  that  they  have  imagined ;  ■*  come,  we  will  descend,^  and 
then  confound  their  doctrines,  so  that  a  man  shall  not  hearken 
to  the  speech  of  his  neighbour." 

This  was  done,  that  the  true  religion  might  not  be  destroyed  Nimnid's 
by  the  new  settlers  from  the  East;  and  God  having  commu- f^^y^^t^^ 
nicated  his  will  respecting  the  idolaters  of  Babel,  the  people  of 
Sheni  went  thither  to  confound  their  purpose.    Being  a  powerful 
people,  they  readily  impeded  the  progress  not  only  of  the  idola- 
try, but  they  also  prevented  the  consolidation  of  a  government 
which  would  soon  have  extended  to  Canaan,  and  thus  caused 
what  is  called  the  Dispersion  of  Mankind  :  but  this  dispersion 
may,  perhaps  with  some  propriety,  be  considered  as  a  reoccupa- 
tion  of  the  regions  inhabited  before  the  Flood.    The  persons  who 
quitted  the  land  of  Shinar,  had,  in  all  probability,  some  know- 
ledge of  the  regions  to  which  they  proceeded ;  and  it  may  be 
presumed  that  they  were  not  by  any  means  in  a  savage  state, 
but  that  they  carried  with  them  a  certain  degree  of  civilization 

1  Gen.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  18. 

*  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Melchizedec. 

^  Ham's  descendants,  as  worshippers  of  idols,  were  called  another  people. — 
Note  by  Bellamy  on  Gen.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  o. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  6,  Bellamy's  translation. 

^  Meaning  the  people  of  Salem  were  to  descend,  not  the  Almighty. — Note 
by  Bellamy,  Gen.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  7. 


28  CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  SHEMITES.  [cHAP.  I. 

and  some  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences  of  that  time, 
though  their  religion  was  already  deformed  by  Sabaism.  The 
influence  which  their  civilization  and  their  religion  had  on  the 
countries  to  which  they  journeyed,  and  in  the  sequel  on  Europe, 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  will  be  among  the 
subjects  of  occasional  notice  in  the  succeeding  chapters  of  this 
volume. 


(    29     ) 


CHAPTER  IL 

THE    DISPERSION. 

SPREAD    OF    MANKIND    EASTWARD,    NORTHWARD,    AND    WESTWARD, 

FROM    BABYLONIA. 

Limits  of  the  Territories  about  to  be  occupied. — Directions  taken  Eastward 
and  Westward. — Noah's  Family  commingle  in  Armenia. — The  Shemitic 
People  reoccupy  Babylonia. — The  mixed  Tribes  of  this  Territory  called 
Chaldeans. —  Spread  of  the  Cushites  from  Babylonia  to  Media,  Persia,  and 
Central  Asia. — Pluit,  the  supposed  Leader  of  the  Mongols. — Georgian 
and  Tibetan  character. — Similarity  of  Eastern  and  Western  Architecture. 
— Western  origin  of  the  Cliinese. — Spread  of  the  Cushites  Northward 
and  again  Westward,  along  the  Taurus. — Second  commixture  of  the  Sons 
of  Japhet  and  Ham. — Descent  of  the  Chasdim  into  Babylonia. — The 
Cushite  Dominions  centre  in  Babylonia. — Spread  of  the  Sons  of  Togormah, 
Gomer,  and  other  Descendants  of  Japhet. — Nimrud's  Death. — Ninus  or 
Belus  II.  invades  Armenia. — Ha'ik  and  his  Descendants  govern  Armenia. 
• — Tombs  of  Noah  and  his  Wife. — Haikanians  and  Togormeans. — Aramais 
changes  the  name  of  Gihon  to  Araxes. — War  of  Aram  with  the  Medians. 
— Derivations  of  the  name  of  Armenia. — Settlements  of  Togormah. — 
Meshed  and  Askenaz. — Northern  spread  of  the  Sons  of  Japhet. — Ham's 
Posterity  in  Syria  and  Arabia. — The  'Adites  and  other  lost  Tribes  of 
Arabia. — Traditional  Account  of  the  Curse  of  Ham  and  his  Descendants 
in  Africa. — Cusiia-dwipa,  within  and  without. — Sanc'ha-dwipa. —  Axumitic 
or  Amharic  character. — Countries  of  Habache  or  Ethiopia,  Nubia,  &c., 
first  occupied,  next  Egj'pt. — Architecture  carried  into  Greece. — The 
Chaldean  Kingdom  of  U'r. — Kahtan  and  his  followers  occupy  Arabia. — 
Possession  of  Jerah  and  Uzal. — The  Cushites  pass  into  Africa. — Chaldeans, 
their  Language  used  in  Mesopotamia. — Derivation  of  the  name  of  Chal- 
dean.— The  Chaldean  Tribes. — The  Chaldean  Nation  and  Priests. — 
Chaldean  Philosophy,  &c. 

With  the  exception  of  the  tracts  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  as  having  been  partially  occupied  to  the  westward  by 
the  descendants  of  Mizraim,  the  possessions  of  the  sons  of  Xoah 
had  scarcely  hitherto  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  Armenia 


30 


THE  POSTDILUVIAN  TERRITORIES. 


[chap.  II. 


Extension  of 
Noah's  sons. 


One  section 
spreads  to- 
wards Europe, 
and  the  other 
towards  Cen- 
tral Asia. 


Three  races 
of  mankind. 


and  Shinar.  But  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  countries  into  which 
these  branches  are  about  to  be  followed,  embrace  very  extensive 
territories,  which,  although  they  were  peopled  by  numerous 
ramifications  from  the  original  stocks,  contained  comparatively 
few  nations.  These  territories  formed  a  belt,  which  extended 
nearly  round  half  the  globe,  and  comprised  the  middle  region 
of  the  world,  within  about  115°  of  longitude  •,  namely,  from  the 
western  shores  of  Europe  to  the  borders  of  Sinae,^  in  the  far 
east.  Of  this  extensive  tract,  which  may  be  considered  the 
historical  zone,  Armenia  occupies  the  centre  ;  and  from  hence 
the  migrations  necessarily  extended  westward  and  eastward. 
Those  who  took  the  former  course,  having  almost  in  the  outset 
the  chain  of  the  Hsemus  (Balkan)  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
river  Danube  on  the  other,  would,  as  they  proceeded  westward 
between  the  Alps  and  the  Rhine,  eventually  reach  the  western 
shores  of  Europe;  originating  during  their  progress,  the  dif- 
ferent tribes  or  nations  of  this  continent.  The  other  section,  by 
taking  an  opposite  direction,  would,  whilst  peopling  Media  and 
Persia,  have  as  limits  the  two  great  chains'  at  the  northern  and 
southern  borders  of  these  kingdoms ;  from  whence  again,  the 
migratory  band  would  eventually  be  conducted  along  the 
Caucasian  chain  and  the  slopes  of  the  Himalaya,  originating,  as 
they  spread  towards  China,  the  Hindu  and  Mongol  nations  ; 
whose  ramifications,  in  the  process  of  time,  probably  included 
the  earliest  tribes  of  America. 

At  the  period  described  near  the  close  of  the  last  Chapter, 
namely,  about  the  140th  year  of  Faleg  (Phaleg),  when  the 
abandonment  of  the  great  work  which  had  been  contemplated 
was  attended  by  a  separation  of  the  people  into  seven  different 
nations,^  the  human  race  consisted  of  three  great  divisions  under 
the  sons  of  Noah  :  this  arrangement  will  now  be  followed, 
although  it  is  obvious  that  the  divisions  must  have  in  some 
measure  commingled   in  Armenia ;  and  the   subsequent  inter- 


'  Cliina  is  called  the  Land  of  Sinim,  Isaiah,  chap.  XLIX.,  v.  12. 

«  Vol.  I.  pp.  G4,  67,  73,  74,  and  189. 

'•'  These,  according  to  'Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  2-18,  were  the 
Persians,  Chaldeans,  Greeks,  Egyptians,  Turks  (Tartars),  Indians,  and 
Ciiinese. 


CHAP.  II.]  TRIBES  OF  BABYLONIA.  31 

course  in  Babylonia  must  have  tended  to  increase  their  amal- 
gamation. 

The  Shemitic  branch  appears  to  have  regained  part  of  its  The  Shemitic 
original  allotment,  about  the  beginning  of  the  dispersion.  For, 
besides  those  who  occupied  a  portion  of  Syria  and  Arabia,  as 
far  as  Hadramaiit  and  'Oman,'  we  find  that  the  followers  of 
Elam  inhabited  the  country  eastward  of  the  river  Tigris ;  and 
those  of  his  four  brothers  had  possessions  north-westward  of 
Babel,  where  Nimriid  appears  to  have  remained  f  some  being 
in  Assyria,  near  Nineveh,  others  under  Arphaxad  settled  at 
Haran,  which  he   called  after  his  son  ;^  and  the  remainder  in  The 

•Kjr  •  1  1  1  •     Trt'  11  pNabatheans 

Mesopotamia,    where    they    bore    mdinerently   the    names    oi  supposed  to 
Arameans,    Mesopotamians,   and    the    Syrians    or    Assyrians ;  as  the  ^^™^ 
also  the   Kadhani,  Kelani,  or  Chaldeans,  who  were,  according  Chaldeans, 
to  some,  the  same  people  as  the  Nabatheans.^     The  two  first 
were  interchangeable,  and  had  been,  as  well  as  the  other  appel- 
lations, at  one   period,    in  common  use  for   the  people  living 
between  Babylon  and  the  gulf  of  Issus. 

Moreover,  it  appears  that  the  Suriani  or  Syrians,  and  the  and  Syrians 
Athuri  or  Assyrians,  were  identical  with  the  last,  being  mixed  ;  °^  ssjnans. 
and  Mas'iidi  adds,  that  they  inhabited  'Irak  Arabi,  where  they 
Avere  divided  into  several  tribes,  such  as  Yununni  or  Xinavi 
(Ninevites),  the  Gordyse  or  Gordyans,  Aram  or  Arameans,  and 
Nabt  el  'Irak,  the  Nabatheans  of  Trak  ;  in  short,  all  the 
dependencies  of  the  Chaldean  empire  spoke  a  language  ap- 
proaching the  Syriac.^  The  latter  appears  to  have  been 
derived  from  that  of  the  Chaldeans,  who,  as  a  people,  will  be 
noticed  more  at  large,  after  having  followed  the  sections  of  the 
line  of  Ham,  spreading  westward  as  well  as  eastward. 

The  earliest  migrations  of  the  postdiluvian  people  are  stated 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  have  been  particularly  noticed  by 

'  Golden  Meadows  of  Mas'udi,  p.  9,  Arabic  MSS.  in  tiie  British  Museum. 

*  Jackson's  Antiquities,  &c.,  vol.  I.,  p.  229. 

^  'Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist,  Dynast.,  p.  16,  and  Chron.  Syr.  p.  7. 

*  Mas'iidi,  Extraits  des  MSS.  da  Roi,  tome  YIII.,  p.  141,  &c.  par  Sylvestre 
de  Saci;  also  Golden  Meadows  of  Mas'udi,  Arabic  MSS. in  the  British  Museum. 

*  Compare  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  756,  with  Herod.,  lib.  VII.  c.  63,  and 
Mas'udi,  Golden  Meadows,  chap.  IV. ;  also  E.\ traits  des  MSS.  du  Roi, 
tome  VIII.,  p.  141.,  par  Svlvestre  de  Saci. 


32 


THE  CUSHITES  SPREAD  EASTWARD. 


[chap.  II. 


Spread  of  the 
Cushites  to 
Syria ; 


also  into 
Khuzistin, 


Media, 


Persia, 


and  Central 
Asia. 


the  ancient  writers  Herodotus  and  Strabo :  they  have  been 
described  subsequently  by  Moses  Choronensis,  and  in  later 
times  by  De  Guignes,  Cumberland,  Jackson,  Hyde,  Faber, 
&c. ;  but  the  learned  Bryant  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
who,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  traced  the  routes  followed  by 
the  different  branches  of  the  human  family. 

In  describing  the  supposed  site  of  Paradise,  the  countries 
occupied  by  the  first  Ethiopians  have  already  been  partially 
considered  in  connexion  with  the  Asiatic  Cush ;  ^  and  in  the 
preceding  chapter  of  this  volume,  it  is  shown  that,  up  to  the 
time  of  the  dispersion,  the  line  of  Ham  occupied  the  chief  part 
of  Syria,  in  addition  to  the  countries  along  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  also  a  part  of  the  mountainous  districts  lying 
north-westward  of  Babylon.  The  followers  of  Nimriid  re- 
tained Babel,  also  part  of  the  territory  eastward  of  the  Tigris. 
For  it  appears  that  the  name  of  Kiish,  the  Chaldean  Chuth, 
or  Kushasdan,  land  of  the  Sun,-  also  that  of  the  Cathai  and  , 
Cesi,^  or  Cossoei,  and  the  modern  Khiizistan,  was  carried  to  the 
latter  country."  The  Cushites,  the  reputed  ancestors  of  the 
Huns,  are  described  as  having  quitted  the  plains  of  Shinar  in 
two  great  bands.'  One  of  these,  after  occupying  the  Cosscean 
mountains,  spread  onward,  and  probably  became  the  Budii  of 
Media  :  ®  they  subsequently  extended  eastward  of  the  latter 
territory  ;  for  it  appears  that  the  whole  of  Persia  had  at  one 
time  the  name  of  Kiish,  and  that  the  people  were  called  Kush- 
anians ;  which  name,  observes  Saint  Martin,  comes  to  us,  with 
accessories  denoting  a  Syriac  origin.''  The  name  of  Kiish  was 
likewise  applied  to  the  western  side  of  India,  at  least ;  ®  the 
adjoining  territory  of  I'ran  being  called  Kusdi  Khorasan  or 
Kiish,  westward  of  the  Indus.  This  tract  comprised  Bactria, 
Sogdiana,  Chorasmia,  Hyrcania,  and  Parthia;  and  Khusru 
Nushirvan,  one  of  the  monarchs  of  I'ran,  was  styled  King 

'  See  vol.  I.,  chap.  xii.  ^  Vol.  I.,  p.  281. 

^  Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  vii.,  xx.,  and  xxvii. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  202-205  and  281. 
*    De  Guifjnes,  Hist,  des  Huns,  vol   I.  p.  1. 

•  Ritter,  ErdkuiKie,  vol.  II.,  p.  89(3. 

'  St.  Martin,  JMom.  sur  I'Arnit'nie,  tome  II.,  p.  392. 

'  Kitab  al  Bolden,  No.  617,  in  the  library  at  the  East  India  House. 


CHAP.  II.]  THE  MAGI  AND  BRAHMINS.  33 

of  the  Ciishites,  who,  it  may  be  observed,  are  expressly  called 
the  ancestors  of  the  Persians  and  Indians.'  The  central 
situation  of  I'ran  not  only  afforded  an  easy  intercourse  with 
India  itself,  but  likewise  with  Tartary  and  China:  and,  that 
such  connexion  existed,  may  be  gathered  from  the  incidental 
notices  of  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Herodotus.  The  tract  west-  India. 
ward  of  the  Indus  was  the  country  of  the  straight-haired  or 
Asiatic  Ethiopians  of  Herodotus,^  as  well  as  of  Eusebius, 
who  says,  that  beyond  Carmania  there  is  a  country  called 
Ethiopia  looking  towards  India.^  This  territory,  with  that 
of  the  Paracanians,  formed  the  seventeenth  Satrapy,  and  paid 
400  talents.*  The  Indi,  who  constituted  one  branch  of  the  Origin  of  the 
eastern  Ethiopians,  are  called  the  wisest  of  mankind,*  and  minT.'andT  " 
it  is  understood,  that  from  them  were  derived  the  Magi  of  ^"'^'^^'^^^• 
Central  Asia,  as  well  as  the  Brahmins,®  and  a  still  more 
numerous  and  influential  class,  the  Buddhists.  The  Brahmins 
were  at  first  seated  on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea,''  and 
afterwards  became  powerful  in  India.  The  leader  of  the 
Buddhists,  the  Hermes  of  the  East,*'  and  the  well-known  Budd, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  Phut,  the  son  of  Ham,*  whose  worship 
was  carried  by  the  spread  of  mankind  in  this  direction ; 
namely,  through  Central  Asia  to  China,  the  Djenasdan  of  the 
Armenians,  the  Tchinistan  of  the  Persians,  the  Sin  of  the 
Arabians,'"  and  land  of  Sinim."  It  may  here  be  mentioned, 
in  corroboration  of  what  has  been  said,   that  the  Kuzari,  or 

'  Kitab  al  Bolden,  No.  617,  in  the  library  at  the  East  India  House,  com- 
pared with  vol.  II.,  p.  373  of  St.  Martin. 
^  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  Ixx. 

*  Chronicon  Pasch.,  p.  29,  edition  1688.         *  Herod.,  lib.  III.,  c.  xciv. 

*  Piiilostratus,  Vit   Apollon.,  lib.  IV.,  p.  6. 

^  Maurice's  Hist,  of  Hindustan,  vol.  II.,  p.  187. 
^  Cedrenus,  tome  I.,  p.  203,  and  Syncellus,  p.  239. 

*  Creuzer,  Symbolik,  tome  I.,  p.  15. 

^  Bot  in  Arabia,  Bod  in  Persia,  Pout  or  Poutti  in  Siam ;  in  Tibet  Pout, 
Pott,  Pot,  and  Poti ;  in  Cochin  China  But ;  in  China  Proper  Fo  or  Fo-hi  (De 
Guignes)  ;  in  Japan  Bo,  in  Celtic  Bud,  in  India  Buda,  and  in  Egypt  Phtha. 
See  Sprengel  ;  Ehrman's  Bibl.  der  Reisebeschreibungen,  vol.  XXXIII. ,  p. 
155,  compared  with  Harcourt's  Doctrine  of  the  Deluge,  vol.  L,  p.  405. 

'"  St.  Martin,  Memoires  sur  L'Armenie,  tome  II.,  p.  15. 

"  Isaiah,  chap.  XLIX.,  v.  12. 
VOL.  II.  D 


34  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CUSHITES.         [CHAP.  II. 

Nail-headed  ancient  characters  of  Georgia,  are  nail-headed :  these,  with 
in Set!^^"  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  the  ground  of  all  the  Tibetan  letters, 
in  which  there  is  an  upright  line  with  a  nail-headed  top.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Lamas  themselves,  the  latter  are  derived  from 
Sanscrit  characters,  the  oldest  of  which,  the  De'vanagari,  are 
manifestly  compounded  of  nail-headed  perpendicular  strokes ; 
and  these  circumstances  confirm  the  opinion  that  the  Indians 
derived  their  astronomy  and  literature  from  Assyria.^ 

That  this  was  the  direction  taken  by  one  portion  of  the 
Cushites,  may  be  inferred  from  the  preceding,  as  well  as  other 
circumstances.  Throughout  those  countries,  the  traveller  cannot 
fail  to  notice  the  extensive  bunds,  canals,  pyramids,  rock-temples, 
and  colossal  statues,  which  have  been  executed  ;  and  we  are 
told  (what  these  structures  evidently  bespeak),  that  they  were 
erected  by  branches  of  the  same  family :  the  pyramids,  in  par- 
Cushite  know-  ticular,  are  similar  to  those  of  Assyria.  It  also  appears  that 
eastern  Asia,  the  Cushitcs  cxcellcd  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  the  knowledge" 
of  herbs,  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  &c. ;  and  to  the  Egyptian, 
Indo,  and  Chinese  Cushites,  unquestionably  belonged  the  arts 
of  manufacturing  silk  and  cotton,  with  that  of  dyeing.  To 
these,  in  the  instance  of  the  latter  people,  may  be  added  the 
knowledge  of  gunpowder  and  the  mariner's  compass,  with  sun 
and  moon  dials,  calculated  to  suit  different  latitudes.  The  use 
of  knotted  cords,^  which  were  succeeded  by  decimal  calculating 
boards  called  Swanpan,^  writing  paper  and  wooden  blocks  for 
printing,  which  have  long  been  known  in  China,  likewise  be- 
speak a  considerable  advance  in  the  arts.  Hence  it  is  evident 
that  the  founders  of  this,  as  well  as  those  of  the  adjoining 
The  first        empire  of  the  Hindus,  far  from  being  in  a  savage  state,  must, 

Egyptiaus  and         ^  vii-n.  •  i 

Asiatics  com-  ou   the  Contrary,   like  the  Egyptians,  another  branch  from  the 

^^^^  '  Assyrian  root,  have  been  well  acquainted  with  the  arts  of  social 

life.     An  isolated  exclusive  system  of  policy  appears  to  have 

handed  down  these  blessings  in  China,  and  to  have  preserved, 

'  Dissert,  on  the  Babylonian  Inscriptions,  by  Joseph  Hager,D.D.,  p.  41-43. 
In  the  most  ancient  ages,  this  simple  contrivance  enabled  the  Chinese  to 
recall  their  own  ideas,  and  communicate  their  thoughts  to  others.  Martini, 
Hist,  de  la  Ciiine,  liv.  I.,  p.  21. 

^  Corresponding  to  the  Abax  of  the  Greeks. 


CHAP.  II.]  EXTENSION  OF  THE  CUSHITES.  35 

at  the  same  time,  the  most  ancient  form  of  government  in  the 
world — namely,  the  tribal  or  patriarchal  form  ;  whilst  the 
ancient  knowledge  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  watered  by 
the  Nile,  is  only  known  to  us  from  the  wonderful  monuments 
whit'h  remain  there  to  this  day.  It  may  also  be  observed,  in 
corroboration  of  what  has  been  said  regarding  the  nail-headed 
characters,  that  those  engraven  on  the  agate  and  other  Baby- 
lonian cvlinders,  closely  resemble  Chinese  letters ;  and  a  tra-  P^  Chinese 

..",''.  .         from  Baby- 

ditional  belief  generally  prevails  amongst  the  people  of  China,  lonia. 
that  their  ancestors  came  from  a  distant  part  of  the  west,  and 
that  they  looked  up  to  the  King  of  Babel.^     Even  the  names  of 
Sem,    Hoam,    and    Fohi,^   with   a  traditional  account   of  the 
Deluge,  have  been  preserved  in  that  country. 

Reverting  to  the  other  section  that  quitted  Shinar  about  the 
same  period  as  the  preceding  branch,  ])ut  taking  a  different 
direction,  it  is  stated,  that,  after  proceeding  northward  into  the 
mountain  valleys  of  Media  and  Georgia,  accompanied  by  some 
of  the  sons  of  Japhet,  they  separated  from  the  latter  in  Central 
Armenia,  and  turned  westward,  along  the  slopes  of  the  Cau- 
casus, into  those  tracts,^  which,  at  one  time,  had  been  occupied 
by  some  of  this  people ;  and  the  name  of  Kusdi  Kabgokh,  or 
Chus  of  the  Caucasus,  was  given  in  consequence  to  the  whole 
tract  lying  between  Khiizistan  and  the  Caucasus.*  On  the 
slopes  of  the  latter  range,  under  the  name  of  Chasas  or  C'hasyas, 
the  Chasdim,  or  Cossais  according  to  some,  became  a  powerful  ^^f  Chasdim 

.  .       and 

tribe,^  which  spread  westward,  gradually  peopling  the  fertile 
valleys  of  Armenia,  and  some  of  those  in  Lesser  Asia,  through 
which  tracts  they  may  be  traced.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Cau- 
casus, northward  of  the  river  Araxes,  (the  presumed  Gihon,) 
is  ancient  Albania,  once  called  Kusdi, "^  and  at  the  western  side 
of  the  range,  the  Djani  or  Chaldeans  of  Colchis,"  afterwards  the 

*  Called  the  King  of  Kings.     Mas'udi,  translated  from  the  Arabic,  by- 
Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D.,  pp.  309,  366. 

^  De  Guignes,  Hist,  des  Huns,  vol.  I.,  p.  45.  '  Ibid.,  p.  I. 

*  St.  Martin,  Memoires  de  1' Armenia,  tome  II.,  pp.  371,  392. 

*  Lieut.  Wilford  on  Egypt  and  other  countries,  from  the  ancient  books  of 
the  Hindus.     Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  III. 

«  St.  Martin,  Memoires  de  I'Armenie,  tome  II.,  p.  357  ;  and  tome  III., 
p  197.  '  Ibid. 

D   2 


36  THE  CHASDIM,  OR  CHALDEANS,  OF  HAM.    [cHAP.  H. 

Chamitoe.  The  other  branches  occupying  the  rest  of  the  ter- 
ritory have  already  been  followed  westward/  as  far  as  the 
Leuco-Syrians.  country  of  the  Leuco-Syrians  or  Cappadocians.^  The  latter 
occupied  a  part  of  the  territory  now  given  to  Havilah,  that  is, 
the  country  within  the  river  Halys,^  and  they  appear  to  have 
been  the  earliest  workers  in  brass  and  iron,  as  well  as  the  in- 
ventors of  steel ;  ^  from  which  circumstance  they  derived  the 
name  of  Chrysor.* 

As  the  Macrones  and  Mossynceci  were  Chusites,®  and  the 
Chalybes  were  not  only  linked  -with  the  former,  but  also  with 
the  Sanni,  the  Tibareni,  and  some  of  the  other  branches  in 
question,  it  seems  clear  that  the  whole  belonged  to  the  mixed 
race  of  Assyrians  or  Chaldeans,''  who  were  evidently  the  same 
people  as  the  Chasdim ;  *  and  who,  at  a  period  no  doubt  long 
TheChasdim  anterior  to  the  call  of  Abraham,  being  then  a  considerable 
Ionia.  nation,   descended  from   the  north  and    conquered   Babylonia 

from  the  sons  of  Shem. 

Doubtless,  on  this  occasion,  the  Chasdim  were  conducted,  as 
they  probably  had  been  in  their  preceding  migrations,  by  a 
class  of  men  possessing  that  influence  which  science  confers 
throughout  the  east :  this  class  assumed  the  authority  of  priests 
of  Belus,"  and  were  astronomers,'"  magicians,  and  soothsayers.^^ 
They  were  continually  devoted  to  the  study  of  philosophy'" 

'  See  above,  vol.  L,  pp.  275,  276.  ^  Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iii. 

^  See  chap.  XII. 

*  Amniian.  Mar.,  lib.  XXII ;  Apol.  Argon.,  II.,  v.  374. 

'  Sanchoniatho,  ed.  Orel),  pp.  17,  20,  et  seq.      *  Chronicon  Pasch.,  p.  415. 
''  llerod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  Ixiii.,  also  lib.  I.,  cap.  xxviii. ;  and  Strabo,  lib. 
XII.,  p.  549. 
«   Dion.,  V.  767 ;  Apol.  I.  2 ;  and  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iv. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  clxxxi. ;  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xvi.,  also  lib. 
II.,  c.  ix. 

'"  The  Chaldeans,  says  Cicero,  who  came  originally  from  the  Cancasns, 
observed  tlie  celestial  signs  by  following  the  motions  of  the  planets,  and  were 
the  priest-class  of  Babylonia. — De  Divinatione,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xix. 

"  Magic  and  incantations  are  attributed  to  Chiis  as  the  inventor,  and 
were  practised  among  his  sons. — Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib  I.,  cap.  x.  p.  35  ; 
Dan.,  chap,  V. 

"=  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Stromat,  lib.  I.  p.  359,  and  Strabo,  lib.  XVI. ; 
also  Faber,  vol.  III.,  p.  435. 


CHAP.  II.]  TERRITORIES  OF  THE  CUSHITES.  37 

and  astronomy,  and  their  attainments  were  transmitted  in 
succession  from  father  to  son  ;  hence  they  became,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  chief  people  of  Babylonia.' 

The  race  to  which  the  Chasdim  belonged  was  very  numerous.  The  descend- 
Moses  mentions  only  fourteen  descendants  of  the  line  of  Japhet,  sons  of  Noah, 
and  twenty-six  in  that  of  Shem,  whilst  those  of  Ham  numbered 
thirty-one ;  and  in  other  respects  they  were  the  most  important 
of  the  three,  having,  as  we  have  just  seen,  had  in  Babylonia  the 
first  regular  government  with  an  established  religion,^  and  no 
doubt  also  a  system  of  laws.  Elsewhere  the  Cushites  were 
indifferently  known  by  the  designations  of  Auritoe,  Scuthai, 
&c.  f  their  territories,  says  'Abii-l-Faraj,  extended  from  Bhino- 
clura  to  Gadira  ;■'  and  according  to  Strabo,^  they  occupied  the 
principal  countries  as  far  as  India,  and  again  quite  to  Mauri- 
tania in  the  opposite  direction.  One  of  .their  seats,  M'here  they 
had  a  temple  only  second  to  that  of  Babylon  itself,  was  Aiir, 
or  Our,  or  U'r  of  the  Chaldees,*'  and  the  Orchoe  of  Ptolemy ;" 
the  site  of  which,  nearly  twenty-five  miles  westward  of  Sheikh 
el  Shuyukh,  appears  to  have  been  successfully  identified  with 
the  mound  of  Muiavah.^     There  w^ere,    however,    two   other  Three  places 

.  .  .  called  U'r 

places  which  also  bore  the  name  of  U'r,  viz.,  the  cities  of 
U'rfah  and  Kal'ah  Skerkat;  the  latter  of  which  is  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Tigris  between  the  greater  and  lesser  Zab  f 
and  from  its  situation  on  the  borders  of  Assyria,  it  was  probably 
occupied  when  the  followers  of  Asshur  w^ere  driven  from  Babel 
to  Nineveh.  Besides  the  derivation  of  the  ^vord  Ethiopia, 
which  has  been  already  given, '°  another  has  been  founded  on 
the  name  of  the  object  of  worship,  among  the  people  of  the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi. 

*  Pausanius,  Messen.,  p.  261,  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.  c  xvi. 
^  Bryant's  Ancient  Mytliology,  vol.  III.,  p.  245. 

*  'Abu-l-Faraj,  Chron.  Syr.,  p.  7. 

*  Lib.  I.,  pp.  31,  35. 

*  Bryant's  Ancient  Mythology,,  vol.  I.,  p.  13,  and  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  93. 
''  Lib.  v.,  cap.  xxiv. 

®  See  above,  vol.  L,  pp.  93,  116,  and  Ainsworth's  Assyria  and  Babylonia, 
pp.  179,  180. 

^  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  XL,  p.  4-7,  and  Cumberland's  Times 
of  the  First  Planting  of  Nations,  p.  232. 

"  Vol.  I.,  p.  281. 


38  ARMENIA  OCCUPIED  BY  HAlK.  [cHAP.  II. 

region  so  designated;  it  is  conceived  to  be  formed  by  the 
monosyllable  ops,  ^yith  the  prefixes  el,  which  signifies  light, 
splendour,  Almighty  power,  and  majesty,  and  theos  (God)  ; 
thus  it  would  signify  either  the  eternity  of  heaven  and  earth, 
or  eternal  God  over  earth ;  which  would  accord  with  the  know- 
ledge allowed  to  be  possessed  by  this  people,^  one  of  whose 
designations  was,  the  God-like  Cushites;  while  another  was, 
sons  of  light,  or  wise  men,  who  divine  secret  things.^ 
Japhet's  pos-  From  the  eldest  son  of  Noah  came  a  portion  of  the  Medes, 
Iberians,  Sclavonians,  and  Babylonians ;  also  the  followers  of 
Ashkenaz  and  Riphath  in  Lesser  Asia,^  who  appear  to  have 
settled  in  Pontus,  Bithynia,  and  Cappadocia. 

Regarding  the  descendants  of  Togormah,  the  son  of  Gomer,* 
we  find  from  Armenian  history  that  Haik  or  Haicus,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  line  of  Japhet,  and  the  undoubted  father  of  the 
Armenians,  collected  his  followers  to  the  number  of  300,  and 
quitting  Babylonia,  apparently  with  the  second  Cushite  branch, 
at  the  time  of  the  confusion  of  language,  he  proceeded  to  the 
foot  of  Mount  Ararat ;  this  event  took  place  about  the  year 
B.C.  2107,  or  rather  2607  of  the  Julian  period.^ 
Commixture        On  arriving,  they  were  joined  by  a  portion  of  the  people  who 
Japhet  and      had  been  settled  in  that  part  of  the  country,  secluded  from 
^^^™"  civilized   intercourse  since  the  descent  from  the  Ark.     They 

probably  had  been  without  any  regular  form  of  government, 
but  they  spoke  the  primitive  language  of  Noah.  These  were, 
it  is  presumed,  a  portion  of  the  followers  of  Ham,  who  had 
continued  in  the  neighbourhood,  when  the  bulk  of  the  tribe 
quitted  that  part  of  Armenia  ;  and  if  this  view  of  the  matter 
be  well  founded,  the  sons  of  Ham  became  a  second  time  mixed 
with  those  of  Japhet. 

'  An  explanation  given  by  Mr.  Colin  jNIackenzie,  who  came  to  this  conclu- 
sion, from  the  fact  that  Opism  is  a  generic  mode  of  worsliip  or  reverence 
among  many  nations  ;  such  as  Oropian,  a  worsliipper,  or  descendant  of  the  sun 
and  earth,  from  Or  us,  the  Egyptian  Apollo  ;  Oropus,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
Oropus,  a  city  of  Boeotia,  &c. 

*  Arplia-chasd,  M.  Court  de  Gibelin,  Monde  primitif,  pp.  8,  9. 
"  'Abii-l-Faraj.  Hist.  Dyn.,  pp.  8,  11. 

*  Wells'  Geography  of  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  L,  p.  58. 

*  Moses  Choronensis,  cap.  IX. 


^ 


CHAP.  II.]     COMMIXTURE  OF  THE  THREE  RACES  IN  ARMENIA.  39 

Having  remained  here  a  short  time,  Haik  proceeded  with  Country  of 
the  principal  part  of  his  tribe  in  a  westerly  direction,  leaving  Haiu-^-sor. 
his  grandson  Cadmus  near  Ararat.  After  journeying  for  a 
few  days,  he  reached  an  extensive  plain,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Hare  (Fathers),  in  order  that  his  posterity  might  be 
always  thus  reminded,  that  their  founder  and  father  was  of  the 
race  of  Togormah. 

Here  he  took  possession  of  the  fertile  district,  lying  along 
the  Murad-chai,  probably  a  little  to  the  north  of  Mush,  and 
built  a  town  which  he  called  Haicashen,^  after  his  own  name; 
here  also  he  became  fixed,  and  the  people  already  there  sub- 
mitted readily  to  his  laws  and  government.^  The  people  in 
question,  in  all  probability,  were  some  of  those  lefl  by  Shem  in 
the  second  stage  of  his  progress  towards  Shinar  ;  and  as  Haik 
had  already  been  joined  by  some  of  the,  Cushites  near  Ararat, 
the  commixture  of  the  three  races  in  Armenia  at  this  early 
period  seems  evident. 

The  country  then  occupied  and  called  Hare,  was  the  tract 
lying  westward  of  Lake  Van,  and  extending  in  the  same 
direction  from  thence  to  Erz-Kiim ;  the  central  part  of  which 
was  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  Haits-d-sor,^  or  the 
valley  of  the  Armenians. 

Reverting  now  to  Babylonia,  the  country  recently  quitted 
by  the  Armenians,  we  find  that,  during  the  height  of  his  power, 
Nimriid  entrusted  the  government  of  the  northern  portion  of 
his  dominions  to  his  son  Ninus,  w^ho  was  in  consequence  pro-  Ninus  reigns 
moted  from  the  Assyrian  city  of  Telane,  which  was  probably  ^  "^^^^  ' 
built  by  ^Nirariid  under  the  name  of  Tunim,^  to  the  capital  of 
the  empire,  Nineveh,  a  name  signifying  the  habitation  of  a  son, 
or  a  place  to  receive  the  descendants  of  Nimriid.^  Whilst 
governing  this  part  of  the  empire  as  deputy,  Ninus  considerably 
enlarged  the  city  which  had  been  built  by  his  father,  and  con- 
structed a  wall  around  it   100  feet  high,  with  1500  towers;® 

'  Michael  Chamish,  Hist.  Armen.,  translated  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq.,  vol.  I., 
p.  5. 

^  Ibid.  ^  Or  Haisudsor,  Moses  Choronensis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  x.,  p.  29. 

*  'Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  15. 

*  Bishop  Cumberland's  Times  of  Planting  Nations,  p.  165. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  iv. 


40 


HAIK  OVERCOMES  BELUS  THE  SECOND.  [cHAP.  II. 


succeeds 

Nimrud, 


and  is  killed 
by  Haik. 


Place  of 
descent 


and  M'hen  the  decease  of  Nimriid  opened  to  his  enterprising 
spirit  a  wider  field,  he  took  the  name  of  Belus  the  Second,  and 
extended  his  power  not  only  over  the  Babylonians,  the  Naba- 
thcei,  the  Chaulotoei  (Havilah),  and  the  AgroeiV  but  also  over 
all  the  conquests  of  Nimrud,  M'ith  the  exception  of  Armenia. 
Circumstances  having  now  given  him  a  pretext  for  the  invasion 
of  the  latter  country,  he  despatched  a  mission  to  Haik ;  and  on 
the  latter  refusing  to  return  to  his  former  allegiance,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  invade  the  country  on  its  weakest  side,  that  of 
Ararat.  This  part  of  the  territory  was  abandoned  on  his 
approach,  and  Cadmus,  one  of  the  princes  of  Armenia,  sought 
the  protection  of  his  grandfather,  who  drew  up  all  the  forces  he 
could  muster,  to  make  a  stand  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Yan.  The 
result  of  this  battle  was  favourable  to  the  Armenians,  and  Belus 
was  killed  by  an  arrow  directed  by  Haik  himself,  which  penetrated 
his  brazen  breast-plate."  On  returning  in  triumph  to  the  city  of 
Hare,  the  victor  took  upon  himself  the  sovereignty  of  Armenia ; 
and  thus  commenced  a  second  monarchial  government,  inde- 
pendent of  that  of  Babylon,  which  continued  without  interruption 
in  the  family  of  Haik  during  the  lengthened  period  of  1342  years. 
Owing  to  his  success  in  overcoming  the  idolatrous  Belus, 
Haik  was  considered  the  earliest  champion  of  the  true  religion. 
He  died  about  eighty  years  after  the  defeat  of  Belus,  being  then, 
as  the  Armenians  state,  500  years  old.^  His  son  Armenac, 
who  next  ascended  the  throne,  quitted  Hare  soon  after  his 
accession,  with  a  large  portion  of  the  people ;  and  having 
advanced  a  few  days'  journey  towards  the  north-east,  he  settled 
in  a  plain  delightfully  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  along 
which  ran  a  river  of  the  purest  water.  Here  he  built  a  city 
which  he  called  Aragaz,  or  Armenagaz,  situated  near  Arnohwote, 
or  the  place  of  Descent,  to  which,  as  well  as  to  Aporateeion  in 
the  same  neighbourhood,  allusion  has  already  been  made.  In 
this  city,  as  Josephus  informs  us,  was  the  sepulchre  of  Noah.^ 
And  in  support  of  this  assertion  it   may  be   observed,  that 

'  Strabo,  lib.  XVI,,  p.  767.      ^  Moses  Clioronensis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  x..  p.  29. 
^  MSS.  of  Armenian  History,  collected  in  1831  by  the  Author;  see  also 
Mo.ses  Clioronensis  and  Michael  Charaish. 
*  Lib.  I.,  cap,  iii. 


CHAP.  II.]  RIVER  GIHON  CHANGED  TO  ARAXES.  41 

according  to  Armenian  tradition  Noyanzar,  or  Nemzar,  Xoah'sTombof 
wife,  was  buried  here  by  her  sons ;  it  is  certain  that  the  place 
bore  the  name  of  Marant  or  Maranta,'  up  to  the  time  of 
Tavernier."  But  to  the  mountain  itself,  Armenac  gave  the 
name  of  the  "  foot  of  Armenac,"  after  himself,  which  it  retains 
to  this  day  in  common  with  that  of  Ararat.^ 

Manavaz,  the  brother  of  Armenac,  remained  at  Hare,  where 
his  followers  took  the  name  of  Manavazerans ;  and  from  Buz, 
another  brother  who  had  settled  near  the  north-west  shore  of 
the  sea  of  Akhthamar  (Lake  Van),  came  the  name  of  a  second  The  Togor- 
branch,  the  Buzonians ;  but  the  most  general  name  for  the 
descendants  of  Haik,  at  this  remote  period,  was  that  of  Haika- 
nians ;  although  they  were  also  known  by  the  different  appel- 
lations of  Ascanazians,  Japhetians,  or  Togormeans,  fi-oin 
Togormah,*  father  of  Haik,  their  capital  Jpeing  Hare.  Accord- 
ing to  jNIichael  Chamish,^  Aramais,  the  son  of  Armenac,  having 
succeeded  to  the  sovereignty  on  the  death  of  his  father,  built  a 
city  of  hewn  stones  on  a  small  eminence  in  the  plain  of  Aragaz,  River  Oihon 
close  to  the  river  then  called  Gihon,  which  name  he  now  Araxes!  ^ 
changed  to  Arax,^  after  his  son  Arast  or  Eraskh ;"  but  the  new 
city,  which  now  became  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  he  called 
Armavir,  after  himself^  The  circumstance  just  mentioned 
may  serve  to  strengthen  the  opinion,  that  the  Gihon  of  Genesis 
is  the  same  as  the  river  Araxes.  The  plain  of  Aragaz  lies 
beyond  the  left  bank  of  the  Araxes,  to  the  north  of  Mount 
Ararat;  and  the  site  of  Armavir  itself  was  probably  between 
Echmiyadzin  and  the  river. 

Amassia,  his  son,  succeeded  Aramais,  and  having  settled 
two  of  his  sons  in  villages,  bearing  their  names  (Pharacote  and 
Zolakert),  close  to  the  foot  of  Ararat,  he  gave  to  the  latter  the 

'  "'  The  Mother  is  here." 

*  Voy.  de  Tavernier,  tome  I.,  cap.  ii.,  and  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  iS'o.  8,  p.  340. 

^  Michael  Chamish,  vol.  I.,  p.  12.  *  Ezekiel,  chap.  XXVII. ,  v.  14. 

*  Vol.  I.,  p.  12,  translated  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq. 

®  This  river,  instead  of  its  original  name  of  Gihon,  took  successively  those 
of  Armais,  Arashe,  Raski,  Eris,  Araksis,  Arras,  Araxes,  &c. — See  above, 
vol.  I,  p.  11. 

^   In  Armenian,  grandson  of  Armenac.  ^  See  vol.  I.,  p.  16. 


42  EXTENSION  OF  ARMENIA.  [CHAP.  II. 

name  of  the  "  foot  of  Masis,"  after  himself;  and  the  district  at 
its  base  he  called  the  country  of  Masis. 
Geiam-s  Gelam,   the  son  and  successor  of  Amassia,   having  left  a 

territories.  ^^^y^ty  i^  Amiavir,  quitted  that  place  with  a  large  body  of 
people,  and  proceeded  to  the  north-eastward  in  order  to  extend 
his  dominions  by  the  establishment  of  colonies.  On  reaching 
the  sea,  or  lake  of  Sevan,  now  called  Goukcha  also,  he  built  a 
number  of  towns  and  villages  along  its  shores,  giving  them  as 
usual  his  own  name.  This  sea  therefore  became  known  hence- 
forward as  the  sea  of  Gelam, ^  which  name  it  still  retains;  and 
the  whole  of  the  lands  on  its  borders  were  bestowed  on  the 
renowned  Sisac,  the  most  skilful  archer,  as  well  as  the  most 
eloquent  man  of  those  days.  He  covered  the  whole  face  of 
this  tract  with  villages  and  hamlets,  whose  inhabitants  were 
known  by  the  name  of  Sisakans  or  Seunics,  and  dwelt  chiefly 
in  the  country  lying  eastward  of  the  lake  Sevan.^  Gelam, 
however,  still  prosecuted  his  conquests,  particularly  towards  the 
banks  of  the  river  Cur ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  country 
eastward,  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  willingly  sub- 
mitting to  his  sway,  and  taking  the  name  of  Aluans  from^  one 
of  his  surnames.  Gelam  continued  to  reside  in  his  newly- 
acquired  territory,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Harina,  who 
not  only  fortified  Armavir,  but  embellished  the  surrounding 
country  with  pleasure-houses.'^ 

That  branch  of  Noah's  family  which  descended  from  Madai, 
third  sou  of  Japhet,  became  now  of  sufficient  importance  to 
attract  the  attention  of  their  neighbours,  who  were  under  the 
Aram  succeeds  dominion  of  Aram.     This  prince,  who  had  recently  succeeded 
™*  his  father  Gelam,   by  his  policy  and  the  exercise  of  splendid 

talents,  consolidated  and  greatly  extended  the  dominions  be- 
queathed to  him.  His  firgt  success  was  in  repelling  the  sons  of 
Madai,  who  were  signally  defeated  when  attempting  to  invade 
Armenia ; ''  and  another  inroad  made  about  the  same  period  by 
Barsham,  prince  of  the  Babylonians,  shared  the  same  fate. 
Encouraged  by  these  advantages,  Aram  now  successfully  in- 

'  Michael  Chaniish,  History  of  Armenia,  translated  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq  , 
vol.  I.,  p.  14. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  15.  "  Ibid.,  p.  16.  *  Ibid.,  p.  18. 


CHAP.  II.]  japhet's  descendants.  43 

vaded  Cappadocia,  where  he  left  Meshak  ^  as  governor,  who 
built  a  citv  M'hich  he  called  Meshok  after  himself.     This  was  ?j*y  ^'^ 

*.  .  .  Mazaca. 

corrupted  into  Majak  and  Mazaca  by  the  inhabitants,  the 
Cappadocians ;  and  the  name  was  subsequently  changed  into 
Ca}sarea  or  Gaysarey ;  the  country  around  this  city  being 
annexed  by  right  of  conquest  to  the  paternal  kingdom,  which 
still  bore  the  ancient  name  of  Haik.  Thus  Cappadocia  is  styled 
the  First  Armenia,  and  the  conquests  northwards  from  thence, 
towards  the  Black  Sea,  the  Second  Armenia,  whilst  those 
which  were  made  to  the  southward,  being  chiefly  the  present 
Pashalik  of  Mar'ash,  constitute  the  Third  Armenia ;  and  the  First,  second, 
whole  of  them  together  were  called  Armenia  Minor,  to  dis-  Armenia, 
tinguish  this  tract  from  the  original  country  of  Haik,  which,  in 
compliment  to  Aram  and  his  followers,  took  the  name  of  Ar- 
menia (afterwards  Armenia  Major)  ;  aad,  from  this  time,  the 
inhabitants  became  known  by  their  present  name.^ 

Besides  the  Medes,  and  the  descendants  of  Togormah  who 
occupied  Cappadocia,  part  of  that  country  was  possessed  by  the 
posterity  of  Meshech.  The  descendants  of  Askenaz  settled 
in  Pontus,  and  those  of  Riphat  adjoining  them  in  Paplila- 
gonia ;  ^  the  sons  of  Ham  being  partially  mixed  with  them.* 
The  tract  in  question,  Armenia  Major,  comprises  the  rich 
valleys  of  Georgia  and  great  part  of  the  supposed  land  of  Eden, 
from  whence  Ham's  descendants  spread  round  the  Caspian 
Sea  into  Media  and  Tartary ;  whilst  those  of  Japhet  took,  in 
the  first  instance,  two  directions.  One  portion  spread  along  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Euxine  into  the  tracts  lying  westward  of 
this  sea  ;  where  they  appear  to  have  been  joined  by  the  other 
branch,  which  had  crossed  the  Hellespont  after  moving  west- 
ward along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  :  and  both,  in  Europe  peo- 
their  onward  course,  as  already  mentioned,^  peopled  Europe  soLo/japhet 
and  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles.  The  remainder  of  this  people 
continued  in  Asia  Minor. 

'  The  Mosoch  of  the  Greeks,  and  Mosocheni,  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  chap,  vi., 
s.  1. 

*  Michael  Chamish,  History  of  Armenia,  vol,  I.,  cliap.  i.,  translated  by 
J.  Avdall,  Esq. 

^  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  c,  vi.,  s.  1. 

*  Cumberland's  Sanchoniatho,  p.  472.  *  See  above,  p.  30. 


44 


THE  LOST  TRIBES  OF  ARABIA. 


[CH.^.  II. 


The  Shemites 
occupy 
Mesopotumia, 
&c. 


Concerning  the  subdivisions  of  this  branch  of  Noah's  family, 
Gomer  is  considered  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  Sarmatians,  and 
the  Gomerffi,  or  Galatians  and  Gauls  ; '  Magog  of  the  Scythians, 
BortherVparts  Javan  of  the  lonians  and  the  Greeks,  Tubal  of  the  Tibarenians, 
of  Asia.  Meshech  of  the  Muscovites,   and  Tiras  of  the  Thracians;  the 

whole  territory  occupied  by  them  extending  from  Media  west- 
ward to  Gadira,  including,  consequently,  the  countries  of  the 
Franks  and  Spaniards  :  the  northern  part  of  Asia  was  also 
peopled  by  the  posterity  of  Japhet ;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  may  likewise  have  spread  into  America." 

Having  thus  briefly  described  the  early  migrations  of  the 
human  family  towards  the  regions  lying  eastward  and  north- 
ward of  Babylonia,  those  moving  southward  and  south-eastward 
from  the  same  part  of  the  world,  are  now  to  be  shown. 

The  Shemitic  people  no  doubt  occupied  the  upper  extremity 
of  Mesopotamia,  with  some  of  the  adjoining  portions  of  Syria 
westward,  and  of  Assyria  eastward,  more  particularly  the  neigh- 
bouring province  known  as  the  territory  of  the  Arapachites  ;  ^ 
the  city  of  Haran  *  being  their  principal  seat  at  this  period. 
Owing  to  the  weakened  state  of  Babylonia,  consequent  on  the 
dispersion  of  mankind,  the  descendants  of  Shem  gained  con- 
siderable power  in  that  territory  ;  and  that  they  obtained  the 
chief  authority  soon  afterwards,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
colonies  which  they  sent  out  from  thence  :  these  colonies  long 
continued  in  some  degree  dependent  upon  that  city. 

After  the  allotment  of  the  earth  to  the  sons  of  Noah,  and 
previously  to  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  the  sons  of  Ham 
possessed  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  in  addition  to  the  tract 
which  extends  from  the  shores  of  the  Bed  Sea  into  Arabia 
Felix  and  Hadramaiit;  and  of  these  sections,  now  denominated 
the  lost  tribes  of  Arabia,  the  'Adites  were  one  of  the  first,  being 
probably  derived  from  Nimriid  himself,  who  was  an  'Adite, 
or  giant  in  power.     The  others,   already  enumerated,^  were  the 

'  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vi.,  sec.  1. 

*  Gen,,  chap.  IX.  v.  27.  Compare  Hales'  Chronological  History,  vol.  I., 
p.  351,  with  Bar  Ilebraeus,  Chron.  Syr.,  p.  7. 

^  Ptolemy,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  i. 

*  'Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  11,  ed.  Poc.  1663. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  659. 


The  Hamites 
part  of  Syria 
and  Arabia 


CHAP.  II.]  ham's  sons  proceed  TO  AFRICA.  45 

Thamudites,  the  Amalckites,  and  the  Obailites,  in  Arabia  The  lost  tribes. 
Felix  ;  also  the  Tasini,  and  Beni  Tasini,  and  Beni  Jadis,  tribes 
towards  Bahrein,  with  the  Beni  'Abd  Dhakhan,  and  the 
Oniayyini  or  Oniaiin,  who  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
build  houses,  that  is,  to  become  fixed.  Such  are  the  names 
given  to  these  branches,^  who  were,  it  appears,  worshippers  of 
the  moon,  the  Ba'alat  of  Hani.^ 

That  the  sons  of  Ham  occupied  the  banks  of  the  Nile  at  a 
very  remote  period  is  generally  admitted ;  and  we  learn  from 
Eusebius,  that  JEgyptus,  who  is  also  called  Mizraim,  was 
born  to  Cham,  the  son  of  Noah.  He  was  the  first  who  went 
to  Egypt  in  order  to  settle  there  when  the  dispersion  of  the 
people  took  place.^  Although  the  time  cannot  be  fixed  with 
very  great  precision,  yet  the  circumstance  of  their  migration,  as 
well  as  their  route  thither,  may  be  traced  in  the  accounts  which 
have  been  handed  down  to  us  by  the  people  of  India :  these 
describe  the  curse  of  Ham  in  the  spirit,   although  not  quite  in  ^^'^  in<i»an 

^  ,  ^      .      .    account  of 

the  precise  words,  of  the  book  of  Genesis.  Charma,  it  is  Ham's  sin,  &<«. 
related,  having  laughed  at  his  father  Satyavrata,  (who  had 
by  accident  become  intoxicated  with  a  fermented  liquor, ) 
was  nicknamed  Hasyasila,  or  the  laugher.  The  royal  pa- 
triarch, (Satyavrata,)  was  particularly  fond  of  Jyapete, 
(Japhet,)  but  he  cursed  Charma.  The  children  of  the  latter 
being  obliged  to  quit  their  native  country,  called  Cusha-dwipa 
(within),  they  commenced  their  journey  after  the  building  of 
Padmamandira,  (Babel,)  on  the  banks  of  Cumudvate,  or 
Euphrates.  How  long  they  may  have  continued  in  Asia, 
cannot  be  precisely  determined,  although  there  is  a  strong 
reason  to  believe  that  some,  or  all,  remained  a  considerable 
time  in  Yemen  or  Cusha-dwipa,  before  they  crossed  over  and 
carried  the  same  name  into  Africa.'' 

All  tradition  appears  to  coincide  in  placing  the  sons  of  Ham  A^|,^<^^  °'^^^- 
in  the  valleys  of  Africa,  as  early  as  about  the  second  century 
after  the  flood.    As  this  portion  of  the  globe  -was  occupied  in 
conformity  with  the  original  allotment  of  their  grandfather,  and 

'  Arabic  MSS.  7357,  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

*  Ibid.  ^  Chron.  Arm.,  ed.  in  fol.,  tome  I.,  p.  498. 

*  Lieut.  AVilford's  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  III.,  pp.  313,  322. 


46  THE  SUKKIMS,   ETC.  OF  AFRICA.  [CHAP.  II. 

Mizraim  and   doubtless,  also,  with  a  knowledge  from  tradition  of  the  fertility 

Thoth.  '  '  ,        .  ^         .    .  1  p  m  'r> 

of  those  regions,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  tollowers  oi 
Mizraim  and  his  son  Thoth  should  have  crossed  the  straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb  by  means  of  boats  or  rafts,  to  the  western 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  After  peopling  this  tract,  which  was 
at  first  regarded  as  part  of  Arabia,^  and  spreading  into  the 
interior,  they  at  length  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  or 
Cali,  giving  the  name  of  Sanc'ha-dwipa  to  the  country.  This 
was  Cusha-dwfpa  (without),  and  included  Ethiopia  and  Abys- 
sinia: his  (Charma's)  descendants  were  called  in  the  Sanscrit 
Hasyasilas,  and  in  the  spoken  dialects,  Hasyas  and  Habashi,^ 
The  Sukkims,  By  those  descendants  of  Charma,  the  African  Negroes  are 
ture.  meant,  and  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  inhabitants 

of  Abyssinia,  or  the  Sukkims  of  Scripture,^  because  after 
quitting  Arabia,  or  Cusha-dwipa,  to  cross  over,  they  dwelt  as 
Troglodytes  in  sucas/  or  dens  on  the  opposite  side :  and  it  may 
be  added,  the  Abyssinians  say  that  they  came  from  Arabia.* 
But,  adds  Lieutenant  Wilford,  it  is  probable  that  the  posterity 
of  Pingacsha  (Phoenicians),  or  the  Yellow  Hindus,  divided, 
and  proceeded  in  two  bodies,  the  one  to  Phoenicia,  and  the 
other  along  the  Arabian  shores.^ 

The  region  called  Sanc'ha-dwipa,  in  a  confined  sense, 
meant  the  whole  of  the  eastern  shore  ;  whilst,  in  a  more  ex- 
tensive acceptation,  it  comprised  all  Africa,  being  the  last 
place  to  which  the  name  of  Cusli  has  been  applied :  and  the 
former,  or  Cusha-dwipa  (within),  extended  from  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  to  the  district  of 
Sirhind,  on  the  borders  of  Hindustan." 

It  appears  that  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia  and  of  the  eastern 
parts  of  Africa,  were,  in  early  times,  intimately  connected ;  for 
the  Homeritse   and  the  Sabsei,  according  to  Procopius,  were 

'  See  Lieut.  Wilford  on  Egj'pt  and  other  Countries,  from  the  Ancient 
Books  of  the  Hindus  :  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  III. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  302,  313,  330.  '  2  Chron.,  chap.  XII.,  v.  3. 

*  It  is  probable  that  tlie  word  Sucas  signified  an  arbour  or  booth,  as  well 
as  a  den,  though  it  was  originally  taken  in  the  sense  of  a  cave,  from  Sancha. 
— Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  II.,  p.  342. 

*  Micliaelis,  Spicilegium  Hebrae,  p.  147. 

®  Asiatic  Researches,  p.  322.  "  Ibid.,  p.  301. 


CHAP.  II.]  EGYPT  PEOPLED  THROUGH  ABYSSINIA.  47 

one  and  the  same  people,  being  merely  separated  by  the  Red 
Sea ;  ^  and  Meroe  itself  once  bore  the  name  of  Saba.^ 

One  branch   of  the  Saba^ans  mider  the  name  of  Agaazi,  Arabians  and 
founded  Axum,  the  capital  of  Habesh,  where  they  were  found  the  same 
at  a  later  period   still  speaking  the  dialect  of  Geez,   which  is^*"'"^^* 
pure  Arabic:  they  also  claimed  to  descend  from  the  Arabians,^ 
and  used  the   Axumitic,   or  Amharic  nail- headed  characters/ 
Moreover,  Ludolphus  states,  that  their  ancient  language,  which 
we     call    Ethiopic,    approaches    very    nearly    to   the    Arabic, 
without  being  so  much  like  it  as  to  denote  a  late  transmigration. 
And  the  people  themselves  resemble  the  Arabs  in  complexion, 
as  well  as  in  following  many  of  their  customs.'^     It  is  remark- 
able that  the  name  of  Habashi,  which  is  applied  to  the  people 
in  this  part  of  Africa,  is  to  be  found  in  Sanscrit  f  and  the  cir- 
cumstance indicates  an  eastern  or  Assyrian  origin. 

From  Habesh,   the  tide   of  emigration  was  evidently  north- 
ward, along  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ;  for,  according  to  tradition,  Egypt  peopled 
Osiris  led  a  colony  from  Ethiopia,  into  Egypt,  which  country  siuh.    ^^' 
received  from  the  parent  state  the  practice  of  deifying  kings, 
together  with  hieroglyphical  writing,  the  usage  of  embalming, 
the  forms  of  their  sculptures,  andthe  whole  sacred  ritual.^ 

Pritchard,  in  his  elaborate  work,^  considers  that  Egypt  was 
peopled  from  the  regions  towards  the  south,  and  this  supposition 
has  been  followed  subsequently  by  Heeren,  as  well  as  by  Jahn,^ 
and  a  recent  traveller,  Mr.  HoskynSo  Heeren  endeavours  to 
show  that  it  is  deducible  from  monumental  evidence,  as  well  as 
from  written  testimony,  that  in  Africa,  Upper  Egypt  was  the 
first  seat  of  civilization,  which  was  afterwards  extended  by 
means  of  colonies,  sent  out  from  thence  towards  the  north ; 
also  that  in  the  same  regions  a  priest-class  was  first  established.^" 

^  Procopius,  Gazaous  in  Comm,  ad  3  Reg.  X.  I.  to  the  Queen  of  Saba. 

*  Jos.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  X. 

^  Mich,,  Spicil.  Geogr.,  lib.  I.,  p.  47,  from  Dionysius  and  Syncel.  Chro. 

*  See  Ludolph.,  Grammatica.     Amharii,  cap,  I. 

*  Ludolphus,  Hist.  Ethiop.,  1. 

*  Dissert,  on  the  Babylonian  Inscriptions,  by  Joseph  Hager,  D,D,,  p.  41. 
''  Diod,  Sic,  lib.  Ill,,  cap,  ii. 

«  Pritchard's  Physical  History  of  Mankind,  vol,  I,,  p.  384,  London,  1812. 

®  .Jahn's  Hebrew  Commonwealtli,  p,  8, 

*"  Heeren's  African  Researches,  vol.  I.,  p.  339,  et  seq. 


48  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  GREEKS  DERIVED  FROM  EGYPT.  [cHAP.  II. 

Architecture,  That  the  first  scttlers  reached  this  part  of  Africa  from  the 
southern  part  of  Arabia,  instead  of  rounding  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Red  Sea,  may  be  inferred  not  only  from  the 
monuments  themselves,  which  mark  a  less  advanced  state  of 
the  arts  in  Nubia  than  in  the  country  lower  down  the  Nile,  but 
also  from  the  difficulties  that  would  have  been  encountered  in 
passing  through  the  long  tract  of  desert  country  bordering  upon 
the  Red  Sea.  Whereas  by  the  other  route,  the  progress  was 
comparatively  easy  into  Arabia  Felix ;  and  from  thence  sub- 
sequently along  the  western  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  where  papyri  found  with  the  mummies,  and  other 
specimens  discovered  elsewhere,  show  that  the  written  character 
goes  back  almost  to  the  time  of  the  earliest  settlements,  whilst 
the  stupendous  pyramids  and  many  other  works  of  art,  still 
remain  to  attest  the  civilization  which  was  then  attained  by 
those  who  had  come  thither  from  Assyria.  From  the  models 
derived  from  of  aucicut  art  yet  existing  in  Egypt,  the  Greeks  probably 
ssyna.  derived  that  architecture,  which  they  afterwards  brought  to 
such  perfection ;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  in  this  way  the 
European  nations  obtained  the  first  principles  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  from  Babylonia,  through  the  medium  of  the  Phoenician 
and  Egyptian  Cushites.^ 

About  this  period  the  territory  of  Western  Arabia  was  des- 
tined to  become  almost  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  tribes 
belonging  to  one  of  the  two  great  Shemitic  branches,  which 
quitted  Babylonia,  soon  after  the  dispersion,  under  Kahtan  ;  for 
the  persons  who  subsequently  accompanied  Abraham  and  Lot, 
only  peopled  Palestine  and  the  borders  of  Arabia,  with  a 
portion  of  the  interior  of  the  latter  country. 
Kingdoms  of  The  principal  seat  of  the  descendants  of  Sheni  was,  however, 
Zobah.  the  upper  extremity  of  jMesopotamia,  especially  the  Chaldean 

kingdom  of  U'r,  in  which,  as  will  subsequently  be  seen,  the 
patriarch  Job  flourished,  and  which  at  a  later  period  comprised 
the  separate  kingdoms  of  Haran  and  Zobah  (Nisibis). 

Referring  to  the  former   migration,    the    sons    of  Kahtan, 

'  Josephus,  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii.,  s.  2,  says,  that  astronomy  was  carried 
from  Chaldea  to  Egypt, and  from  thence  to  tlie  Greeks;  and  Zonares,  lib.  I., 
cap.  i.,  p.  22,  says  tlie  same  thing  of  the  arts  in  general. 


CHAP.  II.]  SECOND  MIGRATION  INTO  ARABIA.  49 

says  one  of  the  earliest  Jewish  historians,  findins;  that  they  had  Defendants 

''  .  .  PI  of  Joktau. 

not  any  particular  allotment,   m   consequence    of  the    second 
division  of  the  world,  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Phaleg, 
selected  as  leaders,   Sheba,   Asir  or  Ophir,    and  Gjawilah  or 
Havilah,'  under  whose   guidance   they  quitted  Babylonia,  and 
proceeded  to  make  conquests  and  settlements  in  another  part 
of  the   world.     Joktan,  the  descendant  of  Eber,  had  thirteen 
sons,  who  are  mentioned  as  being  leaders  or  heads  of  nations;^ 
and  their  dwelling  was  from  Mesha,  "  as  thou  goest  unto  Sephar, 
a  mount  of  the  east.^"     The  resemblance  of  the  former  name  to  Supposed  to 
Mekkah,  appears  to  indicate  that  one  extremity  of  their  ter-  Mekkah  and 
ritory  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  city,  while  Ras  Seger,    ^   ^^'^^' 
a  bold  cape  rising  to  about  3000  feet  at  the  south-eastern  coast 
of  Arabia,  would   seem  to  represent  the  mountain  at  the  other 
extremity.     The  identity  of  the  latter  seems  to  be  established 
by  various  circumstances  connected  with  its  position.     The  fine 
plain  of  piiafar  or  Zhafar,  stretches  eastward  from  this  head- 
land to  the  town  of  Morbat  or  Mirbat,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
another  high  range,  which  still  produces  gum  and  incense,  as  in 
the  time  of  Edrisi.^     The  latter,  called  Jebel  Subhan,  seems  to 
be  connected  with  Ras  Seger,  by  a  range  of  mountains  from 
3000  feet  to  4000  feet  high,  which  encloses  the  luxuriant  tract 
alluded  to,  with  the   extensive  ruins  of  El  Balad  and  several 
towns,   as   El  Hafar,   Sallalah,   Diriz,    El    Robat,   &c.      The  Exports  of 
remains  of  an  export  trade  in  myrrh,  frankincense,  and  gum-  •    •    ™  ** ' 
arabic,  from  these  places,  as  well  as  from   that  of  Morbat,  in 
connexion  with  Hadramaiit,   in  addition  to  the  preservation  of 
the  ancient  language  by  the  neighbouring  tribe  of  Beni  Mahrah, 
or  Mehreh,  near  Morbat,^  appear  to  show  that  this  must  have 

'  Bar  Hebrseus,  Chro.  Syr.,  p.  8. 

^  Howard's  History  of  the  "World,  vol.  II.,  p.  63,  and  Gen.,  chap.  X., 
V.  26  to  29.  '  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  30. 

■*  P.  54,  Edrisi,  ed.  .Jaubert,  tome  Cinquieme,  Recueil  de  Voyages  et 
Memoires,  &c.,  par  La  Societe  de  Geographie,  &c.,  Paris,  1834,  compared 
with  Niebuhr,  Desc.  de  I'Arabie,  p.  248. 

^  Edrisi,  ibid.,  pp.  150.  151,  compared  with  Abu-1-Feda,  translated  by  De 
la  Roque,  p.  328,  and   Haines'   Memoir  on  the  South-East  Coast  of  Arabia, 
p.  11()-1 19,  vol.  XV.  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  also  Captain  Saunders' 
Survey  of  the  Coast  of  Arabia,  vol.  XVI.,  pp.  174,  175,  187,  194,  &c. 
VOL.  II.  E 


50 


SETTLEMENTS  IN  YEMEN. 


[chap.  II. 


Seat  of  fhe 
Himyarites. 


Descendants 
of  Ham  in 
Yemen. 


been  a  part  of  the  Himyaritic  Thafar.'  As  will  presently  be 
seen,  the  territory  lying  between  the  latter  tract  and  Mekkah 
was  more  particularly  the  seat  of  the  Himyarites  and  the 
Kahtanites.  It  comprised  the  southern  part  of  Nedjd,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  Yemen,  or  the  greatest  portion  of  the 
country  denominated  Happy  Arabia ;  whose  most  extended 
limits  included,  as  has  been  seen,  not  only  Hadramaiit,  but  also 
the  tract  stretching  eastward  from  thence  to  the  Persian  Gulf.'-^ 
The  bulk  of  the  descendants  of  Ham,  the  followers  of  Mizraim 
and  Thoth,  appear  to  have  crossed  from  the  western  side  of 
Arabia  Felix  into  Africa,^  but  some  traces  of  those  who  re- 
mained are  still  supposed  to  be  found  in  certain  parts  of 
Arabia.  Saba  or  INIareb,^  the  Mariaba  of  Pliny  and  Strabo, 
and  once  the  capital  of  the  Sabeans,  possibly  took  its  name 
from  Seba,  son  of  Gush ;  ^  and  the  district  of  Khaalan,  or 
Kaulan,  (south  of  Asir,)  may  have  derived  its  appellation  from 
Havilah,*^  the  second  son  of  that  patriarch.  Sabtah,"  Ramah,^ 
and  Sheba,'  are  also  places  whose  names  are  presumed  to  have 
been  given  by  the  posterity  of  Cush.  There  are,  likewise,  the 
Beni  Kusi,^°  Beit  el  Khusi,"  and  Beni  'A'd,^'  whose  language, 
says  Edrisi,  is  still  spoken  by  the  people  of  Khuryan  Muryan, 

'  There  is  also  a  town  in  Yemen,  near  Jerim,  called  Dhafar  or  SafFar. — 
!Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  I'Arabie,  tome  III.,  pp.  206,  251. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  656,  657.  *  Ibid.,  p.  659. 

*  Mareb,  once  Saba,  at  which  place,  adds  Edrisi,  is  the  Dike. — P.  53,  tome 
Cinquieme,  Eecueil  de  Voyages  et  Memoires,  &c.,  ed.  Jaubert,  Paris,  1836; 
also  'Abu-l-Fedti,  p.  323,  translated  by  M.  De  la  Roque,  Amsterdam,  1718. 

*  Compare  vol.  I.,  pp.  624,  625,  with  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxviii.,  and 
Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  pp.  586,  777 ;  also  Niebuhr,  vol.  III.,  p.  252,  Descr.  de 
I'Arabie,  &c. 

'  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  I'Arabie,  vol.  I.,  pp.  234,  25.3. 

^  See  Appendix  to  vol.  I.,  p.  722,  Sabliah. 

"  Appendix  to  vol.  I.,  p.  716,  Raniah,  and  also  a  village  near  San'a, 
Niebuhr,  p.  203. 

"  Appendix  to  vol.  I.,  Table  2,  p.  705,  and  Table  3,  p.  707  ;  also  Niebuhr, 
Descr.  de  I'Arabie,  tome  III.,  p.  224. 

'»  Dwelling  in  a  district  of  the  country  of  Rema. — Niebuhr,  vol.  III.,  pp. 
216,  253.  "  Ibid.— Niebuhr,  pp.  228,  253. 

'*  'Abu-1-Feda,  p.  316,  on  the  hills  north  of  Dhafar,  translated  by  De  la 
Roqne,  Amsterdam,  1718,  and  also  on  the  borders  of  El  Hajar,  vol.  I.,  p.  630, 
and  Haines'  Memoir  on  the  South-Eust  Coast  of  Arabia,  vol.  XV.,  p.  112, 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 


CHAP,  ir.]  THE  PURE  ARABS  FROM  KAHTAN.  51 

or  Khartaii  and  Martan  ; '  though  unknown  to  the  other  Arabs  Remains  of 

of  the  present  day.    Except  a  knowledge  of  the  former  existence  [^    ""' 

of  these  tribes,  and  some  traditions  handed  down  of  the  idolatry 

of  the  last,^  also  some  remains  of  the  Amalekites  in  'Oman  and 

Bahrein,^  no  traces  remain  of  the  Cushite  settlers  in  Arabia; 

and   the  gradual  intermixture  of  these  with   the  posterity  of 

Kahtan,  will   probably  account  for  the  almost  total  extinction 

of  the   people   of  'A'd,   and  those  of  Thamiid,  Tasim,  Jadis, 

the  Imlik  or  Amah;k,   and   other  sections   faintly  known  to  us 

as  the  lost  tribes.*     Doubtless  the  people  of  Kahtan,  who  are  Yemen  and 

designated  pure  Arabs  by  their  descendants/  had  their  principal 

seat   in  Yemen,   wbere  they  lived  under  Ya'rab  ben  Kahtan, 

probably  Jerah  ;  '^  his  brother  Jurham  or  Hadoram  being  ruler 

of  the  Hijciz  : '  and  both  names  are  still  preserved  by  the  Beni 

Jurham,  or  Beni  Jerah,  near  Mekkah.*     East\vard  of  JMekkah 

we  still  find  the  large  tribe  of  Beni  Kahtan  ;  and  on  the  eastern 

side  of  the  province  of  xAsir,  is  the  district  of  Kahtan  or  Xed- 

jeran,  and  a  tribe  bearing  the  former  name  ;  likewise  an  ancient 

site,   Beit-el-Kahtan,   or  dwelling  of  Kahtan,'  and  again    in 

Hadramaut  is  the  tomb  of  the  patriarch,  and  that  of  his  father 

Heber  or  Houd;'*'  also,  a  town  called  Kohhtan,'-  which  was  no 

doubt  connected  with  the  former  name. 

Southward  of  Sana  is    the    small   district   of  Khaulan   or  Sau'a,  once 
Havilah,  probably  from  the  twelfth   son   of  Joktan,   and  the  ^^^^ ""'  ^'^^^ 
ancient  name  of  the  capital  itself,  once  Esal  or  Osal,'^  appears 
to  have  been  derived  from  Uzal,  his  sixth  son. 

'  The  Curia  Muria  Isles. — See  Edrisi,  ed.  Janbert,  pp.  48,  49,  tome 
Cinquieme,  Recueil  et  Memoires,  Paris,  1836;  and  Haines'  Memoir,  vol.  XV., 
p.  121  of  the  Roj-al  Geographical  Journal. 

*  Among  tiie  people  of  Mahri. — See  vol  I.,  p.  639. 

^  Add.  Arabic  MS.  7357  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys 
Sprenger,  M.D. 

*  Aiabic  MSS.  7505  and  7496  in  the  British  Museum,  and  Lane's  Koran,  p.  12. 
'  See  Table  2,  vol.  I.,  Appendix.  «  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  26. 

''  Arabic  MS.  7357  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger, 
M.D.  '  Appendix,  vol.  I.,  pp.  705,  711. 

"  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  1 'Arable,  tome  III.,  pp.  238,  252. 

'*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  638  ;  and  Edrisi,  p.  54,  ed.  .Jaubert,  tome  Cin- 
quieme, Recueil  et  Memoires,  &c.,  Paris,  1836. 

"  ^'iebuhr,  tome  III.,  pp.  249,  252. 

»'  Vol.  I.,  p.  623,  and  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  27. 

E    2 


52  shem's  descendants  in  araeia.  [chap.  II. 

Besides  the  preceding,  we  have  the  Beni  Sheba/  probably 

the  descendants  of  the  tenth  son,  also  the   Beni  Jobab  -  from 

the  thirteenth  ;  and  it  has  been  remarked  by  the  great  Arabian 

Hazarmaveth  traveller,  that  Hadramaiit  itself,  may  have  been  the  territory  of 

or  Hadramaut.  •       *  i    ^i         t        i  i  ^  •^ 

the  third  son  Hazarmaveth.-*  it  thus  appears,  that,  whilst 
traces  of  some  of  the  earlier  descendants  of  Ham  are  fomid  in 
Arabia,  the  names  and  indications  of  those  of  Shem  are  still 
more  immerous,  particularly  in  Yemen,  which  became  the 
seat  of  the  Tobbai  and  of  the  Himvarites. 

'Abd-el  Shems,  the  slave  or  worshipper  of  the  sun,  and  the 

descendant  of  Kahtan,  succeeded  Ya'rab  in  the  sovereignty  of 

this  territory,   and  from  Kaklan,  his  successor,  descended  the 

Beni   Lakhim,  Ghassan,  and,  also,  the  celebrated  dynasty  just 

Sons  of  mentioned,   which  was  founded  by  Himyar/  the    fourth    de- 

Himjar.         sccudaiit  of  Pclcg,   and  almost  the  cotemporary  of  Abraham, 

who  was  the  fifth  in  another  line.^     The  posterity  of  the  former 

patriarch  is  no  doubt  represented  by  the  Beni  Himyar.®     The 

recovery  already  noticed  of  Babylonia  by  the   Shemitic  people, 

previously   to   their   occupation    of  Yemen,    agrees    with    the 

account  given  by  Arabian  historians,  and  likewise  with  those 

of  Ptolemy  and  Strabo.     The  former  calls  the  Babylonians  a 

colony  from  Arabia  Deserta,''  and  the  latter  particularly  notices 

the  resemblance  in  character,   frame  of  body,   language,   and 

mode   of  life,   between  the  Syrians,  Armenians,    and  Arabs.® 

Syrians,         Elscwhere  he  identifies  the  Babylonians  M'ith  the  Chaldeans  of 

Chaldeans.      Gcrrha.^     It  appears  from  Mas'iidi  that  the  Chaldeans  spoke 

the  same  language  as  the  Arabians,   and  were  the  same  people 

as  the  Syrians  or  Assyrians,  who  inhabited  'Irak  Arabi.'°     This 

author  also  distinguishes  the  northern  Cushites,   who  entered 

'  Appendix  to  vol.  I.,  Tables  2  and  3,  pp.  705,  707. 

*  Beni  Djoudob,  vol.  I.,  Appendix,  Table  2,  p.  705. 
^  Descr.  de  I'Arabie,  tome  III.,  p.  252. 

*  Or  El  'Arenjej,  also  El  ' A rfej.— Arabic  MSS.  Nos.  7353  and  7357  in 
the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

'  Ibid.  — Arabic  MS.  7357. 

*  Eastward  of  Damascus. — Kiebuhr,  Descr.  de  I'Arabie,  vol.  III.,  p.  341. 
''  Lib.  v.,  cap.  20.  »  Lib.  XVL,  p.  784,  and  lib.  I.,  p.  41. 

*  Lib.  XVL,  p.  254. 

"  Extraits  des  MSS.  du  Roi,  tome  VIII.,  p.  141,  par  Sylvestre  de  Saci. 


CHAP.  II.]  DERIVATION  OF  THE  CHALDEAN  NAME.  53 

Babylonia,  from  the  Nabatheans/  with  whom  they  amalga- 
mated. These  circumstances  appear  to  have  given  rise  to  the  chaidea™'*^*^ 
opinion  of  an  eminent  historian  of  the  day,  who,  in  speaking 
of  the  steppes  of  Mesopotamia,  observes,  "  It  cannot  be 
"  doubted,  that  at  some  remote  period,  antecedent  to  the 
"  commencement  of  historical  records,  one  mighty  race  pos- 
"  sessed  these  vast  plains,  varying  in  character  according  to 
"  the  nature  of  the  country  which  they  inhabited ;  in  the 
"  deserts  of  Arabia  pursuing  a  nomad  life ;  in  Syria  apply- 
"  ing  themselves  to  agriculture  ;  and  taking  up  settled  abodes 
"  in  Babylonia,"  &c.^  We  are  likewise  informed  that  this 
extensive  race  spoke  the  same  language  as  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians '  or  Chaldeans. 

The  question  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Chaldeans,  and 
whether  they  were  a  distinct  nation,  or  *  merely  the  particular 
section  of  a  people,  has  given  rise  to  many  different  opinions ; 
it  is  therefore  here  intended  to  give  some  account  of  them, 
and  of  the  state  of  knowledge  which  prevailed  among  them ; 
endeavouring,  at  the  same  time,  to  distinguish  the  Sabean 
followers  of  Cush  from  the  descendants  of  Shem/  who  were 
equally  designated  Chaldeans. 

This  appellation  was  not,   as  has   been    supposed,    derived  The  name 
either  from  Arphaxad  or  Chesed,  but  rather  from  Arfkesed,  Arfkesed. 
the  compound  of  the   Arabic  Orf  and  Chasd ;  which,  instead 
of  an  individual,  evidently  designates  a  people.^ 

It  was  not,  however,  always  applied  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, or  even  to  the  same  race,  being  found  at  various  places, 
and  with  different  significations,  between  the  Ganges  and  the 
Nile  ;  moreover,  the  difficulty  of  the  subject  is  increased  by  Different  ap- 
finding,  both  in  sacred  and  profane  history,  that  the  name  is  atthe^name.° 
one  time  given  to  a  nation,  at  another  to  a  tribe,  and  again  to 
a  priest-class,  whether  the  descendants  of  Shem  or  Ham. 
Michaelis  supposed  that  the  Chaldeans  came  from  the  north, 

'  Arabic  MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

*  Heeren's   Historical  Researches  concerning  the  Asiatic    Nations,   &c., 
vol.  I.,  p.  46,  Bohn,  London,  1846,  compared  with  Mas'udi,  Arabic  MSS. 

^  Heeren,  ibid.,  p.  407.  *  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  92. 

*  Michaelis,  Spicilegium  Geogr.,  II.,  p.   76,  and  Schlotzer's  Universal 
Hist.,  XXXI.,  p.  235. 


54  VARIOUS  CLASSES  OF  CHALDEAXS.  [CHAP.  II. 

and  were  of  Sclavonian  extraction,  while  Diodorus  Siculus 
pronounces  them  to  have  been  Egyptians  •,  Gesenius  embraces 
this  last  opinion,  on  the  ground  that  Nimrdd,  the  chief  of 
Babylonia  descended  from  Cush,  and  that  this  circumstance 
may  have  been  the  foundation  of  the  fable  of  Berossus,  that 
Babylonia  was  peopled  by  a  sea  monster. 
TheChaideans       In  one  part  (and  probablv  the  most  ancient)  of  the  Scrip- 

as  tribes  .  .  *  . 

tures,  it  is  said  that  the  Chaldeans,  doubtless  alluding  to  a 
tribe,  made  three  bands  and  fell  upon  the  camels.'  Elsewhere, 
and  also  alluding  to  the  tribal  state,  "  bands  of  the  Chaldeans, 
"  bands  of  Assyrians,  and  bands  of  the  Moabites  "  are  men- 
tioned.^ There  are  likewise  the  Chaldeans  of  Mizpah ;  ^  and 
elsewhere  the  C'hasas  of  the  east,*  or  the  Cesi  of  Pliny,^  also 
the  Chasdim  on  the  slopes  of  the  Graucasus  or  Coh-cas  (Cau- 
casus).*^ Moreover,  Ptolemy  speaks  of  a  tribe  of  Chaldeans  in 
Lower  Mesopotamia,'  where  there  were  other  branches  of 
Chaldeans,  particularly  the  Orcheni  and  Borsippa^ans.^ 
as  a  priest-  Again,   the  Chaldeans  are  mentioned    as  a  priest-class  by 

class,  aud  as  "        '  _  >■  -z 

Herodotus^  and  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus.  They  are  also 
named  by  Arrian,'"  and  in  several  places  by  Diodorus  Siculus ;'' 
and  more  particularly  by  Strabo,  who  says,  that  in  Babylonia  a 
place  is  specially  allotted  to  the  native  scientific  men,  who 
occupy  themselves  with  philosophy,  and  are  called  Chaldeans.'^ 
They  appear  as  a  separate  class  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  viz., 
the  Astrologers,  Sorcerers,  Chaldeans,  and  Soothsayers.'^  The 
Chaldeans  appear  under  a  third  denomination,  that  of  a  nation, 
being  mentioned  as  coming  with  Nebuchadnezzar  from  the 
north,  with  horsemen  and  companies  and  much  people.'*  Again, 
they  are  more  clearly  designated  as  such  in  the  book  of  Isaiah, 
where  it  is  stated,  that  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans  was  founded 

*  Job,  cliap.  I.,  V.  17.  '2  Kings,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  2. 
^  Jer.,  chap..  XL.,  v.  10. 

*  The  C'hasapa,  between  the  Indus  and  the  Jumna. 

»  Lib.  VI.,  cap.  20.  «  Ibid.,  cap.  17.  '  Lib.  V.,  cap.  20. 

«  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  701.  "  Lib.  L,  cap.  clxxxi.,  p.  145. 

'"  Exp.,  lib.  III.,  cap   xvi  ;  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xvi.,  xvii.,  xxii. 

"  Tom.  1,  lib.  II.,  cap  xxi.,  pp.  173,  273,  27o,  280. 

'^  Lib.  XVI.,  pp.  701,  739.  '»  Chap.  IL,  v.  2,  4,  10. 

'*  Ezekiel,  chap.  XXVI.,  v.  7. 


a  nation. 


CHAP.  II.]  THE  CHASDIM  OR  CUSHITE  CHALDEANS.  55 

by  the  Assyrian,  lor  tlieni  that  dwelt  in  the  wilderness ;  or,  as 
it  has  been  more  correctly  translated,  "  Behold  the  country 
"  of  this  nation,  which  had  not  been  till  Ashur  allotted  it  to 
"  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert."  ^  The  appellation  is  in  many 
other  places  given  to  them  as  a  nation,  as  in  the  2nd  Chro- 
nicles, where  mention  is  made  of  the  "  King;  of  the  Chaldees  ;""  ?''TA'u  !'!^ 

'      _  ^  ^  '      first  Chaldean 

and  again,  the  "  Chaldeans,  that  bitter  and  hasty  nation ;  "  ^  ^^ing- 
we  find,  also,  "Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  the  Chaldeans;"* 
and  again,  "  Darius,  King  over  the  realm  of  the  Chaldeans ;  "  ^ 
and  these,  it  may  be  observed,  correspond  with  profane  history, 
Evechius,  or  Nimriid  the  Cushite,  being  the  first  of  the  line  of 
Chaldean  kings.** 

The  Cushites  were  no  doubt  the  earliest  Chasdim,    for  the  The  Chasdim 

11  •  1-11  -1  11  p  -r»  came  from  the 

whole  territory  which  they  occupied  near  the  shores  oi  rontus  north, 
was  called  Chaldea  (Chasdim).'     As  has  t^een  noticed  already, 
the  latter  name  was  carried  from  thence  into  Babylonia,  where 
the   Chasdim,   and    another    people,   the  Kazd,    Kadhani,    or 
Kelani   from   the  south,   appear  to   have  amalgamated.     The 
name  in  question  therefore  equally  belonged  to  the  races  of 
Ham  and  Shem  ;  Nimriid  and  his  successors  belonged  to  the 
former  race;    and,   to  the  latter,   Arphaxad,    Chesed,    Seriig, 
Terah,   and   many  others.     Abraham,   especially,   was  greatly  The  Shemitic 
distinguished    for   his   knowledge   of  the    celestial    sciences ;  ^  Araiia.^"^  ^"^ 
and  according  to  Arabian   historians,  the  Shemitic  Chaldeans 
are  represented   by  the   great   tribe   of  Beni    Khaled ; '    dif- 
ferent branches  of  which,  as  the  Beni  Rabiah,   &c.,    (equally 
Chaldees.)  are  still  found  at  different  places  in  the  Arabian 
peninsula."' 

It  will  be  seen,    from   the   preceding   statements,   that  the 

1  Isaiah,  chap.  XXIII.,  v.  13.  -  Chap.  XXXVI.,  v.  17. 

^  Habb.,  chap.  I.,  v.  6.  *  Ezra,  chap.  Y.,  v.  12. 

*  Daniel,  chap.  IX.,  v.  1. 

*  Preface,  p.  xix.,  and  pp.  67,  68  of  Ancient  Fragments,  by  Isaac  Preston 
Cory,  Esq.  ;   Pickering,  London,  1 832. 

"  Eustathius,  ap.  Dionysii  Periegetes,  769. 

®  Eu5eb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  viii. 

"  Arabic  MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D.; 
also  Kiebuhr,  tome  III.,  p.  333,  UJrecht,  1774,  compared  with  Burckhardt, 
Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wahabis,  p.  215. 

'"  See  above,  Appendix,  vol.  L,  pp.  716,  722,  723. 


56  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHALDEANS.  [cHAP.  II. 

expression  Chaldeans  was  indifferently  applied  to  a  tribe,  to  a 
The  priest-  nation,  and  to  a  particular  caste  ;  the  last  signification,  how- 
'^^^^^'  ever,  was  the  most  general,   being,  in  a   great  measure,  esta- 

blished by  custom.  Alluding  to  the  priest-class,  we  are  told 
by  an  ancient  writer,  who  may  be  called  their  historian,^  that 
the  Chaldeans,  whom  he  styles  the  most  ancient  Babylonians, 
were  in  the  habit  of  turning  days  into  years  in  order  to  support 
their  claim  to  antiquity.^  Their  manner  of  life,  he  adds,  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Egyptian  priests  ;  secular  employment 
being  forbidden,  as  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  in  order  that  they 
might  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  philosophy,  and  more 
especially  to  the  knowledge  of  astronomy.  Instruction  com- 
menced in  this  science  with  infancy ;  and  the  precepts  incul- 
cated descended  from  father  to  son,  with  an  authority  which 
checked  the  desire  of  seeking  anything  new.^ 
their  phiio-  The  State  of  knowledge,  which  had  in  consequence  become, 

sop  yan  ^g  ij.  ^^rQYQ^  hereditary  among  this  people,  is  thus  described 
by  the  historian.  The  Chaldeans  believed  the  world  to  be 
eternal,  and  the  fabric  of  the  universe  to  be  ordered  and  sup- 
ported by  Divine  providence,  by  which,  and  not  by  chance,  they 
considered  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  to  be  regulated.^ 
In  some  matters,  however,  the  Chaldean  tenets  were  crude  ; 
for  instance,  they  believed  the  earth  to  be  hollow,  and  they  had 
the  most  incorrect  ideas  of  the  relative  distances  of  the  planets, 
whose  different  times  of  revolution  were  attributed  to  the  dif- 
ferent rates  of  their  motions,  rather  than  to  the  various  extents 
of  space  which  they  traverse.  On  the  other  hand,  the  canals 
constructed  and  the  vast  structures  raised  by  the  same  people, 
bespeak  architectural  and  mechanical  skill ;  and  that  some 
knowledge  of  mathematics  must  have  been  included  in  their 
acquirements  is  evident,  from  their  being  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  the  gnomon  and  clepsydra  ;  as  well  as  from  the  fact 
that  they  had  determined,  with  some  degree  of  precision,  the 
revolutions  of  the  planets.     They  were  also  aware  that  the 

*  Histoire  Universelle  de  Diod.  Sic,  traduite  par  M.  L'Abbe  Terasson, 
Paris,  1737,  tome  I.,  liv.  ii,,  cliap.  21. 

"  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi.,  p.  275.  =•  Ibid.,  p.  274. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  275. 


CHAP.  II.]  SABAISM  GENERAL  IN  THE  WORLD.  57 

moon  has  a  borrowed  light;  and  the  cause  of  her  being  occa- knowledge  of 
sionally  eclipsed  was  likewise  understood.'  Moreover,  the  ^^'™"°°'>- 
Chaldeans  were  the  first  to  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts,^ 
and  they  were  acquainted  with  different  cycles,  as  the  Saros, 
Neros,  &;c.,  and  the  lengths  of  the  lunar  and  solar  years  ;  the 
former  they  made  to  serve  for  ordinary,  and  the  latter  for 
astronomical  purposes.^ 

Ptolemy  details  some  of  the  eclipses  which  had  been  regis- 
tered in  Babylonia.  These,  however,  only  go  back  as  far  as 
720  B.C.,  and  the  times  are  expressed  merely  in  hours. 

It  may  safely  be  inferred,  that  the  knowledge  of  the  celestial 
motions,   derived  by  that  people  from  a  long  series  of  obser- 
vations, had,  in  the  first  instance,  become  subservient  to  ancient 
Sabaism,   and,    at  a  later  period,   to  judicial  astrology,  its  off-  Astronomy 
spring.     By  the  influence  which  this  knowledge  gave  them,  the  subservient 

'  *'  .  .  ,  .        ^o  Sabaism. 

Chaldean  priesthood  established  the  belief  that  they  could  with 

certainty  foretel  events   affecting  the  most  powerful  nations,  as 

well  as  ordinary  individuals.^     The  system  of  worship  based  on 

astronomy  by  the  Babylonians,  as  well  as  that  which  was  in  use 

among  the  people  of  Haran  and  the  Magi,  so  closely  resembled 

the  religions  of  Egypt  and  Canaan,  where  they  Morshipped  the 

host  of  heaven  on   the  housetops,^  that  J'amblichus  considers 

them  all  to  be  identical.''     This  opinion  was  doubtless  founded  Sabaism  gene- 

on  the  general  prevalence  of  the  particular  branch  of  worship  [he  world.  °^^ 

under  consideration,  for  whether  merely  including  the  sun  and 

moon,    as  in  the   modified   Arkite  form,''  or  the   whole  of  the 

heavenly  bodies,  which  was  more  general,    it  is  evident  that, 

antecedently  to  the  Christian  dispensation,  no  part  of  the  world 

was  free  from  the  taint  of  Sabaism. 

The  alternations  of  day  and  night,  with  those  of  the  seasons 
and  the  productions  of  the  earth,  from  their  connection  with  the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II,,  cap.  xxi.  *  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  cix. 

*  Hales'  Anal,  of  Chron.,  vol.  I.,  p.  41.      *  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi. 

*  Zeph.,  chap.  I.,  v.  5  ;  and  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIII.,  v.  5,  "  The  idolatrous 
priests  who  burnt  incense  unto  Baal,  to  the  sun,  and  to  tiie  moon,  and  to  the 
planets,  and  to  all  the  host  of  heaven." 

^  Hebenstreit,  Diss,  de  Jamblichi,  Philosophi  Syri  Doctrina  Christianae 
Religioni,  &c,  Leipz.,  1704. 

^  See  preceding  chap.,  pp   15,  16. 


58 


ASTROLOGY  OF  THE  CHALDEANS. 


[chap.  II. 


Astro-meteor- 
ology based 


on  the  five 
planets, 


and  comets. 


periodical  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  appear  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  belief,  that  each  of  those  bodies  was  a  celestial 
spirit,  to  whom,  agreeably  to  the  confused  idea  which  prevailed 
among  mankind  that  some  kind  of  atonement  for  sin  was 
necessary,  a  high  mediatorial  office  was  ascribed. 

It  has  been  supposed  with  great  probability,  that  this  belief 
led  to  the  first  departure  li-om  the  purer  light  of  the  primeval 
religion,  which  was  transmitted,  though  dimly,  through  Noah's 
immediate  descendants.  To  the  celestial  bodies,  as  divine 
intelligences,  were  ascribed  an  intermediate  place  between  the 
earth  and  that  Almighty  Being,  who  had  thus  been  partly 
forgotten,  or,  according  to  the  Chaldean  creed,  was  by  far  too 
exalted  to  take  cognizance  of  what  is  passing  in  the  terrestrial 
world. 

The  planets  occupied  the  most  prominent  places  in  the 
astro-meteorological  system,  and  amongst  these,  the  Chronus  of 
the  Greeks,  or  Saturn,^  also  the  Babylonian  Venus,  and  the 
Zohak  of  the  Arabs, ^  were  supposed  to  exercise  particular  in- 
fluences ;  but  the  sun,^  as  having  the  greatest  power  of  all  the 
celestial  bodies,  was  believed  to  have  most  weight  in  the  pro- 
duction of  important  events. 

The  Chaldeans,  like  the  Greeks  at  a  later  period,  distin- 
guished all  the  visible  planets  by  particular  names,  as  Merodach 
(Mars),  Meni  (Venus),  Nebo  (Mercury),  and  Bel  (Jupiter)  ; 
and  the  whole  five  were  styled  interpreters,  as  being  supposed 
to  mark  by  their  risings,  settings,  and  colour,  the  events  to 
which  individuals  are  to  be  subjected.  The  phenomena  of 
nature,  such  as  the  appearance  of  a  comet,  the  occurrence 
of  an  earthquake,  and  eclipses,  were  supposed  to  indicate  the 
approach  of  events  connected  with  nations  and  their  sovereigns, 
as  well  as  private  individuals.* 

Subordinate  to  the  five  planets  were  thirty  stars  called 
counsellors,  one  half  destined  to  observe  what  passes  below,  or 

'  Also  ca'led  II,  as  well  as  Saturn. — Eustb,,  Prsep.  Evan.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  10. 

*  A  temple  was  dedicated  to  this  deity  at  Mekkah. — See  Lane's  Koran, 
p.  29,  Maddc^n  and  Co.,  London,  1848. 

*  Tiie  Assyrians  gave  the  name  of  Bel  to  the  Sun  as  well  as  toSaturnus. — 
Piocopius,  Conun.  in  Esai,  cap.  xlvi. 

*  Died.  Sic,  lib.  IL,  cap.  xxi. 


CHAP.  II.]  IMAGE-WORSHIP  IN  BABYLONIA.  59 

the    actions    of  men,    and    the    remainder  what  is  passing  in  Messenger 
heaven ;    mutual   intercourse  being    maintained    by    means    of 
messenger  stars  traversing,  once  in  ten  days,  the  space  which 
separates  the  celestial  and  terrestrial  worlds. 

To  each  of  the  twelve  principal  of  these  counsellors  was  Supposed  in- 
allotted  a  month  of  the  year,  and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  cSeiLtfous.* 
Zodiac  ; '  through  which  latter,  the  motions  of  the  sun,  moon, 
&c.,  appear  to  have  been  determined  with  considerable  pre- 
cision. The  Chaldean  system  of  astrology  appears  also  to  have 
included  twenty-four  constellations  beyond  the  Zodiac,  one- 
half  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  heavens,  and  the  other  in 
the  southern.  The  latter  was  supposed  to  have  reference  to 
individuals  who  are  deceased,  and  those  of  the  former,  which 
are  visible,  to  the  actions  of  the  living,  and  these  were  consi- 
dered to  influence  the  whole  train  of  good  and  evil  to  mankind  : 
to  these  were  added,  as  an  additional  means  of  predicting  what 
is  to  happen,  the  art  of  divination  by  the  flight  of  birds,  the 
entrails  of  .victims,  and  the  interpretation  of  dreams." 

The  divine  mediatorial  power  at'aiouttd  to  the  planets,  &c., 
appears  to  have  been  followed  by  a  lower  kiiid  of  idolatry, 
namely,  the  use  of  images;  which  being  made  under  certain 
aspects  of  those  bodies,  and  consecrated  by  magical  rites,  were 
believed  to  continue  under  their   influence.     It  is  sufficiently  „  ,  , 

•'  Consecrated 

clear,  that  images  of  this  kind,  whether  small  or  great,  were  images. 
connected  with  Babylonian  worship,''  and  doubtless,  they  were 
similar  to  the  Teraphim  mentioned  in  Scripture :  *  but  it  may 
here  be  observed,  that  as  the  names  of  these  images  are  She- 
mitic,  and  correspond  with  those  of  the  heavenly  bodies,^  it 
has  been  inferred  that  they  were  purely  astrological. 

'  Compare  Diod,  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi.,  with  Ideler,  Ueber  der  Ursprung' 
des  Thierkreises.  Letronne,  while  questioning  the  derivation  of  the  Zodiac 
from  the  Chaldeans,  admits  that  the  Dodecatemaries  came  from  that  people 
to  the  Greeks. — See  his  Review  on  Ideler's  work,  Journal  des  Savans  for 
1839,  pp  493,  528. 

^  Diod,  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi.        ^  Dan  ,  chap.  III,,  v,  6,  7,  11,  15,  &c, 

*  Judges,  chap.  XVII.,  v,  5,  chap,  XVIII.,  v.  4  and  20  ;  Genesis,  chap. 
XXXI.,  V.  19,  34,  chap.  XXXV.,  v.  2,  4, 

*  Ba'al,  Nebo,  Merodach,  Succoth,  Benoth,  &c.,  note  by  Aloys  Sprenger, 
M.D. 


60         ACCOUNT  OF  THE  CHALDEANS  CONCLUDED.   [cHAP.  II. 

Such  is  the  account  which  has  been  transmitted  to  us  of  the 
Chaldeans  and  their  leaders,  at  the  period  when  the  knowledge 
and  influence  of  the  priest  caste  probably  were  greatest,  namely, 
between  the  departure  of  Kahtan  and  that  of  the  other  Shemitic 
branch  from  Babylonia  towards  Canaan  ;  the  settlement  of  this 
branch  in  the  latter  territory  will  be  noticed  more  fully  in  the 
succeeding  Chapter. 


(  61  ) 


CHAPTER  III. 


STATE  OF  ARABIA  FROM  THE  DEPARTURE  OF  ABRAHAM  TO  THE 
DEATH  OF  JOB. 

Abraham  quits  U'r  of  the  Chaldees. — The  Patriarch  proceeds  from  Haran 
to  Damascus,  Palestine,  and  Egypt. — Settlement  of  Abraham  and  Lot. — 
Invasion  and  Discomfiture  of  the  Assyrian  Kings. — March  of  the  latter 
through  the  Desert. — Destruction  of  Sodom  from  natural  and  supernatural 
causes. —  The  Alliance  of  Lot's  Daughters  with  the  people  of  the  country, 
originates  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites. — Birth  of  Ishmael  and  Isaac. — 
Expulsion  of  the  former. — Territory  of  Ishmael's  Descendants. — The 
Sons  of  Keturah  and  the  Midianites. — State  of  Egypt  from  the  time  of 
Abraham  to  that  of  Joseph. — Historical  interest  of  Egypt. — Invasion  of 
the  Hyk-sos,  part  coming  through  Abyssinia. — Their  Dominion  in  Egypt, 
and  Period  of  their  Expulsion. — The  Sons  of  Esau  occupy  Mount  Seir. — 
Mingled  People  of  Arabia. — Amalekites,  Edomites,  Saracens,  &c. — The 
Horites.  Eliphaz  the  Temanite. — Position  of  the  Land  of  Uz. — Period 
of  Job's  Trial. — The  Localities  about  O'rfah  correspond  with  the  circum- 
stances in  the  book  of  Job. — State  of  Knowledge  in  Arabia  in  the  time  of 
Job. — The  Tobbai  of  Yemen. — Expedition  of  the  Hiniyarilesinto  Central 
Asia. — Samarcand  founded. — Language  and  written  Character  of  the 
Himyarites. — Inscriptions  found  in  Yemen,  also  at  Hisn  Ghorab,  Kakb- 
el-Hajar,  &c.,  and  others  near  San'a. — Ard-es-Saba,  or  Land  of  Saba. — 
Hirayari  Inscription  found  near  'Aden. — Traces  of  that  People  in 
distant  countries. — The  Hebrew  Language,  its  Cognates  and  written 
Character. 

The  settlement  of  the  principal  branch  of  the  Sheraitic  people  ,,    ,     , 
in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Arabia,  as  detailed  in  the  departure  an 
preceding  Chapter,  was  at  no  distant  period  followed  by  the  e™odi.^° 
occupation  of  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  peninsula  by 
another  section  of  the  same  race.     The  possession  of  Palestine 
afterwards  took  place ;  and  this  event  had  in  the  sequel,  the 
greatest  influence  upon  the  state  of  the  neighbouring  nations, 
more  particularly  on  the  empires  of  Egypt  and  Assyria. 

The  departure  of  Abraham  for  the  promised  land,  became 


62  Abraham's  departure  from  u'r.  [chap.  hi. 

one  of  the  most  interesting  events  recorded  in  the  Old  Testa- 
Abraham  ment ;  but  the  previous  removal  of  the  patriarch  from  Lower  to 
LXT/to  ^°^  Upper  Mesopotamia,  has  not  been  distinguished  with  sufficient 
pSami^^^''    clearness,  from  the  subsequent  journey  which  he  made  by  Divine 

command  from  Haran. 
Causes  of  Alluding  to  the  former,  Josephus  gives  as  the  cause  of  this 

change  of  change  of  residence,  that  the  patriarch  Terah  hated  Chaldea, 
resideDce.  ^^^  accouut  of  the  loss  of  his  SOU  Haran  ;  ^  who  died  in  the 
presence  of  Terah  his  father,  in  the  land  of  his  nativity,  in  U'r 
of  the  Chaldees.'  But  elsewhere  he  alludes  to  another  and  a 
more  powerful  reason,  viz.,  an  opposition  excited  by  the 
Chasdim  of  Mesopotamia.  This  took  place  at  U'r,  the  birth- 
place of  Abraham,^  who  is  thus  particularly  described  by 
Berossus,  without  being  actually  named  :  "  After  the  Deluge, 
in  the  tenth  generation,  there  was  a  certain  man  among  the 
Chaldeans,  renowned  for  his  justice  and  great  exploits,  and 
for  his  skill  in  the  celestial  sciences."  ■*  The  latter  cir- 
cumstance apparently  gave  umbrage  to  the  hierarchy  of 
Babylonia,  which  was  no  doubt  increased  by  the  opposition 
of  the  patriarch  to  their  doctrines  ;  for  he  not  only  in- 
His  kno^iiedge  culcatcd  the  gTcat  truth  that  there  is  but  one  God,  the  Creator 

exciU'S  the  .        *-" 

enmity  of  the  of  the  uuiversc,  and  taught  that  if  other  gods  contribute  in 
any  way  to  the  happiness  of  mankind,  it  is  by  His  appointment, 
and  not  by  their  own  power;*  but  according  to  another  authority, 
he  proceeded  to  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  the  idols  in  U'r  of  the 
Chaldees,  and  Haran,  his  brother,  having  gone  in  to  extinguish 
the  fire,  was  there  consunied.® 

It  is  also  stated  by  Miihammedan  writers,  that  Abraham 
refused  to  continue  his  former  vocation  of  selling  images  for 
Azar  or  Terah,  his  father ;'  and  elsewhere  it  appears  that  he 
opposed  the  astrology  of  the  day  ;  maintaining  that  the  hea- 

'  Jos.,  Ant.,  lib.  T.,  cap.  vi. 
'  Gen.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  28,  Bellamy's  translation. 
'  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib,  IX.,  cap.  iv.,  from  Eupolemus. 
*  Ibid.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xvii. 

'  Jos.,  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vii.,  compared  witli  Zonares,  Annales,  tome  1, 
p.  22,  Paris,  1686. 

«  'Abii-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  II.     Brans  and  Kirch,  Leipsic,  1788. 
'  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  Arts.  Azar,  and  Muhammed  fijs  de  Mdlik-shah 


CHAP.  Ill,]  HIS  ARRIVAL  AT  HARAN.  63 

venly  bodies  were  subservient  to  Him  who  commands  them  ;  Abraham 
to  whom  alone  men  ought  to  offer  honour  and  thanksgiving.'      Sabaism. 

Abraham  having  been  converted  by  a  special  revelation  to 
the  true  faith,"  from  which  his  familv  had  departed,  in  the  way 
so  particularly  described  by  Epiphanius  ;^  or  (as  it  is  elsewhere 
expressed),  "delivered  from  the  fire  of  the  Chaldeans,"^  and 
the  patriarch  and  his  kindred  being  determined  to  abandon 
idolatry,  and  no  longer  "to  follow  the  gods  of  their  fathers,"^ 
they  removed  to  another  part  of  the  country ;  or,  as  it  is  more 
clearly  expressed  in  Scriptnre,  "  they  (Terah  and  Abraham, 
&:c.)  went  forth  from  U'r  of  the  Chaldees,  to  go  to  the  land  of 
Canaan  ;  so  they  came  to  Haran,  and  dwelt  there."  ^ 

According  to  the  chronology  given  by  Josephus,  this  event  Epoch  of  his 
took  place  420  years  after  the  Deluge,  and  1020  years  anterior  from  Mesopo- 
to  the   building   of  Solomon's  temple.^      Commentators  differ    ™'^' 
very  little  regarding  the  latter  period ;  and   adopting  that  of 
Crossthwaite,®  the  departure  of  Abraham  from  Mesopotamia  in 
the  year  2031  b.c,  will  become  a  cardinal  point  to  determine 
the  subsequent  dates,  which  will  be  chiefly  taken  from  those  of 
the  valuable  historian  of  the  Jews. 

Being  now  settled  at  such  a  distance  as  Haran,  Abraham  and 
his  family  could  freely  follow  the  purer  light  which  had  been 
handed  down  through  Shem  ;  and  the  preservation  of  that 
light  was  thenceforth  specially  entrusted  to  them. 

The  change  of  residence  is  distinctly  mentioned  as  having 
taken  place  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  the  patriarch,  and  as  he  was 
seventy-five  when  he  quitted  his  father's  house,   it  follows  that  B.C. 201 6., 

'  Jos.,  Ant.,  lib,  I.,  cap.  vii.,  also  Zonares,  Annales,  tome  I.,  p.  22. 

«  Acts,  cliap.  VII.,  V.  2. 

^  "  And  from  the  times  of  Tharra,  the  father  of  Abraham,  they  introduced 
images  and  all  the  errors  of  idolatry,  honouring  their  forefathers  and  their 
departed  predecessors  with  effigies  which  tliey  fashioned  after  tlieir  likeness. 
They  first  made  these  effigies  of  earthenware,  but  afterwards  they  sculptured 
them  in  stone,  and  cast  tliem  in  silver  and  gold,  and  wrought  them  in  wood 
and  other  kinds  of  materials," — Anc.  Fragments,  by  I,  Preston  Cory,  Esq., 
p.  55. 

*  2  Esdras,  chap.  IX,,  v.  7.  *  Judith,  chap.  Y,,  v.  6,  7. 
«  Gen.,  chap.  XL,  v.  31. 

'  Ant.,  lib.  VIIL,  cap.  iii.,  sec.  1. 

*  Crossthwaite's  Synchronology,  &c.    Parker,  London,  1839. 


64 


ABRAHAM  PROCEEDS  TO  CANAAN.  [CHAP.  III. 


Abraham  ^g  li^d  remained  above  fourteen  years  at  that  city^  before  he 
by'^aTmrnerous  departed  thence  to  perform  the  higher  duties  which  had  been 
'"''^'  commanded.'     Taking,  therefore,  Sarai  his  wife,'  and  Lot  his 

brother's  son,  with  all  their  substance,  and  the  souls  they  had 
gotten  in  Haran,  Abraham  now  went  forth  to  go  into  the  land 
of  Canaan.*  This  portion  of  sacred  history  mentions  the  fact 
very  briefly ;  but  from  later  circumstances  it  is  evident  that,  in 
quitting  Haran,  Abraham  was  accompanied  by  a  considerable 
body  of  people,  such  as  would  form  a  large  tribe  in  the  present 
day,  which  is  an  important  circumstance  in  connexion  with  the 
increase  of  the  Hebrew  people. 
He  is  said  to  It  is  expressly  stated  that  Abraham  came  with  an  army  from 
a? DamScus.  the  region  situated  above  Babylon,  that  of  the  Chaldees,  and 
reigned  as  a  stranger  or  foreigner  in  Damascus,  where,  even 
now,  his  name  is  celebrated,  and  a  part  of  the  town  shown 
which  is  called  the  dwelling  of  Abraham.  It  is  added,  that  not 
long  afterwards  he  removed  with  his  people  to  the  region  then 
called  Khananea,  but  now  Judea.^  From  this  city,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  sovereign  called  Marsuphus,  or 
El  Murephus,  about  twenty  years  before  the  patriarch  was 
born,^  Abraham  took  as  his  steward  an  inhabitant  named 
Eleazer;'  but  shortly  after  his  arrival,  in  consequence  of  a 
grievous  famine,  the  party  proceeded  from  Judea  into  Egypt. 

Being  highly  esteemed  for  his  wisdom,  Abraham,  as  we  are 
informed,  greatly  ingratiated  himself  with  the  people,  by  com- 
municating to  them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts,  particularly  of 
?mpaMed"to™'^  arithmetic  and  astronomy,  which  were  thus  brought  from  the 
the  Egyptians.  Chaldeans  into  Egypt,  and  from  thence  carried  into  Greece." 

*  'Abu-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  13,  compared  with  Philo  Judaeus,  16, 
Migrath.     Abrah.  p.  415. 

*  ♦'  Now  Jehovah  had  said  to  Abraham,  go  forth  from  thy  land,  also  from 
thy  kindred,  and  from  tlie  houseliold  of  thy  fathers,  to  the  land  which  I  will 
show  thee."  This  consequently  refers  to  a  time  anterior  to  his  removal 
from  U'r. — Gen.,  chap.  XII.,  v   4,  Bellamy's  translation. 

'  Gen.,  chap.  XII.  *  Ibid.,  v.  5. 

*  Nicolaus  Damascenus,  lib.  IV.,  Ilistoriarum. 

«  'Abu-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  13.  ^  Gen.,  cliap.  XV.,  v.  2. 

"  Annales,  .lohaiiiiis  Zoiiares,  tome  I.,  p.  22,  Paris,  1686,  compared  with 
Jos.,  Ant.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii.  ;  Euseb.,  PrEep.,  lib.  IX.,  cap  xvi  ;  St.  Augustin, 
lib.  XVIII.,  cap.  xxxvii.,  de  Civit.  Dei. 


B.C.  2014. 


Arithmetic 


CHAP.  III.]  Abraham's  return  to  jubea.  G5 

From  this  incidental  circumstance  it  is  evident,  that  the  state  of 
knowledge  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  was  at  this  time  inferior  to 
that  of  the  Chaldeans  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  Babylonians 
had  made  considerable  progress  during  the  interval  between  the 
departure  of  the  first  settlers  towards  Eg}q)t  and  that  of 
Abraham. 

After  continuing  about  five  years  imparting  this  knowledge 
to  the  Egyptians,  Abraham  and  Lot,  taking  all  their  substance, 
retraced  their  steps  into  Judea  ;  where  an  amicable  separation  e.c.  2009. 
speedily  took  place.     Finding  their  flocks  much  too  great  for 
the  country,  Lot  chose  in  consequence  the  fertile  pasture-ground  jS^^and 
Iving  eastward  of  the  river  Jordan,  and  Abraham  settled  more  reparation 

w       ~  '  _  from  Lot. 

to  the  westward,  in  the  promised  land ;  namely  in  the  plains  of 
Marare,  near  Hebron.  Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
former  patriarch  amongst  the  descendaiitS|.of  Ham,  a  circum- 
stance occurred  which  has  a  particular  historical  interest,  since 
it  not  only  shows  that  a  constant  intercourse  was  maintained 
between  this  part  of  the  country  and  Babylonia,  but  also  that 
the  Assyrian  dominion,  founded  by  Nimriid,  extended  to  the 
borders  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  most  likely  included  those 
countries  also. 

Previous  to  the  settlement  of  Lot,  and  whilst  Abraham,  then 
in  his  seventy-first  year,  w^as  still  at  Haran,  the  w^ar  of  Chedor- 
laomer  commenced,^  and  the  Assyrians  having  made  a  hostile 
inroad,  imposed  a  tribute  on  this  part  of  the  country,  as  weW  as 
the  adjoining  territory  of  S}Tia.  This  appears  to  have  been 
regularly  paid  during  the  succeeding  twelve  years ;  ^  but  a 
rebellion  in  the  thirteenth  year  caused  a  fresh  invasion,  and  s^Tia^'""  " 
Tidal  or  Thadel,  bearing  the  high-sounding  Assyrian  title  of 
King  of  Xations,  marched  at  the  head  of  the  chief  prnices  ofo-c-socs, 
his  territories — namely,  Chedorlaomer,  king  of  the  Elamites ; 
Amraphael,  king  of  Shinar ;  and  Arioch,^  king  of  Ellasar,  in 
Assyria ;  and  smote  the  Rephaims  in  Ashteroth  Karnaim,  and 
the  Zuzims  in  Ham,  the  Emims  in  the  valley  of  Kiriathaim, 
the  people  of  Jebel  Jelad,   and  the  Horeeans   or  Horites  of 

'  'Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist,  Dynast.,  p.  11.         *  Jos.,  Antiq.,  lib.  I.  cap.  ix. 
^  Major  Eawlinson,  vol.  IX..  p.  47,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  and 
Juditli,  chap.  I.,  v.  6. 

VOL.  n.  F 


66  DISCOMFITURE  OF  THE  KINGS  OF  ASSYRIA.      [CHAP.  III. 

Mount  Seir ;  and  having  pushed  their  conquests  along  the 
northern  side  of  Wadi  El  'Arabah  as  far  as  the  wilderness  of 
Paran,  and  towards  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  smiting  as 
they  returned  by  Enmishpat  (Kadesh)  all  the  country  of  the 
Amalekites,  likewise  that  of  the  Amorites  in  Hazezon-tamar, 
and  subseqent  thev  finally  entered  what  was  then  called  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
Assynaus,  or  the  woodland  valley.  Here  they  encountered  and  vanquished 
the  assembled  forces  of  the  kings  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah, 
Zeboim,  and  Bela  or  Zoar,  taking  all  their  substance ;  and 
amongst  other  captives  was  Lot,  the  ally  of  these  kings.^ 

On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  successful  invasion,  Abraham 
hastily  armed  his  followers,  and  being  supported  by  the  forces 
brought  by  Mamre,  Eshcol,  and  Aner,  he  overtook  the  Assy- 
rians on  the  fifth  night  at  Dan,  near  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
Jordan,  and  before  they  had  even  time  to  arm,  he  put  them  to 
the  route,  and  continued  a  close  pursuit  till  they  were  again 
overtaken  on  the  second  day  at  Hobah,  on  the  left  hand,  or  north 
of  Damascus.  Here,  as  the  fruits  of  a  complete  victory, 
Abraham  and  his  allies,  in  addition  to  the  spoil,  rescued  his 
Rescue  of  Lot  relative  as  well  as  the  captive  Sodomites  ;  and  it  was  in  return- 
wUh  Mel-  °  i"&  ii'i  triumph  that  the  patriarch  was  welcomed  by  Melchi- 
chizedt^k.  zedek,  the  king  of  Solyma  (now  called  Jerusalem),  a  most 
ancient  city.-  It  may  here  be  observed,  that  as  the  death  of 
Shem  occurred  about  502  years  after  the  Flood,  it  is  quite 
possible,  as  already  hinted  (p.  27),  that  the  king  of  Salem  may 
have  been  that  patriarch  himself;  to  whom,  as  the  high-priest 
of  God,^  the  expulsion  of  the  people  of  Ham  must  have  been 
peculiarly  acceptable. 

It  has  been  inferred  from  the  limited  number  of  men  stateci 
to  be  with  him  (318),  that  Abraham  repelled  a  mere  foray,  or, 
at  most,  a  partial  inroad  of  the  Assyrians ;  but  if  these  were 
the  men  regularly  armed  and  trained,  and  if  an  estimate  be 
formed  on  the  moderate  scale  of  four  unarmed  persons  to  each 
of  these,  his  followers  would  number  about  1600.     Moreover,  it 

'  Josephus,  lib,  T.,  cap.  ix.,  compared  witli  Gen.,  cliap.  XIV.,  v.  1  to  14, 
aiul  Zonare.^,  Annalc.>j,  tome  I.,  pp.  21,  22. 
*  Zonares,  Annales,  tome  I.,  p.  21. 
I  Jos.,  lib.  T.,  cap.  x.,  and  Gen.,  cliap.  XIV.,  v.  18,  19. 


^ 


CHAP.  HI.]  DESTRUCTION  OF  SODOM.  67 

must  be  remembered,  that  the  patriarch's  means  were  not  con-  Abraham's 

.  ,    ■,  .  lollowers  and 

fined  to  the  number  of  his  own  followers,  but  included  the  allies. 
Amoritcs,  led  by  the  confederate  chiefs  already  mentioned,  who 
probably  brought  a  considerable  force  into  the  field.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  difl[icult  to  imagine  that  a  retreating  horde,  encum- 
bered with  captives,  spoil,  &c.,  and  necessarily  covering  an 
extensive  space,  might  be  completely  routed  by  the  sudden  and 
judicious  attack  made  at  Dan  by  night,  when  eastern  people  are 
seldom  prepared  to  resist  an  enemy.  This  success  was  followed 
by  a  close  pursuit,  and  a  second  victory  at  Hobah.  The  route 
taken  on  this  occasion  by  the  retreating  Assyrians  was  evidently 
difi*erent  from  that  by  which  they  had  advanced  against  the 
kings  of  Sodom.  For  the  Cushite  tribes  on  the  borders  having 
made  common  cause  with  the  latter,  the  Assyrians,  instead  of  Advance  and 
passing  through  the  cultivated  tract  in  the"  line  of  Hobah  and  Assyrians. 
Dan,  which  would  have  afforded  to  the  invaded  time  to 
assemble  their  forces,  chose  the  shorter  and  more  direct  route 
of  the  Desert ;  then,  as  has  just  been  mentioned,  by  skirting 
the  borders  of  the  wilderness,  the  Rephaims,  Zuzims,  and  the 
five  kings  of  the  territory  now  occupied  by  Lake  Asphaltites, 
being  overcome  in  succession,  the  invaders  followed  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  to  Dan,  and  thence  along  the  western  side  of 
Damascus  to  Hobah,  where  their  final  destruction  took  place. 

About  three  years  after  the  skilful  rescue  of  Lot,  Ishmaeln. 0,2005. 
was  born,  in  the  encampment  between  Kadesh  and  Bered  ;^  and 
thirteen  years  subsequently  the  fair  portion  of  territory  occupied 
by  Lot,  was  the  scene  of  the  most  awful  catastrophe  hitherto  The  catas- 
recorded,   the   Deluge   alone   excepted  ;    for  according   to  the  Vaie  of 
Scripture'"^  account,   as  well  as  that  given  by  Strabo,^  thirteen   '    ™ 
cities  of  the  plain  were,  from  the  joint  effects  of  natural  and 
supernatural  agencies,  overwhelmed  by  an  inundation  of  burning 
sulphur.     The  vale  of  Siddim,   being  full  of  slime,   or  bitu- 
minous pits,  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  the  kings,  and  these  pits 
having   been    ignited    by   fire    sent  do^vn    from   heaven,*    the 
asphaltum  also  burning  freely,   the  materials  were  gradually 
consumed,  and  the  conflagration  at  length  produced  the  basin 

'  Gen.,  chap.  XVI.,  v.  14.  -  Gen.,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  24,  25. 

'  Lib.  XVI.,  pp.  760,  763.  *  Verse  24. 

F    2 


Bela, 


68  FLIGHT  OF  LOT.  [ciIAF.  IIL 

now  occupied  by  the  Lake  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah ;  which 
has  been  ascertained  to  be  in  one  part  about  1200  yards  deep. 

produces  the    The  peculiar  salt  and  bitter  taste  of  the  waters  of  the  Dead 

ScKiom?  Sea,  and  the  quantity  of  bitumen  collected  on  its  surface,  in  the 

manner  described  by  Diodorus  Siculus/  with  its  powerful 
exhalations,  which  are  perceptible  at  the  distance  of  many 
miles,^  are  so  many  circumstances  in  accordance  with  the  brief 
account  of  the  destruction  of  this  tract  of  country  given  in  the 
book  of  Genesis,  as  well  as  with  that  of  profane  historians/  and 
the  traditions  of  the  Arabs.  The  latter  state,  that  in  this 
locality  the  Thamudite  giants*  (in  whom  may  be  recognised  the 
people  of  Sodom)  were  destroyed. 

Lot's  flight  to  It  was  during  the  awful  conflagration  in  question  that  Lot 
fled  to  Bela,  a  small  city  which  had  been  spared  for  his  sake ; 
and  from  thence  he  speedily  removed  to  a  cave  in  the  vicinity. 
According  to  the  version  given  by  Onkelos  of  the  portion  of 
Scripture  contained  in  the  fourteenth  verse  of  the  nineteenth 
chapter  of  Genesis,  namely,  "  sons-in-law,  who  were  to  marry 
his  daughters,"^  it  Avould  appear  that  the  latter  had  only  been 
aflBanced  according  to  eastern  custom  ;  an  explanation  w^hich, 
though  different  from  that  hitherto  given,  appears  to  be  borne 
out  by  two  incidental  circumstances  connected  with  this  part  of 
the  narrative.  The  first  is  suggested  by  the  particular  words 
used  by  Lot  himself  regarding  his  daughters,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighth  verse ;  and  the  second,  by  the  fact  that  no  reference 
is  made  to  any  other  daughters  but  those  who  escaped  with 
their  father. 

There  is  likewise  a  different  version  given  of  another  circum- 

andcircum-     staucc  couuectcd  w4th  Lot's  postcritv,  which  is  approached  with 

st;inces  c<ia-  ,  .  .  ,  , 

nected^  much  diffidence.  This  version,  if  correct,  would  make  the 
origin  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  much  less  objectionable 
than  that  which  has  been  hitherto  ascribed  to  them. 

'  Lib.  II.,  cap.  xxix. ;  also  Tacitus,  lib.  V. 

-  Il)id..  pp.  310,  311  ;  and  above,  vol.  I ,  pp.  402,  403,404. 

'  Ibiil.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxix. ;  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  pp.  760,763,  764  ;  Pliny, 
lib.  v.,  cap.  xvi.,  p.  504. 

■*  Arabic  MS8.,  No.  7357,  in  the  British  Museum,  translated  by  Aloys 
Sprenger,  M.D. 

^  Gen.,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  14. 


therewith. 


CHAP.  III.]  MARRIAGES  OF  HIS  DAUGHTERS.  69 

According  to  a  recent  translation,  the  sense  of  the  passage  is  Marriages  of 

o  11  r^y^  i  i  p    T        i        i  i  •  i  i  •  Lot's  daugh 

as  loUows: — Ihe  elder  oi  Lots  daughters  said  to  her  sister,  ters, 
"  Our  father  is  old,  and  there  is  not  a  man  to  come  to  us,  asB.  c.  loai. 
is  the  custom  of  all  the  land,  therefore  we  will  drink  wine  with 
our  father,  then  we  will  abide  from  him ;  thus  we  shall  procure 
posterity  after  our  father.  So  they  drank  wine  with  their 
father  that  same  night,  when  the  first-born  abode  from  her 
father,  but  he  knew  not  where  she  abode,  neither  when  she 
married."'  "  Now  it  was  in  after  time  that  the  first-born  said 
to  the  younger,  Behold,  I  abode  in  time  past  from  my  father : 
we  will  drink  wine  also  this  night,  then  go  and  abide  from  him ; 
thus  we  shall  procure  posterity  after  our  father.  Then  they 
drank  wine  also  that  night  with  their  father,  and  the  younger 
married  and  abode  from  him ;  but  he  knew  not  where  she 
abode,  neither  when  she  married.  Thus  .both  the  daughters  of 
Lot  conceived  unknown  to  their  father.  Then  the  first-born 
bare  a  son  who  was  called  Moab,  and  the  younger  also  bare  a 
son,  and  she  called  his  name  Ben  Ammi."" 

The  disobedience  and  deception  practised  by  Lot's  daughters 
on  these  occasions,  were  sufficient  to  bring  a  curse  upon  the  off- 
spring, which  was  thus  derived  from  the  guilty  people  of  the 
land,  and  they  continued  in  consequence  distinct  nations.     The 
former,  or  the  Moabites,  occupied  the  city  of  Ar,  and  the  rest  Tiie  MoaVites 
of  the  country  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Arnon,   from  whence  ites  continue 
they  expelled  the  giant  Emims  of  the  race  of  Ham  :^  the  capital  ^^^^'"^ 
of  the  latter  was  Rabbah  of  Amnion,  the  city  of  waters,^  from 
whence  they  expelled  the  Zamzummims.^  The  Moabites  and  Am- 
monites being  under  these  circumstances  chiefly  Cushite,  conti- 
nued, as  might  be  expected,  in  consequence  separate  branches. 

About  the  period  of  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  the  name  of 
the  Hebrew  patriarch  was  changed  from  Ab-ram  (high  father) 
to   Abraham,   the  intended  father  of  a  multitude  of  nations ; 
and  a  few  years  aflerwards  the  promised  heir  was  born   in  his  b.c.  i987. 
tent  near  Beersheba ;   on  which  occasion,   at   the  instance  of 

'  Gen.,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  31  to  33,  Bellamy's  translation. 

^  Gen.,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  34  to  38,  Eellaniy's  translation. 

•■•  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  10,  11.  ^2  Sam.,  cliap.  XII.,  v.  2fi,  27. 

*  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  20. 


70 


ISHMAEl's  territory  in  ARABIA.  [cHAP.  III. 


Iscah  or  Sarah,  Ishmael  was  sent  forth  to  enjoy  an  inheritance 
elsewhere.  But  even  if  this  fact  did  not  appear  in  the  sequel, 
it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  in  the  richly-figurative  language 
of  the  East,  the  bread  and  water  provided  for  Hagar  and  her 
son,  denoted  that  an  ample  provision  had  been  made  for  the 
fugitive.  Indeed,  it  can  scarcely  be  imagined  that  a  wealthy 
prince  could  have  banished  his  youthful  son  as  a  helpless  wan- 
derer, instead  of  bestowing  upon  the  future  Arabian  prince 
some  part  of  his  ample  flocks,  and  even  a  proportion  of  his 
numerous  followers  to  tend  them.  Ishmael,  and  those  who 
accompanied  him,  may  therefore  be  considered  as  constituting 
a  new  tribe  in  the  valleys  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  and  by  no  means 
an  unimportant  one,  since  the  chief  was  of  suflScient  consequence 
to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Cushites  of  Egypt  ;^  and  subse- 
quently, a  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Mozauz  or  Modhaudh, 
the  chief  of  the  powerful  tribe  of  Jorham,  ( Jurham)  ;  and,  with 
the  twelve  princes,  his  sons,  commenced  the  grafted  race,  or 
El  Arab  Mostearibe.^  Their  territory  must  have  been  con- 
siderable, for  we  are  told  that  it  extended  from  Havilah  unto 
Shur,^  as  thou  goest  towards  Assyria,  or,  as  it  is  clearly  implied 
in  another  part  of  the  same  verse,  from  the  confines  of  Egypt 
to  Havilah  on  the  higher  Euphrates  ;  so  that,  in  fact,  it  included 
the  whole  of  the  upper  or  western  part  of  Arabia  Deserta. 
No  doubt  Ishmael's  descendants  had  intermixed  with  the  earlier 
inhabitants,  as  he  himself  had  done ;  and  it  is  evident  that  they 
gained  the  ascendancy  to  some  extent,  for  the  name  is  preserved, 
sometimes  separately,  at  other  times  in  conjunction  with  that  of 
the  Hagarenes,  who,  it  is  asserted  by  a  Hebrew  commentator 
(Kimchi),  were  descended  from  Hagar  by  an  Arab  husband. 

The  death  of  Sarah,  about  1944  B.C.,  and  the  alliance  of 
Abraham  with  a  Canaanitish  woman,  Keturah  or  Tour,*  gave 
rise  to  other  inhabitants  of  Arabia.  Subsequently  to  the  death 
of  Abraham,  some,  or  perhaps  all  of  these  sons,  appear  to  have 
settled  near  the   Elanctic  Gulf;  in  a  tract  of  country  which 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XXI.,  v.  21. 

*  See  Appendix  to  vol.  I.,  Table  III. 
"  Gen.,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  18. 

*  Price's  Essay  towards  the  History  of  Arabia,  p.  80. 


CHAP.  III.]  EARLY  CIVILIZATION  OF  EGYPT.  71 

probably  took  its  iiaine  from  Midian,  and  became  afterwards  so 
remarkable  for  its  wealth  and  civilization. 

Ilevertiiiff  now  to  the  Hebrew  tribes,  the  principal  branch  ^''^  Hebrews 

.  .  ■'..■'•  were  iiuiul'- 

descended  from  the  heir  of  promise,  and  considering  that  the  rous  from  the 
chief  part  of  Abraham's  numerous  followers,  who  accompanied  Abr^aham. 
him  into  Canaan,  belonged  to  this  race,  it  is  evident  that  they 
must  have  been  a  considerable  people  at  the  time  they  w^ent 
down  into  Egypt.  In  pursuance  of  the  Divine  purpose  of 
preserving  the  chief  line  of  the  Patriarch's  posterity/  during 
the  coming  years  of  famine,  Jacob's  favourite  son  was  conveyed 
as  a  slave  to  a  neighbouring  empire,  whose  important  position 
among  the  nations  of  the  world,  became  from  henceforth  better 
known  in  consequence  of  this  new  link. 

A  concentrated  territory,  like  the  Valley  of  the  Nile,  the  First  govem- 
upper  portion  especially,  w^as  admirably  a/lapted  for  the  pro-"^^'^''*  ^^^ 
gressive  improvement  of  a  fixed  government.  This  govern- 
ment appears  to  have  been  commenced  on  the  establishment 
of  the  followers  of  Mizraim  in  the  country,  towards  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  after  the  Deluge  :^  and  as  the  new  settle- 
ment was  not  liable  to  be  weakened  by  extension  and  sub- 
division, as  in  the  case  of  tribes  spreading  into  wider  regions, 
its  advancement  would  necessarily  be  rapid.  Accordingly  it 
will  be  remembered,  that  only  321  years  after  the  commence- 
ment of  this  kingdom,  Abraham  found  it  an  established  mo- 
narchy, with  those  gradations  in  rank  and  office  on  w^hich  its 
successful  maintenance  depends  at  home ;  and  from  the  know- 
ledge which  the  Patriarch  had  of  the  country  previous  to  going 
down  to  Egypt,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  necessary  com- 
mercial and  political  relations  already  existed,  for  drawing 
wealth  and  prosperity  from  abroad. 

The  state  of  the  country  at  this  period  is  very  briefly  and 
generally  noticed ;  but  at  the  time  now  under  consideration, 
namely,  about  201   years  later,  Joseph  found  there  a  learned  b.c.  isis. 
caste,    consisting  of  priests,   physicians   or   embalmers,   called  social  state  of 
Healers ;  also  distinct  classes  of  husbandmen,  watermen,   and  ^^^P^ 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XLV.,  v.  7. 

*  Manes  began  to  reign,   says   Shuckforth,  p.t>.    116,  or,  according'  to 
Galterer,  ]o3  p.d. 


72  HISTORICAL  INTEREST  OF  EGYPT.  [cHAP.  III. 

shepherds.     In  fact,    everything  denoted   the   existence    of  a 

well-regulated  and  extensive  kingdom,  which,  in  addition  to  its 

various  products    at  home,   already   enjoyed  those  of  distant 

regions  by  means  of  caravan  commerce. 

Probability  At  this   period,    the  country  was   under  the   sway  of  the 

ilSonSed'Memphian  Pharaoh;    and  that  some    knowledge   of  a  purer 

in^Egypt.        religion  had  been  preserved  by  the  people  of  E^jipt,  is  evident, 

from  the  impression   made  on  the  monarch  by  his  dream,   as 

well  as  from  the  conduct  of  one  of  his  predecessors  in  restoring 

Sarah  to  her  husband.^ 

GoTernment         jj;  appears  that  when  Jacob  came  thither,  about  215  years 

?he  coming^f  after  Abraham's  visit,   the  monarch  was  attended  by  courtiers, 

''^''''^'  and  high  officers  of  state,  and  that  his  court  was  regulated  by 

a  strict  ceremonial.     There  was  a  state  prison  under  the  charge 

of  a  captain  of  life-guards;  and  no  doubt  there  was  then  a 

regular  army :  at  a  rather  later  period  this  numbered  600,000 


men. 


The  early  civilization  and  science  of  Egypt  were  such  as  to 
render  it  improbable  that  the  whole  should  be  due  to  the 
gradual  improvements  made  on  the  creation  of  an  infant  colony, 
and  it  may  rather  be  ascribed  to  the  progressive  extension  of 
the  attainments  already  possessed  by  the  first  persons  who 
migrated  towards  that  part  of  the  old  world. 

Egypt  recalls  to  our  minds  a  train  of  historical  associations 
which  command  a  high  degree  of  interest :  and  the  monuments 
of  art  with  which  the  country  abounds,  appear  to  justify  the 
opinion  that  she  originated  the  architecture  which,  in  Greece, 
was  afterwards  carried  to  such  perfection. 

With  regard  to  one  period  of  her  early  history,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  shepherd  race  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  is  thus 
described  by  an  ancient  historian  : — 
Coming  of  tie      "  It  came  to  pass  during  the  reign  of  Timaus,  that  God  was 
Hyksos,  displeased  with  us,   and  there  came  up  from  the  East,   in  a 

strange  manner,  men  of  an  ignoble  race,  who  had  the  confidence 
to  invade  our  country,  and  easily  subdued  it  by  their  power, 
without  a  battle.     Having  demolished  the  temples  of  the  gods, 

■  Goii.,  rliap.  XTT.,  v.  15-20. 


CHAP.  III.]  INVASION  OF  THE  SHEPHERDS.  73 

and  inflicted  every  kind  of  barbarity  upon  the  inhabitants,  they 
at  length  made  one  of  their  number  king,  whose  name  was 
Sahitis.  The  seat  of  his  government  was  Memphis  ;  and  Lower 
Egypt  (called  the  Arabian  nomey  being  now  tributary,  he 
stationed  garrisons  in  suitable  places,  and  directed  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  eastern  frontier  as  a  protection  against  the  Assy- 
rians, foreseeing  that  they  would  one'  day  undertake  an  invasion  ^^^  their  con- 

,.,,,.       J       *'„.,  -^  ^  quest  of  Egypt. 

01  the  kingdom.  " 

From  the  term  "  ignoble,"  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  con- 
querors were  not,  like  Manetho  himself,  derived  from  a  pure 
Cushite  stock,  but  had  been  part  of  the  Shemitic  people  who, 
at  a  later  period,  had  followed  the  sons  of  Mizraim  into  Arabia, 
and  again  into  Africa  ;  and  the  successive  inroads  into  the  latter 
country,  with  other  circumstances,  make  it  probable  that  some 
were  Cushites,  and  others  branches  of  the  •  Himyarites.  It  is 
stated  that  the  latter  and  the  Sabaei  were  one  and  the  same 
people,  only  divided  by  the  Red  Sea ;  and  from  the  similarity  of 
the  Ethiopian  language  to  the  Arabic  in  its  most  ancient  state, 
as  well  as  the  practice  of  circumcision,  it  would  appear  that 
they  had  come  from  thence  at  a  very  early  period.^  Accord-  a  CusLite 
lug  to  tradition,  preserved  from  time  immemorial  among  Abyssinia. 
the  Abyssinians,  another  Cushite  colony  came  into  that  country 
soon  after  the  flood,  and  settled  in  a  ridge  of  mountains  on 
the  confines  of  Atbara.  Here  they  excavated  dwellings,  and 
spread  industry  and  arts  eastward  and  westward  from  thence ; 
Axiim  and  Meroe  being  the  earliest  cities  which  they  founded.* 
Another  section,  called  Shepherds  or  Berbers,  occupied  the 
tract  extending  along  the  African  coast,  southward  and  north- 
ward of  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  These  were  considered 
the  ordinary  class,  who,  being  partly  nomadic,  moved  with  their 
numerous  flocks  from  place  to  place ;  having  their  principal 
seat   in  the  country  now   called    Beja.     The  former  branch, 

'  Jos.,  Cont.  Apion.,  lib.  I.,  s.  14. 

*  From   Manetho. — See   Ancient    Fragments,    pp.    169,    170,    by    Isaac 
Preston  Cory,  Esq.     W.  Pickering,  1832. 

^  Ludolphus,  Hist,  ^thiop.  I.,  and  Comment,  ad  suam  Hist,  ^thiop., 
lib.  XVI.,  p.  60,  compared  with  Hudson,  Geog.  Min.,  tome  I.,  p.  46. 

*  Bruce's  Travels  to  discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile,  vol.  II.,  pp.  12,  13, 
14,  18,  Dublin,  1791  ;  Jos.,  Ant.,  lib.  II.,  cap   x. 


74  THE  PASTORS  PROCEED  THROUGH  ABYSSINIA.    [CHAP.  HI. 

however,  being  the  warrior  and    dominant   class,  were   more 
particularly  considered  the  Hyksos.' 
The  name  of        From  the  preceding  circumstances  it  would  appear  that  the 
baWy  givXto  name  of  Shepherd,  at  least,  was  equally  applied  to  the  two 
two  races.       y^qq^,  who  peopled  Africa  at  distant  intervals;    such  as   the 
Cushites  in  the  first  instance,^  and  subsequently  the  Sukkims,^ 
and  other  Shemitic  branches.     But  that  a  numerous  people  de- 
nominated Pastors  descended  along  the  Nile,  is  manifest  from 
the  remains  of  troglodyte  dwellings  at  Axum  as  well  as  Meroe, 
and  likewise  from  the  circumstance  of  their  first  stronghold 
having  been  in  the  Theban  district ;  to  which  it  will  be  recol- 
lected, they  afterwards  added  Lower  Egypt.     Here,  on  account 
of  their  vocation,  which  was  an  abomination  to  the  Egj'ptians, 
they  continued  to  live  almost  as  a  separate  people  till  the  time  of 
their  expulsion,  when  agreeably  to  the  terms  of  the  capitulation 
they  quitted  Egypt,  and  the  main  body  retired  into  Palestine. 
Joseph  seems  to  have  been  alive  at  that  time,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  Israelites  lived  amongst  them  previously  to  their  de- 
parture, since  Jacob  and  his  followers,  who  were  of  the  same 
race,   and  followed  a  similar  calling,   obtained  permission  from 
Pharaoh,  who  was  a  shepherd  king,  to  settle  in  the  land  of  Goshen. 
The  shepherds,  as  might  be  expected,  were  opposed  to  the 
Egyptians,  not  only  in  the  use  of  cattle  for  food,  but  also  in 
Sabaism  of  the  the  worship  of  images  ;  they  adored  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and 
^^  ^^  '      a  remarkable  proof  that  they  were  conversant  with  the  motions 
of  these  is  given  by  Syncellus,  who  states, "*  that  Assis  or  Asith, 
their  sixth  king,  added  five  intercalary  days  to  the  year,  which 
previously  consisted  of  360  days.      The  calf  was  deified  as 
Apis  during  the  reign  of  that  monarch.^ 

The  inroad  of  the  Hyk-sos,^  or  Shepherd  Kings  of  Arabia, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  events  connected  with  the  history 
of  Egypt,  has  been  placed  as  late  as  1176  b.  c,  and  their  ex- 

'  Bruce 's  Travels  to  discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile,  vol.  II.,  pp.  20,  21,  23, 
Dublin,  1791.         -  See  vol.  I.,  p.  281.       *  See  preceding  Chapter,  p.  33. 

*  P.  123.  *  Ancient  Fragments,  by  I.  Preston  Cor)',  Esq.,  p.  141. 

'  Hyk  denotes  a  king,  in  the  sacred  dialect,  and  80s,  in  the  vulgar  lan- 
guage, signifies  a  shepherd,  and  hence  shepherd  king. — From  Manetiio, 
p.  171  of  Ancient  Fragments  of  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.  W.  Pickering, 
Loudon,  1832. 


CHAP.  III.]  THEIR  EXPULSION  FROM  EGYPT.  75 

pulsion  in  the  year  10/0  ;'  but  both  the  inroad  and  the  expul- Coming  of  the 

111,11  ,  .  •     I  Shepherds  and 

sion  probably  took  place  at  a  more  remote  period. 

In  the  second  chapter  of  the  second  book,   Manetho  states 
that  the  shepherds  quitted  Es^ypt  durins<  the  reign  of  Tuthraosis,  their  expul- 

1  IT-  £•     1  •    1  11  1  1    •         .      sion  from 

the  seventh  king  or  the  eighteenth  dynasty,"  whose  exploits  in  Egypt. 
delivering  the  country  are  made  prominent  on  the  walls  of  the 
Memnonium.  The  date  of  their  departure  is  placed  393  years 
before  the  flight  of  Danaus  to  Argos  ;^  that  is,  soon  after 
Joseph's  death,  between  1620  b.  c.  and  1630  b.  c.  or,  according 
to  Josephus,  1623  b.  c.  The  latter  period, "*  with  the  addition  of 
259  years  and  10  months  for  the  reign  of  the  first  six  shepherd 
kings,^  and  100  for  their  successors  up  to  the  close  of  the 
war,  in  the  9th  year  of  Thummosis,^  would  place  the  arrival 
of  the  shepherds  1982  b.  c. 

It  may,  however,  be  observed  that  Manetho  elsewhere  men- 
tions that  the  Hyk-sos  and  their  descendants,  retained  possession 
of  the  country  during  a  period  of  511  years,'  which  would 
carry  back  their  first  invasion  to  about  2134  b.  c.  As  this  was 
about  two  centuries  after  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Mizraim's 
followers  in  Egypt,  and  is  anterior  to  the  departure  of  Kahtan 
from  Mesopotamia,  it  would  in  this  case  show  that  the  earliest 
shepherds  were  Cushites. 

Josephus  evidently  confounded  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites 
with  the  departure  of  the  shepherds,  which  mistake  may  pos-  Mistake  of 

•111-  1    •        1     1         1       1  1     •  1  •    n     Josephus. 

sibly  be  in  some  measure  explained,  by  the  latter  being  chieiiy 
composed  of  his  own,  that  is,  the  Shemitic  race. 

*  Synchronology,  &c.,  by  the  Rev.  Ch.  Crossthwaite,  pp.  116,  117,  240, 
241.      Parker,  London,  1839. 

*  Ancient  Fragments,  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  116,  from  Manetho. 
"  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  138,  by  Isaac  Preston  Cory,  Fisq. 

*  Cont.  Apion.,  lib.  I.,  s.  16,  and  II.,  s.  2,  in  speaking  of  the  departure  of 
the  shepherds,  on  the  authority  of  Manetho,  393  years  before  the  flight  of 
Danaus,  he  places  that  event  612  years  previous  to  the  building  of  the 
temple:  1011  +612  =  1623. 

■^  Salatis,  Baeon,  Ajjachnes,  Apophis,  Sethos  or  lanias,  and  Assis,  making 
259  years  10  months. — Ancient  Fragments,  pp.  140  and  170,  by  Isaac  Preston 
Cory,  Esq. 

^  Amosis,  Chebron,  Amenophis,  Memphres  or  Mephres,  Mispharmuthosis, 
and  Tuthmosis  (or  Thummosis),  100  years. — Ibid.,  pp.  141,  142. 

'  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  171,  from  Manetho. 


7Q>  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DESIGNATION  SARACENS.         [cHAP.  III. 

Esau  removes       -pjjg  q^-Jj^^  Israelitish  stock,  namely  the  five  sons  of  Esau  bv 

to  Mount  Seir.  i     i  *•  i  •  •  i 

liis  two  Canaanitish  wives/  and  his  second  marriage  with 
Bashemath,  Ishmael's  daughter,  had  proceeded  in  another 
direction,  and  became  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula;  having  removed  with  their  father,  after  Isaac's 
B.  c.  1801.  funeral,  to  Mount  Seir.-  These  w^ere  the  latest  additions  to 
the  Arab  race,  and  with  the  preceding  offsets  from  the  stocks  of 
Abraham  and  Lot,  they  gradually  formed  the  part  of  the 
inhabitants  expressively  called  the  mingled  people  of  Arabia. 
The  intermixture,  however,  took  place  chiefly  with  the  Ama- 
lekites,  Amorites,  and  other  Cushite  tribes  on  the  borders  of 
Palestine ;  without  materially  changing  the  state  of  the  pure 
or  ancient  Arabs  in  the  interior  of  the  peninsula.  The 
distinctive  appellations  of  Edomites,  Midianites,  Ishmaelites, 
Moabites,  and  Hagarenes,^  appear  to  have  been  the  longest 
preserved  in  north-western  Arabia ;  to  these,  the  designation 
Tiie  Naha-  of  Nabathcans  succeeded,  and  was  applied  in  a  general  way, 
renes^Sara-^'  ^Y  Diodorus  Siculus  and  other  writers,  to  the  whole  of  the 
ceiis,  &c.  nomad  races  of  the  upper  part  of  the  peninsula.  At  a  later 
period,  however,  it  was  replaced  by  that  of  Sharkeyn,  or 
Eastern  people,  afterwards  Saracens,  which  was  adopted  almost 
universally  by  European  writers ;  its  partial  use  by  orientals 
being  probably  derived,  as  already  noticed,  from  Zaraka,^  a 
town,  rather  than  from  Sarah,  the  wife  of  Abraham ;  whose 
descendants  were  confined  to  two  branches,  namely,  the  He- 
brews and  the  sons  of  Edom. 

The  latter  on  coming  into  Arabia,  appear  to  have  found  the 
sons  of  Esau  enjoying  a  patriarchal  government  under  the 
Horite  kings,  which  in  all  probability  differed  but  little  from 
that  of  the  Sheikhs  of  the  present  day.  These  princes 
were  succeeded  by  the  dukes  of  Edom,  for  it  is  remarkable 
that  this  title  had  not  been  in  use  whilst  the  sons  of  Esau  w^re 
in  Canaan.  Nor  was  it  adopted  till  some  little  time  after  they 
Eiiphazthe     Settled  ill  Mount  Seir;  for  Eliphaz,  son  of  Adah,  was  at  first 

Teinanite,  aud 

time  of  Job.  _ 

'  Gen.,  chap.  XXXVI.,  v.  2. 

^  Ibkl.,  V.  6,  8,  and  cliap.  XIV.,  v.  6. 

'•'  Psalm  LXXXIII.,  v.  6,  9. 

*  See  above,  vol.  T.,  p.  631. 


CHAP.  III.]  SITUATION  OF  UZ.  *J^ 

styled  the  Tenianite,  from  that  portion  of  tlic  new  territory 
which  fell  to  his  lot.' 

The  distinction  thus  incidentally  made  may  be  of  some  im- 
portance ;  for  if  this  individual  were  in  reality  the  oldest  of  Job's 
friends,  the  circumstance  may  assist  in  determining  the  period 
to  which  one  of  the  most  interesting,  and  one  of  the  oldest 
portions  of  Scripture  belongs.  "^ 

Several  particulars,  which  will  presently  be  noticed,  go  far 
to  show,  that  the  residence  of  Job  could  not  have  been  in 
Idumea,  nor  even,  as  has  been  supposed  by  Dr.  Lee,  in  the 
tract  between  Damascus  and  the  river  Euphrates ;  but  in  all 
])robability  it  was  in  the  vicinity  of  O'rfah,  where  a  tank  and  aUpperMeso- 

n  1  1  T^-      '      -r>    1  •  1  1  1  T    •  potamia,  the 

w^ell  on  the  road  to  JJiyar  ±>ekr,  with  other  localities,  are  con-  land  of  Uz. 
nected  with  the  name  of  the  great  Patriarch. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  district^in  question  was  one 
of  the  seats,  and  possibly  the  principal  one,  of  the  Shemitic 
people  ;  it  w^as  also  the  land  of  Buz,  son  of  Nahor,^  and  probably 
also  that  of  the  eldest  son  of  Aram,^  to  whom  the  foundation 
of  Damascus  has  been  attributed,*  "with  the  more  probability, 
since  this  place  might  have  been  occupied  by  this  branch  of  the 
sons  of  Xoah,  as  they  spread  westward. 

As    a  constant  political   intercourse  appears  to  have  been  The  Shemites 
maintained  between  the  central  government  of  Assyria  on  the  Jamia  and" 
one  hand,   and  the  dependent  provinces  about  the  borders  of  ^J'J'^^j^ '^"°" 
Syria  on  the  other,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  tribal,  and 
still  more  strongly  kindred  ties,  would  be  equally  maintained 
between  the  descendants  of  Shem  living  in  Mesopotamia,  and 
those  who  occupied  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Arabia.     And  it 
may  be  observed  that,   agreeably  to  the  prevailing  customs  of 
the  east,  such  a  journey  as  that  from  Idumea  to  the  supposed 
rendezvous  at  O'rfah,  would  only  be  an  ordinary  circumstance, 
willingly  undertaken  in  order  to  mourn  with  and  comfort  the 
distinguished  chief  of  their  tribe :  some  distance  is   certainly 
implied  by  the  necessity  of  making  an  express  appointment. 

'  From  Teman,  a  city  of  Edom. — Jer.,  chap.  XLIX.,  v.  7,  20 ;  Ezek., 
chap.  XXV.,  V.  13  ;  Amos,  chap.  I.,  v.  12. 

-'  Gen.,  chap.  XXII.,  v.  20,  21.  =»  Gen.,  chap.  X.,  v.  23. 

^  Bochart,  Geo.  Sacr.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii. 


78 


EPOCH  OF  JOB  S  TRIAL. 


[chap.  hi. 


The  time  of         J^ow,  Since  the  establishment  of  Teman  as  head  of  a  family 

Job  s  trial.  '  •' 

would,  ill  patriarchal  times,  probably  take  place  when  the  man 
was  about  the  age  of  fifty,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  visit  of 
Eliphaz,  and  the  trial  of  Job,  took  place  nearly  at  the  time  of 
Jacob's  departure  for  Egypt;  and  as  Job  had  then  ten  sons 
and  daughters,  some  settled  in  life,  the  patriarch  himself  could 
scarcely  be  less  than  about  fifty  years  of  age,  which  would 
carry  his  birth  back  to  1851  B.C.,  and  the  seventy-ninth  year 
of  Jacob. 
Nature  and         With  reference  to  the  localities  connected  with  this  history, 

climate  of  the    .     .  x    i    t        i   •  n  -  •        i     •  i    • 

country  where  it  IS  evident  that  JoD  livcd  HI  a  manuiacturing  city,   situated  in 

Job  resided.  i       ,  •  .  i        •  t       •  i       m  p 

a  productive  country,  having  corn  and  wine  and  oil  presses  ;"* 
with  silver,  iron,  and  brass  mines  ^  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
tract  in  question,  we  are  told,  was  wet  with  the  showers  of  the  • 
mountains,*  and  it  enjoyed  the  fertilizing  effects  of  the  small 
and  great  rain,  having  at  other  times  its  waters  bound  in  thick 
clouds.^  Proximity  to  high  mountains  would  cause  the  pre- 
ceding changes  ;  and  that  the  country  was  likewise  exposed  to 
an  extreme  climate,  is  manifest  from  repeated  allusions  to  the 
severity  of  winter,  viz.,  snow  and  treasures  of  hail ;®  cold  from 
the  north,  snow  on  the  earth, "and  ice  straitening  the  breadth  of 
the  waters  f  and  again,  being  hid  as  with  a  stone,  and  the  face 
of  the  deep  frozen.^  In  consequence  of  lying  at  the  foot  of 
Taurus,  ancient  Osroene  is  subject  to  all  the  preceding  changes ; 
and  it  appears  to  correspond  likewise  with  the  other  circum- 
stances incidentally  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Job.  Here,  in 
North  Lat.  37°  9' 44",  the  twilight '°  is  lengthened,  and  the 
clusters  or  constellations  designated  the  Pleiades,  Orion,  Mazza- 
roth,  and  Arcturus,  would  be  constantly  in  view.^^  The  idola- 
ters of  the  day,'^  the  Sabeans  of  Haran  too,  were  at  hand  to  fall 
upon  the  oxen   ploughing,'^  nor  were  the  Chasdim,   whether 


'  Weaver's  shuttle ;  .Job,  chap.  VII.,  v.  6.  «  Job,  chap.  VI.,  v.  11. 

■'  Chap.  XXVIII.,  V.  1-3.  *  Chap.  XXIV.  v.  8. 

*  Chap.  XXVI.,  V.  8.  «  Chap.  XXXVIII.,  v.  22. 

7  Chap.  XXXVII.,  V.  6,  9.  "  Ibid.,  v.  10. 

»  Chap.  XXXVIII.,  V.  30.  '»  Chap.  III.,  v.  9. 

"  Ibid.,  V.  31,  32.  '■-•  Chap.  XXXI ,  v.  26,  27. 

•^  Chap.  I.,  V.  14,  15. 


CHAP.  III.]     LOCALITIES  CONNECTED  WITH  JOb's  HISTORY.  79 

those  of  the  Taurus,  or,  more  probably,  another  branch  of  the 
same  people  from  the  adjoining  plains  of  Dura,  too  distant  to 
carry  off  the  camels  from  the  neighbouring  desert.'  The  topaz 
of  Asiatic  Cush^  would  likewise  come  within  Job's  knowledge  ; 
moreover,  he  had  extensive  mines  of  native  steel  and  iron  near 
Mar'ash,  on  one  side,  and  of  copper,  silver,  and  gold  on  the 
other,  both  at  Kebban  Ma'den,  and  near  Diyar  Bekr. 

The  presence  of  Elihu  seems  to  offer  an  additional  reason  in  Eiihu's  reia- 

p  n     ^  •  PI  TT  111       ti^es,  and  pre- 

lavour  01  this  part  oi  the  country.  He  was,  we  are  told,  the  vailing  cus- 
son  of  Barachiel  the  Buzite,  of  the  kindred  of  Eam  or  Aram  ;  ?™^' 
therefore,  in  all  probability,  he  was  part  of  the  family  of  Buz, 
son  of  Nahor  ;  in  which  case  he  belonged  to  the  same  tribe, 
and  lived  in  the  same  neigbourhood  as  Job.  He  was  evidently 
a  bystander,  and  not  being  one  of  the  visiters,  he  was,  as 
youngest  of  the  party,  according  to  Arab  usage,  the  last  to 
speak ;  and,  in  fact,  he  only  ventured  to  give  an  opinion  when 
the  subject  of  discussion  was  almost  exhausted  ;  nor  is  he  again 
mentioned  at  the  close  of  this  interesting  dialogue,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  other  speakers. 

The  state  of  astronomical  knowledge,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
arts  in  general  which  prevailed  in  Arabia  at  this  time,  as 
deduced  from  the  discussions  with  Job,  have  already  been 
noticed  f  but  one  portion,  namely,  the  monumental  inscrip- 
tions, claims  some  further  observation  in  connexion  with  the 
advanced  state  of  civilization  which  appears  to  have  prevailed 
in  the  districts  about  Yemen^  as  well  as  in  those  of  Idumea  and 
O'rfah. 

At  the  period  in  question,  the  influence  of  the  Israelites,  as  The  Israel- 
regards  the  people  of  Arabia,  was  almost  in  abeyance,  owing  to  Egypt"  ^^ 
their  settlement  in  Egypt,  whilst  that  of  the  older  Shemitic  branch 
was  quite  in  the  ascendant.     At  the  termination  of  Job's  life,  as 
here  presumed  about  1651  b.c,  or  in  his  200th  year,  Yemen  had 
already  been  for  a  lengthened  period  under  the  Tobbai.^     It 

'  Job,  chap.  I.,  V.  IT.  ^  Job,  chap.  XXVIII.,  v.  19. 

^  Vol.  I.,  p.  666. 

■*  From  the  Arabic  Tabbaiah,  which  had  a  general  signification,  like  that 
of  Emperor,  Khan,  Pharaoh,  Caesar,  &c.  — Bibliotheque  Orientale,  D'Herbelot, 
article  Tobba. 


80  STATE  OF  ARABIA  UNDER  THE  TOBBAl.  [CHAP.  III. 

has  been  seen  that  Himyar,  also  called  'ArenjejV  or,  according 
to  another  authority,  El  'Arfej,^  succeeded  his  father,  Saba ; 
and  with  him  commenced  the  Himyaritic  dynasty.  He  was 
the  first  who  wore  a  diadem,  and,  being  an  enlightened  prince, 
he  consolidated  the  government  which  had  originated  with  his 
ancestor  Ya'rab. 
ijimyar  and         Himvar  was  successivelv  followed  by  Wathel,  Sessac,  Yaafar, 

liis  successors  •         j  •/  •z  

'  Deryeth,  Nu'man,  Asmah,  and  Shedad.  The  last  is  supposed 
to  have  commenced  his  reign  about  1578  B.C.  He  was  inva- 
.  riably  called  Shedad-ben- Ad ;  who,  according  to  Arab  tra- 
dition, built  some  of  the  Pyramids  as  trophies  of  his  extensive 
victories  in  Africa.^  One  great  and  distant  expedition  under 
the  Himyarite  sovereign  Hareth-al-Raish,  had  recently  pro- 
ceeded towards  India ;  from  whence  much  booty  was  brought.* 
The  latter  But  Abrahah,    the   son  and   successor  of  Hareth-al-Raish, 

isvS.^  ^°'*'  turned  his  arms  towards  Africa,  and  having  penetrated  far  into 
Nigritia,  he  obtained  the  surname  of  Dhulmenar,  or  the  Man 
of  the  Spires  or  Pharos,  in  consequence  of  having  built  these 
towers,  which  were  said  to  have  been  intended  to  guide  his 
retreat ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  stations  and 
posts  to  protect  his  military  operations  and  contain  the  neces- 
sary supplies. 
Invasion  of         Dhuhncuar  was   succeeded  by  Afrikus,   who   undertook  a 

Abyssinia.  .  .  it~»i  /  i        o   k  ^  •    •   \        tt 

great  expedition  against  the  lierbers  (south  oi  Abyssinia).  He 
built  a  town  which  was  called  after  his  own  name,  and  he  car- 
ried his  arms  to  the  most  distant  part  of  the  habitable  world, 
or,  according  to  Hamadun,  as  far  as  Tangier.^ 

Afrikus  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alfeidar,  or  Dhalghanatir  ; 
meaning,  in  Himyari,  the  man  of  many  fingers.  Afterwards 
he  turned  his  arms  eastward,  but  died  in  'Irak  during  his 
expedition.  He  was  succeeded  by  Scharbabil,  and  the  latter 
by  El  Hodad. 

'  Arabic  MSS.,  No.  7353,  in  the  British  Museum,  traushited  by  Ahiys 
Sprenger,  M.D.  *  Ibid.,  7357. 

'•'  Makrizi,  translated  by  Ahiys  Sprenger,  M.D.,  from  MSS.  in  the  British 
JMuseum, 

■•  Schultens,  according  to  Hamza,  p.  23. 

*  Nowa'iri,  in  Schultens'  Hist.  Joctaindarum,  p.  25. 


CIIAr.  III.]  TRACES  OF  THE  HIMYARITES.  81 

About  this  period  a  remarkable  expedition  appears  to  have 
proceeded  under  Abil  Kurrub,  the  Himyarite,  who,  after  having 
invaded  India  and  Bactria,  founded  an  empire  in  the  latter 
territory,  the  capital  of  which  was  Samarcand.  This  city  w  as 
so  called  after  one  of  the  Arabian  princes  named  Shamar  ;  and, 
it  is  added,  one  inscription  was  placed  over  the  gate  of  Merv, 
and  ai^other  over  the  gate  of  China.'  The  kingdoms  of  Ghassan 
and  Hirah  were  afterwards  added  to  their  preceding  territories  ; 
so  that,  when  at  its  height,  the  Himyaritic  power  extended  from  Extent  of  the 
Bactria  and  India  to  Abyssinia,  and  again  from  the  extremity  power, 
of  Yemen  to  the  shores  of  S}Tia ;  thus  comprising  almost  the 
whole  of  the  dominions,  which  were  at  one  period  subject  to  the 
Cushites."  By  some,  however,  even  the  name  of  this  widely- 
spread  race  has  been  considered  apocryphal ;  but  it  should  be 
recollected  that  the  existence  of  the  Tobbai,  in  Arabia  at  least, 
does  not  depend  entirely  upon  tradition  ;  for  there  are  proofs 
that  a  civilized  people  existed  at  a  very  remote  period,  bearing 
this  appellation,  and  speaking  a  language  exclusively  their 
own — a  dialect  of  which  is  still  in  use  amongst  the  people  of 
Mahrah.^  It  is  no  longer  doubtful  that  they  also  had  a  peculiar 
written  character  of  great  antiquity  called  Suri  or  Syrian,^  and 
many  specimens  have  been  found  in  different  places,  but  more 
especially  in  Yemen.     Niebuhr  was  aware  of  the  existence  of  Himyan 

....  -^s'li  1  inscriptions 

inscriptions  m  an  unknown  character,  at  ban  a  and  other  places  ;  found  in 
but,  as  his  usually  persevering  researches  were  frustrated  by    ^'^'°" 
illness,   it  remained  for  Seetzen,  the   celebrated  discoverer  of 
Dj crash,  to  set  this  part  of  the  question  at  rest,  by  finding  them 
at  Dhafar,  one  of  the  places  w^hich  had  been  formerly  enume- 
rated ;^  and  not  far  fi'om  the  town  of  Jerim,  Seetzen  discovered 

'  P.  363  of  El-Mas'iidf's  Historical  Encyclopaedia,  translated  by  Aloys 
Sprenger,  M.D.    Allen  and  Co.,  Leadenhall  Street,  1841. 

*  See  above,  p.  18. 

'  "  Les  Arabes  de  Mehret  sont  de  race  non  raelangee.  Le  langage 
des  habitans  est  tellement  corrompu  qu'on  a  de  la  peine  a  les  comprendre, 
c'est  I'ancien  Himyarite." — Geog.  DEdrisi,  ed.  .Jaubert,  tome  I.,  p.  150; 
Recueil  de  Voyage  et  Meraoires,  &c.,  Paris,  1836. 

*  Dissertation  on  the  Newly-discovered  Babylonian  Inscriptions,  by  Joseph 
Hager,  D.D.,  p.  14. 

*  The  Sheikh  described  a  particular  stone,  to  Niebuhr,  as  liaving  an 
inscription   on   it,  which  neither  the  .Jews  nor  Muhammedans  could  read. 

VOL.  II.  G 


82  INSCRIPTIONS  FOUND  IN  YEMEN,  ETC.  [CHAP.  III. 

Also  at  three  such  inscriptions :  one  he  purchased,  and  a  second  was 

an. a.  an  ^^^p-^^ .  but  the  third  was  SO  deeply  embedded  in  a  wall,  that 
he  failed  in  the  attempt  to  copy  it.  Again  at  Mankat,  one 
hour  from  Dhafar,  this  lamented  traveller  met  with  five  other 
Himyari  inscriptions,  on  different  stones,  which  were  built  into 
the  wall  of  a  mosque.  Of  these,  only  two  were  copied,  the 
others  being  too  high  to  admit  of  being  deciphered.  Four  out 
of  the  five  were  on  white  marble,  in  relief ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that,  in  the  case  of  the  largest,  which  in  point  of  art  and 
execution  equals  any  Greek  inscription,  the  lines  are  attached 
to  strokes,  like  the  well-known  and  most  ancient  Devanagari 
Sanscrit  character.' 

In  1834  and  1835,  the  officers  of  the  Honourable  Com- 
pany's ship  "  Palinurus,"  under  Captain  S.  B.  Haines,  of  the 
Indian  Navy,  discovered,  near  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia, 
several  Himyari  inscriptions,  the  situations  of  which  are 
marked   on   the    survey    of  the    coast   made    by  this  officer/ 

on  the  namely,  at  Wadi  Sheikhavi,  in  51  E.L.,  also  near  Kas  Bag- 

ofVrabia^-*'^^  hashii,  in  50"  O'  30"  E.L.,  and  at  Hisn  Ghorab,  about  seventy 
miles  to  the  westward  of  Makallah ;  another,  again,  at  some 
little  distance  in  the  interior  near  the  ruins  of  Nakb-el  Hajar  f 
which  are  situated  in  Wadi  Meifah,  some  miles  north  of  Jebel 
Hamari.  The  third  and  fourth  were  separately  copied  by  two 
of  the  officers.  Lieutenants  Wellsted  *  and  Cruttenden,^  and 
published  by  the  former. 

likewise San'a.  Subsequently  Lieutenant  Cruttenden  had  the  good  fortune 
to  bring  before  the  world  two  others,  which  were  obtained  at 
San'a,  during  his  visit  to  that  city  in  1836.  One  of  these 
was  brought  from  a  spot  only  a  short  distance  from  the  house 

"  May  it  not  be  Himyaritic,"  adds  the  illustrious  Dane,  "  since  this  was  the 
site  of  Idaphar,  which,  according  to  ancient  historians,  was  a  royal  residence 
of  the  Himyaritic  kings?" — Niebuhr,  vol.  III.,  p.  83.     Amsterdam,  1774. 

'  Seetzen's  Letter  to  Von  Hammer,  Fundgruben  des  Orients,  tome  II., 
p.  275. 

*  See  vol.  IX.,  part  i.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

=•  14"  4'  30 '  N.  lat.,  and  47'  4'  30"  E.  long.— Ibid. 

■*  See  Lieut.  J.  R.  Wellsted's  Travels  in  'Oman  and  Arabia,  vol.  II., 
pp.  421,  426. 

'  The  copies  made  by  Lieut.  Cruttenden  are  deposited  in  the  East  India 
House. 


CHAP.  III.J  OTHER  TRACES  OF  THE  HIMYARITES.  83 

that  had  been  occupied  by  the  famous  Niebuhr  himself.  It  is  Ji^^el'^"'^  "^'^ 
therefore  very  possible  that  other  such  inscriptions  may  still  be 
found  in  that  country,  and  it  is  even  said  that  there  were  some 
amongst  the  ruins  of  the  bund  near  Mareb.  This  celebrated 
structure  was,  we  are  informed,  built  of  cut  stone,  secured  by 
iron  cramps,  forming  a  prodigious  mass  of  masonry,  300  cubits 
broad,  and  about  two  miles  long,  being  the  distance  across  the 
mountain  valley,  where,  as  is  the  case  with  similar  works  on  the 
north-west  side  of  India,  particularly  at  Oedipore,  an  immense 
body  of  water  was  collected  from  the  different  Wadis.  Whilst 
perfect,  an  ample  supply  of  Mater  was  at  command,  not  only  for 
irrigation,  but  for  ordinary  purposes  also ;  and  upon  the  dyke 
itself  there  were,  according  to  the  Arabs,  inscriptions  in  the 
Musnad  character.^  On  some  of  the  stones,  which  have  been 
brought  from  that  place  in  preference  to  preparing  others  at 
San  a,  Himyaritic  characters  have  been  found  ;  with  which  may 
be  coupled  the  interesting  fact,  that  the  locality  in  question  is 
called  Ard-es-Saba,^  which  goes  far  to  prove  that  this  was  the  Mareb,  the 
ancient  Saba.^  Three  of  the  inscriptions  copied  by  Lieutenant  ^^"^^^"^ 
Cruttenden,  I.N.,  are  in  relief,  and  the  fourth  deeply  cut  into 
marble :  the  letters  are  about  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  and 
are  exactly  in  the  same  character  as  that  which  was  used  at 
Nakb-el  Hajar. 

Another  was  found  near  the  Himyaritic  sea-port  of  'Aden  in 
1842.  It  is  on  a  circular  slab  of  pure  white  marble,  having  a 
raised  rim  round  it ;  and,  being  less  carefully  executed,  it  pro- 
bably belongs  to  a  later  period  than  those  already  noticed.^ 

Monumental  traces  of  the  Himyarites  are  not,  however,  by 
any  means  confined  to  their  original  seat  in  Western  Arabia  ; 
they  are  also  found  in  distant  countries,   both   eastward  and  Himj-an 
westward.     Beyond  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  forAfSauT''* 

Asia. 
'  Antiquities  of  Yemen,  from  an  Arabic  MS.  in  the  British  Museum, 
translated  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D.,  No.  1496. 

*  The  land  of  Sheba. — Journal  of  the  Royal  Geograpliical  Society,  vol. 
VIII.,  p.  268. 

^  Mareb  was  the  capital  of  the  country  of  Saba. — See  Golius  in  Alphergan, 
p.  86. 

*  Captain  Haines'  Letter  to  J.  P.  Willoughby,  Esq.,  Secretary  to  the 
Government  of  Bombay. 

G   2 


84 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  HIMYARITIC  INSCRIPTIONS      [cHAP.  III. 


Antiquity  of 
the 


Cuneatic  and 

Himvari 

characters. 


Common 
origin  of  the 
Shemitic 
tongues. 


instance ;  in  the  latter  direction,  Jasasin  'Ibn  Amru,  the  Him- 
yarite,  conducted  an  expedition  into  Africa,  as  far  as  the  valley 
of  Sand,  and  even  further,  when  the  advanced  body  under  his 
generals,  perished.  To  commemorate  this  event,  Jasasin 
ordered  a  metal  statue  to  be  placed  on  a  stone,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion in  the  Himyari  character.^  The  affinity  of  the  Devana- 
gari  Sanscrit  to  the  Himyari,  as  well  as  the  existence  of  an 
inscription  at  Samarcand,  have  been  already  noticed.  The 
characters  on  the  Bactrian  coins,  also  appear  to  have  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  in  question.  And  it  is  still  more  extra- 
ordinary that  almost  at  the  very  antipodes  of  Samarcand,  cha- 
racters have  been  found,  whose  similarity  bespeaks  a  common 
origin.^  So  far  as  success  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the  learned 
in  deciphering  them,  the  Himyaritic  inscriptions  are  of  very 
remote  antiquity,  and  possibly  it  may  be  found  that  the  inscrip- 
tions in  question,  are  more  ancient  than  the  Assyrian  letters  of 
Pliny  f  consequently,  that  they  were  in  use  previously  to  the 
Cuneatic  letters.  In  this  case,  the  language  connected  with 
the  former  may  have  been  the  parent  of  many  tongues  belong- 
ing to  the  various  races,  which  are,  as  it  were,  so  many  recog- 
nised branches  spreading  from  the  parent  stem,  and  showing  in 
almost  every  instance  an  affinity  to  the  root  itself. 

The  most  numerous  are  the  simple  or  monosyllabic  branches, 
which  prevail  throughout  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Asia  and 
the  greatest  part  of  America  and  Africa. 

The  second  are,  for  the  most  part,  dissyllabic,  combining  at 
the  same  time  some  grammatical  construction ;  and  to  these 
belong  the  Persian,  the  Grecian,  the  Latin,  and  the  Teutonic 
tongues,  &c. 

The  third,  or  trisyllabic  roots,  appertain  to  the  race  now 
more  particularly  under  consideration,  namely,  the  Shemitic 
family,  to  which  belong  the  Sanscrit,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  Syriac, 
Phoenician,''  Canaanitish,^  Pehlavi,  the  Ethiopic  of  Habashi,  or 


*  Schultens,  p.  25,  according  to  Hamza. 

*  Mr.  AValdeck's  new  '.vork  on  Yacuta.  =*  Lib.  VII.,  pp.  236,  238. 

*  Both  of  these  languages  are  derived  from  Babylonia.  —  Dissertation  on 
the  Newly-discovered  Babylonian  Inscription,  by  Joseph  Hager,  D.D., 
p.  14. 


CHAP.  III.]  THE  SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES,  85 

Abyssinia,  with  the  Cufic ;  and  especially  the  mixed  language 
and  square  character  of  the  children  of  Heber.  The  last 
appears  to  have  been  the  result  of  an  intercourse  between  the 
Shemites  and  Cushites  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  after  the  arrival 
of  Abraham. 

This  patriarch  no  doubt  preserved  his  own  language  whilst  Derivation  of 
he  remained  in  Babylonia,  as  well  as  subsequently  in  Haran ;  from  Chaidee 
but  that  a  change  took  place  after  his  departure  from  the  latter  ^^ 
city,  is  almost  capable  of  demonstration.  We  find  Laban, 
during  the  journey  in  pursuit  of  his  relatives,  used  the  pure 
Chaidee,  "  Jegar  Sahadutha,"  for  the  heap  of  stones  which 
had  been  raised;  whilst  Jacob  calls  it  by  the  Hebrew  word 
Galeed.'  It  may  be  inferred  from  the  former  circumstance, 
that  the  Chaidee  was  the  language  of  Abraham  up  to  the  time 
of  his  departure,  and  that  the  change  took*  place  in  Canaan. 
This,  it  is  supposed,  occurred  in  consequence  of  mixing  Chaidee 
with  the  existing  language  of  the  country,  and  also  with  that  of 
Hagar,  who  was  a  Cushite.  In  this  way,  therefore,  the  Chaidee 
Arabic  dialect,  together  w^th  its  cognates,  Syriac,  Samaritan, 
Phoenician,  Ethiopic,  &c.,  is  presumed  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  ancient  Arabic  of  the  Canaanites,  &c.,  which  was 
spoken  by  Abraham  and  his  family  with  a  Chaldean  pronun- 
ciation :  moreover,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  present  Hebrew 
characters  are  of  Chaidee  origin.^ 

At  the  period  more  particularly  alluded  to,  namely,  between  Epoch  of  the 
the  departure  of  Jacob,    or  rather  the  trial  of  Job,  1801  B.C.,  zation  in 
and  that  of  the   supposed  time  of  the  death  of  the  latter,  be-    ^^  '*' 
tween  1651  and  1640  B.C.,   the  principal  provinces  of  Arabia 
appear  to  have  been  in  their  most  advanced  state  of  civilization  ; 
this  was  probably  derived   from  two  races  of  people,  namely, 
from  the  followers  of  Kahtan,  who  settled  in  Yemen,  &c.,  and 
at  a  subsequent  period  from  those  of  Abraham  and  Lot.     The 
written  character  of  each  branch  has  been  preserved ;  and  that 
still  in  use,  namely  the  Hebrew,  seems  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  older  and  more  remote  or  Himyaritic  branch,  which  is 
now  almost  extinct. 

'  Or  Galgnedh. — Gen.,    chap.   XXXI.,    v.    47,   48 ;    Jennings'   Jewish 
Antiq.,  vol.  II.,  p.  331.  ^  Explanation  by  Mr.  Rassam. 


86 


COMMON  ORIGIN  OF  EASTERN  DIALECTS.         [cHAP.  III. 


The  -eastern 
and  western 
dialects  had 
one  common 
origin. 


Besides  a  sufficient  affinity  both  in  the  roots  and  verbs  of 
eastern  and  western  languages  to  indicate  that  they  had  one 
common  origin,  it  also  appears,  from  the  high  authority  of  Sir 
William  Jones,  that  the  square  Chaldaic  letters  in  which  most 
Hebrew  books  are  copied,  were  originally  the  same,  or  derived 
from  the  same  protot}^pe,  as  the  Indian  and  Arabian  characters  ; 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Phoenician  had  a  similar 


orio:in. 


Another  well-known  philologer,  in  his  learned  researches, 
speaking  of  one  of  the  oldest  tongues  extant,  observes,  that  the 
Sanscrit  draws  its  origin,  and  that  some  steps  of  its  progress 
may  be  traced,  from  a  primitive  language  which  was  gradually 
refined  in  various  climates,  and  became  Sanscrit  in  India, 
Pehlavi  in  Persia,  and  Greek  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 


ranean. 


^  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  I.,  p.  423. 

*  H.  T.  Colebrooke,  Esq.,  vol.  I.,  p.  201  of  Asiatic  Researches. 


(    87     ) 


CHAPTER  IV. 


GLANCE  AT  THE  PHCENICIAN,  EGYPTIAN,  JEWISH,  AND  ARABIAN 
HISTORIES,  FROM  B.C.   1623  TO  B.C.    1322. 


Successive  Colonies  proceed  from  Arabia  into  Eg-ypt. — Commerce  of  the 
Eg-yptians  maintained  principally  by  Land. — The  Sepulchres  furnish  a 
Pictorial  Plistory  of  the  Country. — Cotton,  Linen,  Porcelain,  and  other 
Manufactures. — Alphabetical  Writing  in  use  antecedently  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Pyramids. —Costumes  of  the  various  People. — Rich  Hangings 
and  Carpets  manufactured. — Dyeing  in  use ;  also  Metals,  Chariots,  and 
Household  Utensils. — System  of  Cultivation  pictorially  represented. — 
Use  of  the  Himyaritic  character  by  the  Arabs  in  the  time  of  Joseph. — 
Agricultural  Products,  and  Caravan  Trade  to  distant  Countries. — Pro- 
ducts and  Caravan  Trade  of  the  Phoenicians. — Position  of  their  Territory. 
■ — Settlements  of  the  Phoenicians  previously  to  the  coming  of  the  Shepherds. 
—Commencement  of  Sea  Navigation  and  rise  of  Tyre. — Colonies  planted 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic,  &c. — Rapid  rise  of  the  Egyptians  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Shepherds. — The  Egyptians  become  Jealous  of  the 
Hebrews. — Forced  Servitude  of  the  latter. — Commencement  of  their 
flight  from  the  Land  of  Goshen. — Pursued  by  Pharaoh. — Passage  of  the 
Red  Sea,  near  Suez. — Advanced  state  of  the  Edomites  and  Midianites. — 
Jethro  visits  Moses. — Arab  Polity  made  tiie  basis  of  Moses'  Government. 
— Moses  conducts  the  People  to  Mount  Sinai. — Promulgation  of  the  Moral 
Law. — Guided  by  Hobab,  the  Israelites  advance  to  Kadesh-Barnea,  and 
the  southern  borders  of  Canaan. — Retreat  from  thence  after  being  de- 
feated by  the  Amalekites. — Destruction  of  Korah  and  his  Companions. — 
Journey  to  Ezion  Geber  and  Mount  Hor ;  and  eventually  to  the  foot  of 
Mount  Pisgah. — Limited  extent  of  the  country  traversed  during  the 
Exodus. — Passage  of  the  Jordan. — Some  of  the  ancient  Inhabitants  are 
driven  into  Egypt,  others  settle  in  Armenia. — War  between  Armenia 
and  Assyria. — Progress  of  the  Egyptian  Kingdom. — Sesostris  and  his 
Conquests. 

A  STATE  of  civilization  approaching   that  mentioned    in  the  Successive 
preceding  chapter  as  belonging  to  the  Himyarites,   had  long  Arabia V°™ 
prevailed   in  the    neighbouring  country   of  Egypt ;    to   which  ^^^^ 
kingdom  the  tide  of  emigration  had  been  constantly  flowing 


88 


ANCIENT  MONUMENTS  OF  EGYPT.  [CHAP.  IV. 


from  Arabia  and  Syria:  and  Egypt  being  a  source  of  parti- 
cular attraction  to  the  people  of  the  former  country,  it  appears 
that,  down  to  a  comparatively  late  period,  a  succession  of  colo- 
nies were  continually  entering  it  by  the  Straits  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  ; — while  the  colonies,  which  quitted  this  country  and 
Phcenicia  during  the  period  now  to  be  noticed,  were  the  means 
of  spreading  knowledge  to  countries  more  remote. 

The  settlement  of  the  bulk  of  the  fugitive  shepherds  amongst 
the  Phoenicians  naturally  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  latter  people,  by  the  necessity  of  finding  employ- 
ment and  additional  outlets  for  the  new  comers  ;  and  at  this 
time,  circumstances  were  peculiarly  favom-able  for  emigration. 
Land  com-  The  deficiency  of  timber  suitable   for   the  construction  of 

"y'the^"''"^'^  vessels,  and  the  aversion  of  the  Egyptians  to  undertake  long 
^rSenceto   "^'oyag^s,  greatly  limited  the  Jiavigation  of  that  people;  but  so 
that  of  the  sea.  advautagcous  was  the  situation,  and  so  vast  the  resources  of  the 
country,  that  it  maintained  commercial  intercourse,  chiefly  by 
land,  with  nearly  all  the  known  parts  of  the  world ;  for  which 
its  agricultural  and  other  products  furnished  ample  means. 

The  compartments  of  the  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Egypt 
exhibit,  in  colouring  still  vivid,  the  history  and  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Xile,  with  a  fidelity  which 
leaves  little  to  desire  regarding  their  architecture,  sculpture, 
painting,  and  hieroglyphics,  as  well  as  their  social  state. 

The  fine  linen,  dyed  cottons,  and  stuffs  enveloping  the 
mummies,  together  with  the  finished  specimens  of  porcelain, 
the  golden  ornaments,  and  the  rolls  of  papyri,  which  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  sarcophagi,  establish  the  fact  that  the 
corresponding  manufactures  and  arts,  alphabetical  writing 
included,^  must  have  been  in  use  amongst  the  inhabitants  of 
this  kingdom  antecedently  to  the  construction  of  the  great 
Pyramids. 

'  Three  different  characters  were  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;  viz.,  the 
hieroglyphic  or  monumental,  the  hieratic,  and  enchorial.  The  second,  which 
was  more  particularly  that  of  the  priests,  appears  to  have  been  taken  from 
the  hieroglyphic,  and  it  dates  from  a  very  remote  era ;  but  the  use  of  the 
enchorial,  which  is  derived  from  the  hieratic,  does  not  appear  to  go  further 
back  than  the  accession  of  the  Ptolemies. — Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians, 
vol.  II.,  p.  13. 


Agriculture, 
sculptures, 
paintiug,  &c. 


CHAP.  IV.]    WEAVING,  DYEING,  AND  OTHER  ARTS  OF  EGYPT.  89 

In  some  of  the  cemeteries,  and  with  colours  ahnost  as  fresh  ^y^^>  *="^"  , 

tumes,  carpets, 

as  when  first  applied,  are  shown  the  various  costumes  of  the  &c.,  of  the 
priests,  husbandmen,  artisans,  and  other  classes  of  people.     In  Egyptians, 
others  are  depicted  rich  hangings   and   bright   carpets,   with 
coloured  thread  and  golden  wire   interwoven,^   such  as  may 
have  served  as  models  to  the  Israelites,  when  preparing  the 
costly  materials  for  the  tabernacle." 

In  addition  to  weaving  and  various  other  manufactures,  the 
art  of  dyeing  was  far  advanced,  the  materials  for  this  purpose 
being,  in  all  probability,  brought  from  distant  parts  of  the 
world ;  and,  in  the  pictorial  history  of  the  country,  one  of  the 
kings  is  represented  attired  in  magnificent  robes,  offering  gold 
and  silver  to  the  gods.  These  metals  are  said  to  have  been 
drawn  annually  fron\  the  mines  to  the  value  of  thirty-two 
millions  f  and  so  abundant  were  they,  that'  they  were  used  by 
Osiris  in  the  formation  of  implements  of  husbandry.'' 

Other  metals,  including  iron,^  w^ere  used  for  architecture  and  Their  warlike 
for  warlike  implements.  The  chariots,  particularly  from  their  and  household 
light  construction,  seem  to  have  been  of  brass.^  utensils. 

These,  as  well  as  the  ordinary  articles  of  household  furniture, 
such  as  couches,  vases,  tripods,  baskets,  glass,  and  vessels  of 
earthenware,  all  betoken  a  state  of  refinement  in  the  arts  which 


'  Goguet,  Origin  of  Laws,  &c.,  vol.  II.,  p.  86.  Carpets  were  in  use  in 
Egypt,  and  a  small  rug  has  been  brought  to  England :  it  was  found  at 
Thebes,  and  is  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Hay. — Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians, 
vol.  II.,  p.  190,  and  vol.  III.,  p.  141. 

*  Exodus,  chap.  V.  Those  who  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  examin- 
ing the  monuments  of  Egypt,  will  have  the  means  of  judging  of  these  repre- 
sentations by  inspecting  the  great  work  of  Denon,  or  that  of  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson,  on  tlie  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  which  is 
equally  interesting  and  faithful. 

^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  v.  compared  withWilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians, 
&c.,  vol.  I.,  pp.  232,  233. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Colonel  Howard  Vyse  discovered  a  piece  of  iron  in  the  midst  of  the 
masonry  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  which  he  thinks  could  only  have  been  placed 
there  when  that  monument  was  erected. 

®  This  metal  was  largely  used  by  the  Israelites  in  the  construction  of  the 
altar  of  sacrifice,  &c.,  and  was  probably  brouglit  from  Egypt  by  them 
amongst  the  spoil.     Exod.,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  3,  and  chap.  XXVII. 


90 


ANCIENT  INSCRIPTION  IN  YEMEN. 


[chap.  IV. 


Himyari  in- 
scription dis- 
covered in 
Yemen. 


has  scarcely  been  surpassed  in  modern  times.     Such  articles 
are  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Menes.^ 
Agriculture         Paintings  in  relief  represent  the  busy  occupations  of  lading 
occupations  of  and  Unlading  the  boats  employed  in  the  traffic  along  the  Nile ; 
the  Egyptians,  ^jjgy  ^]gQ  g^QW  the  nature  of  the  products,    as  well   as   the 
various  employments  of  the  husbandmen,  from  simple  irriga- 
tion to  the  completion  of  the  process  of  cultivation,  whether  of 
cotton,  flax,  barley,  rye,  or  wheat.^     In  the  days  of  Joseph 
supplies    of  corn   were    drawn   from    Egypt    to    appease    the 
famine  which  prevailed  in  Judea,^  and  about  the  same  time, 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Arabia  \  where,  according  to  an  inscrip- 
tion stated    to    have  been   found  in  Yemen,  the  agricultural 
products  of  Egypt  were  sought  at  any  price. 

During  the  viceroyalty  of  Abderahmen,  who  governed 
Yemen  in  the  reign  of  Moawiyah,  the  first  of  the  Ommiadan 
Caliphs,  between  the  fortieth  and  fiftieth  year  of  the  Hijrah, 
a  torrent  laid  bare  a  sepulchre,  containing  the  body  of  a  female, 
who  had  been  interred  with  regal  splendour.  A  seven-stringed 
necklace  of  the  richest  pearls  adorned  her  bosom.  Her  arms 
and  legs  were  ornamented  with  bracelets,  armlets,  and  anklets, 
seven  of  each  ;  on  each  finger  was  a  ring,  also  set  with  a  valuable 
gem.  A  casket  filled  with  treasure  was  placed  at  her  head,  and 
also  a  tablet  containing  the  following  singular  inscription : — 

"In  thy  name,  O  God,  the  God  of  Himyar,  I  Tajah, 
daughter  of  Dhu  Shefar,  sent  my  purveyor  to  Egypt ;  but  he 
delaying  his  return,  I  sent  my  handmaid  with  a  bushel  of  silver 
to  bring  me  back  a  bushel  of  flour.  I  next  sent  a  measure  of 
gold,  and  again  a  measure  of  pearls ;  but  receiving  nothing  for 
support,  I  am  shut  up  here.  Let  those  who  hear  my  story 
learn  to  commiserate  my  fate ;  and  should  any  woman  covet 
and  use  one  of  my  ornaments,  may  she  die  the  same  death  by 
which  I  have  perished." 

The  preceding  account  claims  a  particular  interest  in  con- 
sequence of  the  approximative  date  which  has  been  ascertained 
from  it.     It  is  clear  that  the  Himyari  character  was  in  use 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv. 

*  Exod.,  chap.  IX.,  V.  31,  32  ;  Plin.,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  i. 

"  Gen.,  chap.  XLL,  v.  57;  XLIL,  v.  1,  2,  5;  and  XLIV.,  v.  1. 


CHAP.  IV.]    EARLY  INTERCOURSE  BETWEEN  ARABIA  AND  EGYPT.     91 

among  the  Arabs,  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Joseph ; '  Ancient 
also  that  a  mercantile  intercourse  was  maintained  with  Egypt  Arabia.*" 
at  that  period,  probably  through  the  port  of  Philoteras  on  the 
Red  Sea,  near  Kosseir,  as  well  as  by  land.  The  supposed 
exchange  of  a  measure  of  silver,  gold,  or  pearls,  for  a  similar 
quantity  of  flour,  expresses  in  powerful  though  figurative  language 
the  misery  of  Arabia  during  the  famine  of  that  period. 

'  The  original  Arabic  of  Ibn  Heshani  Firanzabidius,  which  was  copied  for 
the  author  by  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  is  here  given  from  Albert  Schul tens' 
Monumenta  Yetustiora  Arabiae,  p.  67,  and  note.  Leyden,  in  Batavorum  apud 
Johannem  Luzac.     MDCCXL: — 

X[ji  Ai  \^,i  j^\  ]j^  Duuc  ''-'j^..  %rf*  ^V^ 

V  ^aib^]  tjl  Ju:  LooU  Ijl  IjoJAJi  liyb  ^^J  ^J^  U)  ^^juj 
&^^'  ^  ^J;:^*i  (J  U^  UUii           ♦^Ij  C^l^  lJCjU  ^^yj 

V  ^  As-L  c\A*j  ^^  «u]l*«  UjUj  lIj  ^^1  ^       [^ 

'i-jsJ^  Ij  J' j-UaJ  1  ^jj^  Ij  (»- ^Jil  I  jJLc 


92  LAND  TRADE  OF  THE  EARLY  PHCENICIANS.       [CHAP.  IV. 

Abundance  of  corn  had,  in  fact,  made  Egypt  the  principal 
granary  of  the  adjacent  kingdoms,  and  this  branch  of  trade,  as 
well  as  that  arising  from  the  manufactures  of  the  country,  was 
carried  on  by  means  of  several  great  routes,  which  diverged 
from  that  kingdom  to  every  part  of  the  world  then  known  ; 
thus  facilitating  commercial  intercourse  among  the  remotest 
nations. 

Caravan  trade      Xhe  products  brought  by  caravans  from  the  western  and 

Egypt.  southern  parts  of  Afi'ica,  together  with  those  conveyed  along 

the  Nile  from  the  tracts  about  its  sources,  found  a  central 
point  on  the  lower  part  of  this  river,  from  whence  they  were 
transported  by  other  caravans  into  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Phoe- 
nicia ;  thus  embracing,  particularly  through  the  latter  territory, 
a  trade  in  gold,  spices,  and  slaves  with  the  eastern  part  of  the 
old  world. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  first  Cushites  had  already  spread 
from  Asia  Minor  towards  the  Peloponnesus,^  also  to  Syria, 
Arabia,  and  Egypt,  and  again  eastward  and  northward  from 
Mesopotamia.  Colonies  from  the  same  race  being  thus  spread 
over  the  greatest  part  of  the  world,  naturally  caused  the  inter- 
course which  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Job  and  the  Himyarites, 

"^iiespread of  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  commerce  carried  on  by  the 

prepares         Cauaauitish  branch  of  this  people 

Phoenicia  possessed  manufactories  of  glass,  golden  orna- 
ments, linen  and  woollen  stuffs ;  but  it  was  celebrated  above  all 
for  its  matchless  dyes.  These  formed  the  basis  of  an  enriching 
trade,  which  was  carried  by  the  enterprising  people  of  that 
country  into  many  regions ;  amongst  which  Egypt  seems  to 
have  held  the  first  place,  since  the  Phosnicians  had  a  com- 
mercial depot  in  the  capital  itself — one  entire  quarter  of 
Memphis,  called  the  Camp,  having  been  occupied  by  the 
Tyrians.^ 

the  way  for         Besides  the  traffic  through  Egypt  to  the  interior  of  Africa, 

commerce.  o  oj  r  ^  i 

also  to  Yemen  and  Hadramaut,  there  were  two  principal  lines 
which  may  have  been  almost  coeval  with  the  dispersion  of 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  344  ;  also  Herod.,  lib.  T.,  cap.  xciv.,  and  lib.  VII., 
c.  viii.  xi.  *  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  cxii. 


f 


CHAP.  IV.]  EARLY  COLONIES  OF  THE  PHCENICIANS.  93 

mankind :    one  of  these   took    a  northern    direction    through  Different 


caravan 


Asia  Minor  towards  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  from  whence  it  routes, 
penetrated  into  Central  Asia/  The  second,  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  most  ancient,  sought  the  rich  products  of  Baby- 
lonia and  those  of  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,"  which 
doubtless  included,  in  the  latter  case,  other  eastern  countries 
also ;  since  by  this  route  the  silks,  spices,  and  other  valuable 
merchandize  of  India,  found  their  way  to  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  through  the  emporiums  of  Tadmor  and  Ba'albek, 
which  afterwards  sprang  up  to  facilitate  the  transport  of  mer- 
chandize. The  pre-eminence  of  Phosnicia  in  commerce  and 
civilization  was,  however,  as  much  owing  to  the  enterprise  of  Situation  of 
its  people  as  to  its  geographical  position;  since  the  tract  in 
question  consists  merely  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  with  the 
elevated  range  of  Lebanon  on  one  side  and^  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  on  the  other,  ^  without  any  particular  advantages  in  respect 
of  harbours. 

The    island   colony   of  Aradus   was   situated   towards   the 
northern  extremity  of  Phoenicia,  and  to  this  succeeded,  nearly 
at  equal  intervals  in  following  the  coast  southward,  Tripolis, 
Byblus,  with  the  earlier  capital  Sidon,  which  was  called  after 
the  first-born  son  of  Canaan ;  finally,  at  the  southern  extremity.  Separate 
the  daughter  of  Sidon,  the  celebrated  city  of  Tyre.     With  the  g^'tfso™^^" 
exception   of  some   commercial    connexion,   these   settlements  P^os'^cia. 
were  at  first  separate  kingdoms  or  states;  consisting,  in  each 
case,    of  a   particular   city  with  a   certain  tract   of  territory 
attached;    but  all,  in   the  sequel,  became  in  some   measure 
dependent  on  Tyre,  and  were  united  in  one  common  worship, 
that  of  the  Tyrian  Hercules.     The  latter  city,   Paloe-Tyrus, 
appears  to  have  been  built  on  the  mainland,*  but  it  is  stated 
that  a  castle  had  been  founded  about  2740  b.c.^ 

This    structure,    as  well  as  the  Temple    of  Hercules,   was  Castie  of 
no  doubt  situated  on  the  island  to  which   in  this,  as  in  other  ^^^^' 

'  Ezekiel,  chap.  XXVII. 

*  The   Phoenicians   were   descended    from    the  Erytlireans.       Dionvsius, 
Perieg.,  V.,  305. 

^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  539. 

*  Vol.  I.,  p.  481.  '  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xliv. 


96  FIRST  SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE  PH(ENICIANS.       [CHAP.  IV. 

He  continued  his  expedition  by  the  invasion  of  Spain,  and 

having  overcome  Chrysaor,  the   father  of  Geryon,  he  carried 

off  as  booty  the  oxen  of  the  latter,  which  are  made  to  represent 

Hercnies        the  gold  of  the  country,  and  then  returned  towards  Phoenicia 

iaS°^  ^       by  way  of  Gaul,  ^  Italy,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 

Notwithstanding   the  obscurity  of  Phoenician   history,   and 

the    mystery  in  which   that   people    enveloped    their    earliest 

enterprises,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  principal  events  have 

been  preserved  in  the  preceding  mythological  version. 

The  more  distant  enterprises  were  not  undertaken  till  the 
dominion  of  the  Phoenicians  was  firmly  established  over  the 
eastern  islands  of  the  Mediterranean;  yet  from  incidental  cir- 
cumstances it  would  appear  that  Cadiz  in  Spain,  Utica,  Leptis, 
and  some  other  settlements  in  the  northern  shores  of  Africa, 
were  founded  about  three  centuries  anterior  to  Carthage.^ 

It  will  elsewhere  be  seen  that  on  accomit  of  the  mines,  Tar- 
tessus  and  the  rest  of  the  southern  part  of  Iberia  became  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  Phoenician  settlements,  and  Cadiz 
became  one   of  the   ports  from    which   distant  voyages  were 
undertaken.     These,  as  regards  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa, 
and  also  the  Ophirian  voyages,  were  probably  based  upon  the 
extensive  caravan  lines,  by  w^hich  sufficient  geographical  know- 
Trade  by  land  ledge   must  have  been  obtained  to  prepare   the  way  for   the 
voyages  of  the  daring  expeditions  of  the  Phoenicians  by  sea. 
Phoeuicians.         Although    the   advancement  of  the   Egyptians   must   have 
been  seriously  retarded  by  the  protracted  contests,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  expulsion  of  the  shepherds,  it  will  be  seen  that, 
subsequently  to  this  event,  the  progress  of  that  people  became 
very  rapid. 
B.C.  1672.  About  137  years  after  the  period  when  Joseph  had  been 

all-powerful  in  Egypt,  the  increasing  numbers  of  the  Hebrews 

'  From  a  recent  translation  made  by  Mons.  S.  Munk,  of  the  Plianician 
inscription  at  Marseilles,  it  appears  that  it  contained  various  regulations,  de- 
scribing with  much  detail  the  manner  of  conducting  the  sacrifices  in  a  temple 
of  Ba'al,  which  a  Phoenician  or  Carthaginian  population  at  one  time  possessed 
in  that  city.  Journal  Asiatique,  pour  Novembre  et  Decembre,  1847,  pp. 
473-532. 

*  Compare  Bocliart,  Geog.  Sacra,  V.,  p.  373,  with  Velleius  Paterculus,  I., 
p.  2,  and  Aristotle,  de  Mirabil.,  c.  cxlvi. ;  also  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  V.,  cap.  XV. 


CHAP.  IV.]  STATE  OF  THE  ISRAELITES  IN  EGYPT.  97 

had  awakened  the  jealousy  and  even  the  alarm  of  the  people ;  Jealousy  of 
or,   as  it  is   expressed,    "there   arose  a  king  who    knew   not^  *^   gyptians. 
Joseph;'"  and  Amosis  or  Chebran,  the  reigning  Pharaoh,  as 
the  surest  means  of  guarding  against  danger,  determined  to 
reduce  them  to  a  state  of  servitude,  instead  of  considering  them,  Tasks  and 

mi  1  1  p     T         1  boudageofthe 

as   heretofore,   his    guests,      ihe   descendants    oi    Jacob    now  Israelites. 
became  the   working   population  of  the  country:   oppressive 
tasks    were    allotted  to   them,    the    fulfilment   of    which    was 
rigorously  exacted. 

The  people  continued  in  this  state  about  eighty-eight  years, 
during  which  time  of  real  bondage  their  patriarchal  form  of 
government  does  not  appear  to  have  been  altered ;  the  tasks, 
weighty  enough  doubtless,  were  distributed  by  their  own 
officers;-    and    the    superintendance    was    left  to  the  Hebrew  1^'^^^*^'^ V^*^^"* 

'  r  ^  ^  _  the  superm- 

Shoterim,  under  the  general  direction  of  Egyptian  overseers,  tendence  of 
That  the  daily  provisions  were  ample,  is  suflSciently  evident  officers. . 
from  the  subsequent  recollections  of  Egypt,  and  the  reproach 
addressed  by  the  people  to  their  leader,  that  "they  had  eaten 
bread  to  the  full "  when  in  Egypt.^ 

The  mighty  signs  and  wonders  performed  through  the 
agency  of  Moses,  in  the  region  of  Zoan  *  or  Tanis,  having  at 
length  convinced  Pharaoh  that  the  children  of  Israel  were  B.C.  i584. 
under  the  special  protection  of  an  omnipotent  Power  they 
were  permitted  to  depart ;  therefore,  taking  their  flocks  and 
all  that  was  theirs,  they  journeyed  from  Rameses  to  Succoth.^ 

The  traveller  who  is  acquainted  with  these  localities  can  Position  of 
scarcely  feel  any  difficulty  in  identifying  the  tract  lying  along  Goshen, 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile  with  the  land  of  Goshen,  or 
Geshen,  meaning  the  pasture  country,  which  from  the  foray 
made  by  Zabad  and  others  against  the  cattle  of  the  men  of 
Gath,^  was  evidently  the  nearest  part  of  Egypt  to  Palestine, 
for  it  is  clear  that  the  foray  took  place  before  the  Hebrews 
quitted  the  country,  and  whilst  they  still  retained  their 
pastoral  character. 

On  account  of  its  numerous  branch  canals,  Esh  Shurke'yeh,  now  Esh 

*'  Shurkeyeh. 

'  Exod.,  chap.  I.,  v.  8.  *  Exod.,  chap.  V.,  v.  14. 

'  Exod.,  chap.  XVI.,  V.  3.  *  Psalm  LXXVJII.,  v.  12,  43. 

'  Exod.,  chap.  XII.,  v.  37,  38.  «  1  Chroii.,  chap.  VII.,  v.  21. 
VOL.  II.  H 


98  DEPARTURE  OF  THE  ISRAELITES.  [cHAP.  IV. 

the  supposed  representative  of  the  pasture  country,  is  one  of 
the  richest  portions  of  the  Delta:  such  also  it  must  have  been 
in  former  times,  when  watered  by  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the 
Nile  ;  and  the  position  of  this  tract  coincides  much  better  with 
the  circumstances  attending  the  Exodus  than  any  locality 
higher  up  the  Nile. 

Ancient  Hieropolis,  or  Eameses,  is  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  supposed  pasture  country,  and,  making  a  trifling  circuit,  it 
is  about  fifty  miles  from  thence  to  the  sea  of  Suez.  The  first 
stage  was  Succoth,  which,  as  the  name  seems  to  indicate,  was 
Flight  of  the  most  likely  an  encampment  of  booths;  and  the  second  was  at 
srae  ites,  Etham,  ou  the  borders  of  the  wilderness,  both  places  being 
apparently  within  the  limits  of  Goshen ;  for  it  was  only  when 
the  Israelites  were  about  to  pass  the  borders,  that  Pharaoh 
hastened  after  the  fugitives,  either  from  Zoan  or  Memphis, 
but  probably  from  the  former.  The  desert  (called  Shur),^ 
which  the  Hebrews  had  now  reached,  evidently  commenced 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  whose  waters  pro- 
bably extended  farther  at  that  time  than  at  present,  in  the  line 
now  partly  occupied  by  the  bitter  lakes.  Etham  may,  there- 
fore, have  been  at  the  extremit)^  of  the  ancient  inlet,  perhaps 
only  a  few  miles  to  the  north-west  of  its  present  termination, 
near  Suez ;  so  that,  in  following  the  direct  line  towards  Pales- 
tine, the  Hebrews,  after  touching  the  sea  at  the  place  in 
question,  would  have  passed  at  once  into  the  wilderness. 
and  pursuit  by  Pharaoh  haviiig  been  apprized  that  the  three  days'  journey 
Pharao  ,  ^^.^^  about  to  be  exceeded,  rapidly  followed  with  his  chariots, 
when  the  Hebrews  turned,  as  commanded,  and  encamped 
before  Pi-hahiroth,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  over  against 
Ba'al  Zephon  ;  a  position  so  enclosed  that  it  led  Pharaoh  to 
say,  *'  they  are  entangled  in  the  land.""  In  turning  from  the 
direct  line,  the  fugitives  would  equally  move  along  the  western 
side  of  the  inlet,  whether  in  its  present  or  its  supposed  state ;  and 
they  must  in  one  short  march  have  had  an  almost  inaccessible 
mountain  on  their  right,  the  sea  of  Suez  on  their  left  and  in 
B.C.  1584.      their  front ;  whilst  their  pursuers  occupied  a  position  in  their 

'  Exod.,  chap.  XV.,  v.  22 ;  Numb.,  chap.  XXXIII.,  v.  6,  7,  8. 
*  Exod.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  3. 


CHAP.  IV.]  PASSAGE  OF  THE  RED  SEA.  99 

rear,  which  effectually  covered  the  whole  space  between  the 
right  side  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Jebel  Adaggi,  or  the  Mountain  towards  the 
of  Deliverance  ;  thus,  in  fact,  leaving  them  only  the  prospect  of 
death  or  captivity. 

But  the  moment  of  their  deliverance  was  at  hand,  and  amidst 
nmrmurings  and  hopeless  despair,  a  strong  east  wind  became 
the  immediate  instrument  of  the  Almighty. 

The  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  form  a  shallow  bay  below  Suez,  Position  of  the 
and  a  narrow  inlet  north-westward  of  the  town,  which,  as  before 
observed,  once  extended  much  farther.     The  peculiar  position 
of  this  inlet,  and  the  exceeding  violence  of  the  winds  which 
occasionally  prevail,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Red  Sea  especially, 
seem  to  bear  out  the  explanation  which  has  been  frequently 
given    respecting   this  providential    interposition.^     A   violent 
wind  coming  from  the  east,  or  rather  north-east,  would,  owing 
to  the  nature  of  these  localities,  have  the  effect  of  separating 
the  waters  at  the  spot  where  a  small  bend  takes  place,  just  above  • 
the  town  of  Suez ;  and  by  continuing  to  drive  the  lower  portion 
of  the  waters  outwards  during  the  whole  night,  the  Israelites 
would  have  the  necessary  time  to  effect  their  passage  between 
the  waters  thus  separated.     Their  escape  being  discovered  at  Escape  of  the 
daylight,  and  a  pursuit  commenced,  a  sudden  cessation  of  the  destrucUoifof 
wind,  by  allowing  the  separated  waters  to  rush  inwards  and  *^^  Egyptians, 
outwards  at  the  same  instant,  would  be  sufficient  to  complete 
the  miracle  by  overwhelming  the  host  of  the  Egyptians. 

Independently  of  the  argument  from  the  position  of  the 
inlet  of  Suez,  there  is  evidence  that  this  was  the  route  taken, 
from  the  names  Jebel  Adaggi  and  Wadi  Faroun^  being  pre- 
served on  its  western  side,  also  those  of  'Ain  Marah  and  'Ain 
Musa,  with  others,  on  the  way  from  its  eastern  shore  towards 
Mounts  Horeb  and  Sina'i. 

With  regard  to  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,   it  is  very  Traditional 
remarkable   that   Diodorus   relates   a   tradition,    that   on  one  Dk)d!"sicf 
occasion  the  sea  suddenly  retired,  and  after  leaving  its  bed  dry 
for  a  time,  returned  as  suddenly.^ 

'  Compare  chap.  VIII.  of  Supplement  to  Shaw's  Travels  with  p.  245, 
vol.  I.,  of  Bruce's  Travels  to  Discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile.    Dublin,  1791 . 
^  Map  of  the  Red  Sea,  by  Captain  R.  Moresby,  Indian  Navy. 
'  Lib.  III.,  cap.  XX. 

h2 


100      CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  EDOMITES  AND  MIDIANITES.    [cHAP.  IV. 


State  of  the 
Edomites 


As  the  Hebrews  had  long  Hved  under  the  Egyptians,  they 
could  scarcely  have  been  interior  to  them  in  their  knowledge  of 
the  arts  of  life,  when  their  600,000  families  ^  departed  to  assume 
an  important  position  amongst  the  nations  of  the  world ;  yet  it 
appears  that  their  civilization  and  wealth  were  less  than  those  of 
some  of  the  tribes  existing  at  that  time  in  Arabia. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  Exodus,  the  eighth  king  of 
■  Edom  resided  at  the  capital,  Dmhaba ;  and  under  him  were 
eleven  dependent  princes,  who  governed  as  many  cities,  as 
Bozrah,  Avith,  Masrekah,  E-ehoboth,  Pau,  &c.^  That  the 
surrounding  country  was  well  cultivated,  is  evident  from  the 
existence  of  wells,  fields,  and  vineyards ;  and  what  is  called  a 
"  king's  highway  "  passed  through  the  country.^ 

The  allies  of  this  people,  whose  territories  were  situated  near 
and  Midianites  the  Elanitic  gulf,  werc  Still  more  advanced,  for  the  Midianites 
are  said  to  have  possessed  many  cities  and  goodly  castles ;  and 
being  at  the  same  time  manufacturers,  they  had  a  great  store 
of  articles  made  of  goat's  hair  and  wool.^  Moreover,  it 
appears  that  they  had  amassed  chains,  bracelets,  ear-rings, 
and  tablets  to  the  value  of  16,750  shekels  of  gold.  Nor 
were  their  nomadic  riches  less  considerable;  since  amongst 
the  spoil  afterwards  taken  by  the  Israelites,  are  enumerated^ 
675,000  sheep,  72,000  beeves,  and  61,000  asses.  But 
from  an  incidental  circumstance,  it  would  appear  that  the 
Midianites  were  more  distinguished  for  their  civil  polity  than 
even  for  their  wealth.  When  the  Israelites  reached  their 
halting-place,  near  Rephidim,  after  the  memorable  destruction 
of  the  Amalekites,®  Jethro  the  priest  of  Midian  quitted  his 
residence  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Elanitic  gulf,  and  came 


at  the  time  of 
the  Exodus. 


Jethro  visits 
Moses, 


'  This  number  has  been  considered  much  t6o  great  for  a  period  of  430 
years,  but  as  Abraham's  servants,  &c.  consisted  of  316  persons  shortly  after 
liis  arrival  in  Judea,  the  Israelites  must  necessarily  have  been  a  large  body  of 
people,  at  the  time  of  their  going  down  to  Egypt ;  of  which,  the  sons  of 
Jacob  may  be  considered  so  many  Sheikhs  or  Chiefs. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XXXVI.,  v.  33,  &c. 

'  Numb.,  chap.  XX.,  v.  17;  Deut.,  chap.  II.,  v.  27. 

*  Numb.,  chap.  XXXI.,  v.  20. 
'  Ibid.,  V.  36. 

"  Exod.,  chap.  XVII.,  v.  11,  12. 


CHAP.  I  V.J  JETIIRO  INSTRUCTS  MOSES.  101 

with  his  daughter  Zipporah,  and  his  two  grandsons,  Gersham 
and  Eliezer,  to  congratulate  Moses,  and  offer  a  sacrifice  and 
burnt-offering  for  the  great  deliverance  of  his  son-in-law  and  the 
Israelites  from  the  thraldom  of  Pharaoh.  This  visit  throws 
great  light  on  the  state  of  the  Arabs  at  that  period ;  for  it  was 
on  the  following  dny  that  Jethro  instructed  Moses  in  their 
principles  of  government,  which  would  appear  to  have  been 
the  most  perfect  then  known. 

On  perceiving  that  Moses  was  attempting   to   carry  out  a 
crude  system,  which  could  not  be  put  in  practice  without  wearing 
out  the  prince  as  well  as  the  people,  Jethro  proceeded  to  make  and  instructs 
known  to  him  a  method  which  had  borne  the  test  of  experience  devils  of  Arab 
amongst  the  Midianites  and  other  Arabs,  and  which  was  at  once  P"^'^^* 
simple  and  efficient;  it  consisted  in  appointing  men  of  truth, 
and  hating  covetousness,  to  be  rulers  over  Hens,  and  fifties,  and 
hundreds,  and  thousands.     These  individuals  were  to  share  the 
burden  with  Moses,  to  whom  only  the  difficult  cases  M^re  to  be 
referred,   by  judging  the  people  at  all    seasons   agreeably   to 
established  laws,    no    doubt   similar   to   those   already  in  use 
amongst  the  Midianites. 

Afler  delivering  these  instructions,  Jethro  returned  to  his 
own  people;  and  we  are  expressly  told  that  Moses  "hearkened 
to  his  voice,"  and  did  all  that  he  had  said,  "  by  choosing  able 
men  out  of  all  Israel,  whom  he  made  heads  over  the  people." 

The  jurisprudence  thus  borrowed  from  the  Midianitish  Arabs, 
was  evidently  based  on  the  patriarchal  authority,  by  Avhich  the 
head  of  a  family  regulates  absolutely,  the  concerns  of  his 
children,  his  servants,  and  other  inmates  of  his  household ;  in 
the  way  still  exemplified  by  the  Anize'h,  the  Shamar,  and  the 
other  great  tribes  of  Arabia. 

In  the  patriarchal  system,  a  family  represents  the  unit  in  the 
scale  of  government ;  and  the  union  of  two  such  families, 
under  the  older  of  the  parents,  gives  the  head  of  ten  ;  the 
political  union  of  ten  such  families,  probably  also  connected  by 
blood,  and  acknowledging  as  chief,  or  elder,  one  whose  age  and 
other  qualities  might  command  a  preference,  necessarily  gives  Details  of  the 
the  chief  or  judge  over  fifty ;  whilst  an  alliance  of  about  double  fjrttTb°' 
the  number  would  form  a  higher  tribunal,  that  of  one  hundred,  ^^"^es. 


102  GRADATIONS  IN  PATRIARCHAL  GOVERNMENT.     [cHAP.  IV. 

which  corresponds  to  the  tribe  of  an  inferior  Sheikh  of  the 
present  day.  A  larger  body,  such  as  might  be  composed  of 
ten  of  the  latter,  or  about  1000  males,  was,  among  the  Hebrews," 
a  "  House  of  Fathers." 

In  the  case  of  the  Arabs,  the  office  of  chief  was  at  first  derived 
from  birth  and  age,  but  it  afterwards  became  elective,  through 
the  heads  of  families.  Such  is  the  case  in  China,  where  the  social 
links  are  carried  from  the  peasant  upwards  to  the  sovereign 
patriarch. 

The  head  of  a  house  of  fathers,  like  a  Sheikh  of  Arabia,  was 
responsible  to  the  great  Sheikh  or  Emir,  and  as  a  matter  of 
course  there  must  have  been  twelve  such  to  represent  the  sons 
of  Jacob ;  each  having  the  assistance  of  a  chief  genealogist  or 
scribe  to  aid  in  deciding  the  ordinary  questions  of  internal 
government,  the  greatest  and  most  momentous  cases  alone 
being  reserved  for  the  judgment  of  Moses. 

In   this  respect,  and  indeed  in  many  other  particulars,  the 

This  was        positiou  of  the  Hebrew  prince  differed  little  from  that  of  a 

oSArabs^*  Sreat  Emir  of  the  present  day.     Thus  Sheikh  I'sa    of  the 

of  the  present  Montcfik  sat  dispensing  justice  from  his  diwan  in  his  square 

mat  enclosure  at  the  town  of  Al  Kiit,  when,  as  will  be  noticed 

in  its  proper  place,  he  was  to  receive  the  commander  and 

officers  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition. 

On  the  departure  of  Jethro,  who  refused  the  tempting 
advantages  offered  by  his  son-in-law,  Moses,  agreeably  to  the 
command  then  given,  "  that  the  people  should  serve  God  on 
this  mountain ''  (Sinai),  led  his  charge  to  the  pasture-ground, 
where  he  formerly  tended  the  flocks  of  his  father-in-law. 

From  the  summit  of  Sinai  was  now  promulgated,  with  cir- 
cumstances of  awful  grandeur,  a  brief  summary  of  moral  and 
religious  duties,  which  was  afterwards  engraven  on  tables  of 
stone,  as  a  perpetual  memorial  of  the  obligations  of  the  Hebrews 
towards  their  invisible  king.     But  in  order  that  they  might  be 
Promulgation  neither  forgotten  nor  misunderstood,   an    extensive  code  was 
kw*^^  "^'^'^^^    added,   containing   numerous    ordinances   for   their   civil  and 
religious  government.     These  laws  were  made  known,  in  detail, 
B.  c.  1583,     f^QiYi  time  to  time,  by  the  powerful  voice  of  Aaron,  from  the 
top  of  Horeb  ;  a  spot  which,  owing  to  its  moderate  height  and 


CHAP.  IV.]  HOBAB  GUIDES  THE  ISRAELITES.  103 

the  facility  of  approaching  it  on  all  sides,  was  admirably  suited 
for  oral  communication  with  an  immense  multitude. 

The  priesthood  being  sanctified  and  set  apart,  and  the  taber- 
nacle, or  moveable  temple,  being  completed,  the  Israelites  were  and  construc- 
told  that  they  had  dwelt  long  enough  on  the  mount;'  and  the  tabernacle, 
cloud  being  removed  to  signify  that  all  was  ready,  the  whole 
body  proceeded  towards  the  wilderness  of  Paran.  As  this 
occurred  on  the  20th  day  of  the  second  month  of  the  second 
year,^  and  as  they  had  reached  Mount  Sinai  precisely  at  the 
completion  of  the  third  month  after  their  departure  from 
Egypt,^  the  time  occupied  in  receiving  these  laws  was  eleven 
months  and  twenty  days. 

Moses,  however,  instead  of  trusting  to  his  own  topographical  Journey  of  the 
knowledge  in  a  case  of  such  importance  as  that  of  the  intended 
route,  and  above  all  of  obtaining  water  for  -so  vast  a  multitude, 
appealed  to  the  Midianites  ;  and  after  some  difficulty,  his  relative 
Hobab,  the  son  of  Raguel  or  Jethro,  no  doubt  by  the  desire  of 
his  father,  consented  to  be  their  guide,  or,  as  it  is  expressed, 
"  to  be  instead  of  eyes."^  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement, 
it  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Midianitish  prince  to  decide  on  the  conducted  by 
places  of  encampment,  as  well  as  to  be  otherwise  useful  to  the 
Israelites,  particularly  on  commencing  a  nomadic  life ;  which 
although  before  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  was  generally  that 
of  the  Midianites  and  other  tribes  of  Arabia. 

This  circumstance  therefore  sufficiently  explains  why  Hobab 
w^as  offered  a  share  in  the  expected  benefits  of  the  Israelites,  pro- 
vided he  continued  to  guide  them  ;^  and  being  accustomed  to 
lead  his  people  and  their  flocks  to  the  different  wadis  where 
pasture  was  abundant,  he  found  little  difficulty  in  performing 
his  task. 

In  moving  from  the  camp  at  Horeb,  the  standard  of  the 
children  of  Judah  led  the  way ;  it  was  followed  by  those  of 
Issachar,  Zebulun,  &c.,^  all  taking  the  direct  route  by  slow 
marches  towards  Kadesh-Barnea,  w^hich  is  eleven  days'  journey 
by  the  way  of  Mount  Seir, '  no  doubt  moving  by  short  stages  and  making 

short  stages, 

'  Deut.,  chap.  I.,  v.  6.  *  Numb.,  chap.  X  ,  v.  11,  12. 

*  Exod,,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  1.  *  Numb.,  cliap.  X.,  v.  31. 

*  Ibid.,  V.  32.  «  Ibid.,  v.  13,  14,  15,  &c. 
'  Deut  ,  chap.  I.,  v.  2. 


104 


RETREAT  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 


[chap.  IV. 


they  reach  the 
borders  of 
Canaan. 


Defeat  and 
retreat  along 


Widi 

el  'Arabah  to 

Ezion-geber. 


from  spot  to  spot,  like  the  great  nomadic  tribes  of  the  present 
day  •,^  and  it  may  be  observed  that  towards  the  latter  part  of 
the  pilgrimage  the  grand  Mekkah  caravan  passes  over  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  tracts  trodden  by  the  Israelites  during 
the  Exodus. 

From  the  wilderness  of  Sin,  the  Hebrews  took  a  north- 
westerly direction  to  the  southern  borders  of  Canaan,  where 
they  remained  forty  days/  when  the  twelve  spies  returned  with 
such  alarming  accounts  of  their  enemies,  that  a  panic  ensued. 
The  consequence  was,  that  they  not  only  abandoned  the  intended 
conquest,  but  a  dangerous  insurrection  broke  out  against  Moses 
and  Aaron ;  and  notwithstanding  the  advice  given  by  Joshua 
and  Caleb,  who  narrowly  escaped  being  stoned  to  death  for 
endeavouring  to  restore  order,  preparations  were  commenced 
for  returning  to  Egypt  under  another  captain.^  A  feeble 
attempt  was  made  to  push  their  way,  but  this  failed ;  and,  as  a 
punishment  for  their  want  of  confidence  in  the  first  instance, 
and  presumption  in  the  second,  the  Israelites  of  that  genera- 
tion were  interdicted  from  entering  the  promised  land. 

A  serious  defeat  by  the  Amalekites  and  Canaanites  having 
followed  near  Hormah,  and  the  purpose  of  entering  Canaan 
being  abandoned,  the  discouraged  Israelites  commenced  a 
retrograde  movement  towards  the  wilderness  of  Sin ;  probably 
with  the  intention  of  returning  to  Egypt.  It  was  during  the 
early  part  of  this  retreat  that  the  awful  destruction  of  Korah 
and  his  companions  occurred ;  and  the  authority  of  Moses  and 
Aaron  being  supported  by  this  interposition  of  Providence,  the 
Hebrews  submitted  once  more  to  their  guidance,  and  were 
conducted  through  the  tortuous  wadis  on  the  western  side  of 
Wadi  el  'Arabah,  till  they  crossed  the  latter  at  the  head  of 
the  Elanitic  gulf.  Turning  northwards  at  or  near  Ezion-geber, 
their  wanderings  continued  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley 
in  question,  to  Mount  Hor,  where  Aaron  died.  A  detour  was 
now  made  round  the  country  of  the  Edomites,*  who  had  refused 
the  use  of  the  highway,  and  also  that  of  the  Moabites  and 
Ammonites,  who  being  thus  taken  in  flank,  no  longer  offered 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  683,  684,  685,  &c. 

«  Numb.,  chap.  XIII.,  v.  25.  '  Ibid.,  cliap.  XIV.,  v.  4. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  XX.,  V.  17-21. 


CHAP.  IV.]  THE  ISRAELITES  CROSS  THE  JORDAN.  105 

serious  resistance.     Hcshbon,  Baslian,  &c.,  having  successively  Advance  to  the 
fallen,  the  Israelites  halted  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  at  the  foot 
of  Pisgah,  after  spoiling  the  Midianites  of  their  gold,  silver, 
and  flocks. 

During   the   preceding  period    the   Pentateuch   must  have 
been  completed,  probably  from  written  as   well  as  oral  testi- 
mony ;   and  here  the  great  leader  of  the  Hebrews  terminated  Death  of 
his  earthly  career,  after  allotting  the  several  tracts  destined  for  pa^age^o"f  the 
the  twelve  tribes ;  who  passed  the  Jordan  accordingly  the  same  •^°'''^^°- 
year,  not  long  after  the  visit  of  Balaam  from  Mesopotamia, 
and  his  forced  prophecy. 

Although  the  wanderings  of  the  Hebrews  had  continued  for 
forty  years,  the  extent  of  the  country  traversed  was  very 
limited,  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  wadis  lying  westward 
and  eastward  of  the  range  of  Mount  Seir,.or  rather  of  Wadi 
el  'Arabah.  The  country  on  each  side  of  this  depression  is  well 
known,  particularly  the  beaten  track  of  the  annual  pilgrims  to 
Mekkah.  The  pasture  throughout  this  line  is  for  the  most  part 
good  ;  and  the  Israelites  thus  possessed  this  important  advantage 
to  an  equal,  if  not  to  a  greater,  extent  than  the  pastoral  Arabs  of  state  of  the 
the  present  day.  They  were,  it  is  true,  deprived  of  many  of  the  simliar^to  that 
comforts  they  had  enjoyed  in  Egypt,  as  fish,  cucumbers,  melons,  °^*^^  Arabs. 
leeks,  onions,  garlick,  &c.  ;^  but  having  ample  flocks,  they  were, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  provided  with  the  ordinary  means  of 
subsistence  which  the  nomadic  life  affords,  independently  of  the 
miraculous  supply  of  quails  and  manna.  Even  water  was  pro- 
duced for  them  when  their  guides  failed  to  find  it  at  the 
different  cisterns  or  secret  wells  which,  fi-om  time  immemorial, 
have  existed  in  northern  Arabia. 

The  erratic  life  of  the  wilderness,  which  the  Arabs  have 
continued  in  the  manner  already  described,^  with  enviable  con- 
tentment, almost  from  the  time  of  the  Dispersion,  was  intended 
as,  and  no  doubt  became,  a  serious  punishment  to  the  un- 
manageable followers  of  Moses,  who  had  been  hitherto  only 
accustomed  to  a  settled  mode  of  life  in  Egypt. 

But  with  the  extinction  of  one  generation  their  probation  Occupation  of 

Judeu. 
'  Numb.,  chap.  XL,  v.  5.  *  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  682,  683,  &c. 


106    THE  HEBREWS  CONQUERED  BY  CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM.    [cHAP.  IV. 


B.C.  1543. 


Flight  of  the 
Canaanites 
and  Philis- 
tines. 


Dominion 
of  Cushan- 
Eishathaim. 


terminated,  and  Joshua,  having  succeeded  Moses,  led  the 
people  across  the  Jordan.  A  portion  of  the  inhabitants  appear 
to  have  fled  from  Philistia  to  Africa,  and  they  are  said  to  have 
erected  a  monument  commemorative  of  their  flight  from  Joshua, 
son  of  Nun,  the  robber.^  On  the  same  occasion  another 
section  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  took  a  north-easterly  direc- 
tion, and  proceeded  into  Armenia  under  a  leader  named 
Canaanidas,  whose  descendants,  as  well  as  those  of  his  followers, 
were  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  Gunthanians.^ 

The  flight  of  a  portion  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Palestine, 
seems  to  have  been  facilitated  by  the  intercourse  which  con- 
tinued to  exist  between  distant  countries  after  the  Dispersion. 
This  intercourse  is  evident,  in  the  case  of  the  Canaanites  and 
Philistines,  from  a  passage  in  one  of  the  prophets,  by  which  we 
learn  that  the  Palestines  (Philistines),  were  brought  out  of 
Caphtor  or  Cappadocia  (the  western  or  third  Armenia),  and 
the  Syrians  from  Kir,^  which  is  also  in  Armenia. 

The  Israelites,  however,  had  not  been  long  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Jordan,  and  were  not  as  yet  in  full  possession  of  the 
promised  land ;  when  shortly  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  about 
1516  B.C.,  they  submitted  to  the  arms  of  Cushan-Pishathaim, 
whose  appellation  of  wicked  Cushite  most  likely  owed  its  origin 
to  his  descent  from  Nimriid,  and  to  his  being,  at  the  same 
time,  their  determined  enemy  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  Hebrews 
continued  under  his  yoke,  and  in  a  state  of  servitude,  for  about 
eight  years.^  This  prince  ruled  Mesopotamia,  which  was  then 
a  separate  government  from  that  of  Assyria. 

At  the  period  in  question,  a  protracted  contest  for  the 
dominion  appears  to  have  been  maintained  with  alternate  suc- 
cess between  this  kingdom  and  that  of  Armenia.  Heykab, 
shortly  after  the  commencement  of  his  reign  over  the  latter 
kingdom,  is  said  to  have  raised  the  national  glory  to  a  greater 
height  than  it  had  attained  previously.     He  subdued  Amindas, 


'  Procopius,  de  Varul,  lib.  II. 

*  Hist,  of  Armenia,  by  .1.  Avdall,  Esq.,  vol.  I.,  p.  27. 
^  Amos,  chap.  IX.,  v.  7. 

■*  Jackson's  Chronol.  Antiq.,  vol.  I.,  pp.  137,  138,  compared  witli  Judges, 
ch.  III.,  V.  8. 


CHAP.  IV.]  SETHOS  OR  SESOSTRIS,  KING  OF  EGYPT.  107 

king:    of  Assyria,    and    compelled    him    to    do    homage ;  but  Wars  between 
Belochus  or  Belock,  the  successor  of  the  latter,  recovered  the  and  Assyrians, 
lost  ground,  having  during  a  hotly-contested  campaign  defeated 
and  killed  Heykab. 

Reverting  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  Old  World,  it 
will  be  seen   that  Egypt,   now  a  united  kingdom  under  the 
eighteenth    dynasty,   or  the  Diospolitan    kings,    was    rapidly 
advancing  in  power  and  in  civilization.     This  was  more  par- 
ticularly the  case  at  the  period  of  the  Exodus,  and  even  for 
some  time  previously.     Amenopliis,  the  ninth  sovereign  of  the 
line  in  question,  is  supposed  to  have  erected  the  celebrated 
Memnonia  at  Thebes,  and  the  fourth  in  succession  was  Rameses  Rameses  ii. 
the  Second,^  or   the    Great,   who    appears   to    have  been   the  B.C.  1 376  to 
Sesostris  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  the  second  monarch  so  ^-C- 1328 ; 
called. 

This  sovereign  has  been  known  under  so  many  different 
names,  that  considerable  difficulty  is  felt  in  establishing  his 
identity,  and  some  have  doubted  his  existence.  Newton,  and 
after  him  Marsham,"  conceived  that  this  individual  represented 
the  Sesac,  or  Shishak  of  the  Hebrew  scripture,  whilst  a 
contrary  opinion  is  maintained  by  Hales,  Russel,  Gatterer,  and 
others.  "  Such  a  controversy,"  observes  the  learned  Jahn,  "  is 
not  easily  decided  ;"^  but  if  the  247  years  given  by  Manetho 
to  the  sovereigns  between  Tethmosis  or  Thummosis,  who 
expelled  the  shepherds,  and  Rameses"  or  Sesostris,  be  deducted 
from  the  time  of  that  expulsion  in  1623  B.C.,  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reign  of  the  great  Egyptian  monarch  would  have 
taken  place  about  1376  b.c.  and  its  termination  in  1328  b.c.^ 
Herodotus,*  in  a  more  general  way  than  the  Egyptian  priests.  Period  of  his 
says  that  there  were  330  kings  after  Menes;  eighteen  being  ^^^^' 
Ethiopians  (apparently  the  shepherds),  and  that  the  rest  were 
Egyptians ;  all  being  men,  with  the  exception  of  one,  a  woman, 

'  From  Manetho,  Anc.  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Corj',  Esq.,  pp.  117,  119. 

*  ChronoL,  XIV.,  p.  353.     London,  1672. 

'  Jahn's  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  I.,  p.  133. 

*  Anc.  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  173,  174. 

*  Manetho  states  in  his  second  book,tliat  Sesostris  reigned  48  years.    Ibid. 
Cory,  p.  110. 

^  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xcix.,  c. 


I 


108  FLEETS  AND  ARMIES  OF  SESOSTRIS.  [cHAP.  IV. 

named  Nitocris.     Of  these,  nothing  particular  is  recorded,  with 
the  exception  of  Moeris,  who  dug  the  lake  that  bears  his  name, 
and  Sesostris.     This  last^sovereign  conducted  a  fleet  from  the 
Arabian  Gulf,  and,  having  conquered  the  nations  bordering  on 
the  Erythrean  Sea,  he   returned  to  Egypt ;   and  proceeding 
again  at  the  head  of  a   mighty  army,  he   traversed  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia,  and  subjugated  every  nation  that  opposed  him.' 
His  exploits,  as  well  as  those  of  Thummosis,  are  indicated  on 
and  conquests,  the  walls  of  the  mined  palace  at  Thebes  which  bears  his  name, 
and  where  he  is  represented   as  a  great  conqueror  bringing 
home  in  triumph  numerous  captives  taken  from  various  nations. 
The    invasions    and    conquests    of  this    monarch   are   known 
traditionally  in   many  countries,  with  this  peculiarity,  that  the 
enterprises  were   not    merely  the    hasty  inroads    of  African 
hordes.     The  main  body,  acting  on  the  direct  line,   was   sup- 
Army  of        ported  by  two  vast  fleets :  one  of  these  appears  to  have  sailed 
ponJ/bVtSo  round  Arabia,  in  order  to  support  the  right  flank  on  the  side 
^^^^^'  of  Asia,  whilst  the  other  moved  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 

Black  Sea,  to  support  the  operations  in  that  quarter ;  and  both 
of  them  carried  the  supplies  which  are  indispensable  to  insure 
success  in  such  gigantic  operations.  Two  great  fleets,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  opposite  shores  of  Egypt,  and  thus  provided, 
must  have  lessened  the  difficulties  attending  the  movements  of 
such  a  prodigious  force,  and  also  have  aflbrded  great  advantages  ^ 
to  Sesostris,  compared  with  those  possessed  at  a  later  period  by 
Darius,  Xerxes,  and  other  eastern  warriors,  in  their  invasions. 
Manetho  says  that  the  conquest  of  Asia,  and  Europe  as  far  as 
It  advances  Thracc,  occupicd  nine  years,  and  that  Sesostris  everywhere 
into  Thrace.  gj.g(,|.g(j  monumcnts  of  his  victories.^  Diodorus  Siculus,  who 
goes  more  into  detail,  says  that  by  the  help  of  his  fleet  of  400 
ships,  Sesostris  gained  the  islands  of  the  Eed  Sea,  and  subdued 
the  bordering  nations  as  far  as  India.  He  himself  marched 
forward  with  his  land  army,  and  conquered  all  Asia.  He 
passed  the  Ganges,  and  traversed  India  to  the  shores  of  the 
main  ocean,   and  laid  the  foundation  of  commercial  relations 

'  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  cii.    Anc.  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  154. 
*  Manetho,   book  II.,  compared  with  Anc.  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory, 
Esq.,  p.  110. 


CHAP.  IV.]  RETURN  OF  SESOSTRIS  FROM  SCYTHIA.  109 

with  that  part  of  the  world.  Having  subdued  the  Scythians  as 
far  as  the  Tanais,  which  river  divides  Europe  from  Asia,  he 
retraced  his  steps  towards  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  where  some 
of  his  Egyptian  followers  remained,  cither  to  cultivate  the 
country,  or  because  they  were  weary  of  the  expedition.' 

Previously  to  the  determination  to  retreat,   Sesostris   had  Supposed 
been   in  danger  of  losing  his  whole  army,  owing  to  the  diffi-  mSoraSi™' 
culties  of  the  passes  and  want  of  provisions.     His  expedition 
having  terminated,  he    erected  pillars    to    commemorate    his 
conquests,  and  then  returned  to  Egypt.^     In  this  invasion  he 
led,  according  to  the  historian,^  600,000  foot,  24,000  horse,  vast  army  of 
and  27,000  armed  chariots ;  and  he  had,  as  already  mentioned,  ^^^°^'"^* 
fleets  in  the  Arabian  and  Mediterranean  Seas.     It  is,  however, 
evident  that  the  vast  force  met  some  kind  of  check  in  Scythia, 
from   whence  Sesostris  retired,   either   for  this  reason,   or  on 
account  of  the  intelligence  which  is  said  to  have  reached  him 
at   this   period,    that    his    brother    Armais  had   assumed  the 
sovereignty  of  Egypt.     He  returned  immediately,  laden  with 
the  rich  spoils  of  Asia,  and  bringing  a  multitude  of  captives ;  captives  and 
some  harnessed   to  his  car,  others  destined  to  be  employed  in  ^^^^^^  labour, 
the  public  works.     These  works,  as  the  inscriptions  upon  them 
state,    were  raised  without   the  labour  of  any  of  his  native 
subjects.'* 

From  the  time  that  Sesostris  left  some  of  his  followers  on 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  may  be  dated  that  intercommuni- 
cation bet.M'een  Egypt  and  Colchis,  which  induced  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  to  say  that  the  Colchians  were  an  ancient  colony 
of  Egyptians.^  This  is  likewise  the  statement  of  Herodotus,® 
who  observes,  that  the  knowledge  possessed  by  the  Colchians 
was  derived  from  Egypt ;  and  Sesostris  appears  to  have  Armenia  a 
established  some  of  his  followers  also  in  the  valleys  of  the  Egypt. *^°*^^ ° 
Caucasus.     Armenia  itself,   as  we  learn, ^  was,  at  least  for  a 

'  Herodotus,  lib.  IT.,  cap.  ciii.  "  But,  be  this  as  it  may,"  adds  the  his- 
torian, "  it  appears  that  the  Colchians  are  of  Egyptian  origin." — Ibid., 
cap.  civ. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  sec.  II.,  cap.  iv.  '  Ibid.,  cap.  iv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  iv.  *  Aram.,  XXIT.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Lib.  II.,  cap.  civ. 

"  Hist,  of  Armen.,  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq.,  vol.  I.,  p.  260. 


1 10  GOVERNMENT  OF  EGYPT  UNDER  SESOSTRIS.       [CHAP.  IV. 

short  time,  a  nominal  dependency  of  Egypt.  But,  as  soon  as 
the  conqueror  quitted  the  country,  Pharaoh,  who  had  been 
left  in  charge,  constructed  strongholds,  as  a  protection  against 
future  incursions.^ 

The  glory  of  Sesostris  was  not  confined  to  his  conquests,  for 
he  appears  to  have  been  almost  equally  celebrated  for  his  good 
Sesostris'        government,  and  his   management  of  the  resources    of   the 
E^lt!^^^^°  country:  the  subdivision  of  Egypt  into  thirty  inferior  king- 
doms, or  nomes,  is  said  to  have  been  his  arrangement.     The 
discovery  of  the  canicular  period  of  1460  years,  in  which  the 
festivals  of  the  sacred  year  (containing  365  days  without  a 
fraction)  would  return  to  the  same  seasons  as  at  the  commence- 
ment, is  no  doubt  due  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;  and,  according 
B.C.  1327.      to  Strabo,^  Plato,  who  resided  during  several  years  in  Eg^^pt, 
learned  from  the  priests  of  that  country  what  portion  of  a  day 
was  to  be  added  to  365  days  in  order  to  make  up  a  complete 
tropical  year,  or  the  period  in  which  the  sun,  setting  out  from 
the  first  point  of  Aries,  returns  to  the  same  point. 

*  Hist,  of  Arraen.,  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq.,  vol.  I.,  p.  260. 

*  Lib.  XVII ,  p.  806. 


(      HI     ) 


CHAPTER  V. 

OUTLINE  OF  EGYPTIAN  AND  JEWISH  HISTORY,  FROM  THEIR  SETTLE- 
MENTS IN  PHCENICIA  AND  PALESTINE,  IN  1584  B.C.,  TO  THE 
DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  ASSYRIANS  UNDER  SENNACHERIB,  ABOUT 
709  B.C. 

Egyptian  Religion  and  Philosophy  carried  into  Greece. — The  Shepherds 
settle  in  Phcenicia,  and  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine. — Colonies  proceed  from 
Phoenicia  and  Egypt  to  Greece. — Origin  of  the  Argonautic  Voyage. — 
The  Fleet  returns  from  Colchis  to  Byzantium,  plunders  Troy,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  Spain. — Some  of  the  Argonauts  return  to  Greece  by  sea,  others 
by  land,  with  the  booty  acquired. — Lydia  and  Assyria. — Ninus  succeeds 
to  the  Throng  of  the  latter  Kingdom. — He  conquers  Bactria,  and  marries 
Semiramis. — This  Queen  becomes  a  great  conqueror,  and  founds  the  City 
of  Shemiramgerd. — Inscriptions  regarding  Semiramis  found  near  Lake 
Van. — Ninus  succeeds  and  organizes  the  Kingdom. — Period  of  the  Trojan 
"War. — Memnon  serves  at  the  siege  with  an  Armenian  contingent. — Esta- 
blishment of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom. — David  succeeds  Saul,  and  is  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Twelve  Tribes. — He  makes  .Jerusalem  the  capital,  and 
establishes  his  dominion  over  Judea,  Syria,  and  a  part  of  Mesopotamia. — 
Accession  of  Solomon. — The  Court  and  Regal  Establishments  of  this 
Monarch. — Cost  of  the  great  Temple  at  Jerusalem. — Solomon  erects 
another  Temple  for  his  Egyptian  Queen,  and  constructs  Tadmor  and  the 
other  Store  Cities. — Inquiry  concerning  the  position  of  Ophir. — Visit  of 
the  Queen  of  the  South,  or  Abyssinia. — Her  Posterity  by  Solomon  reign. 
— Saba  and  Sheba  synonymous. — The  Himyarites  and  Sabaeans  of  Africa 
the  same  people. — Early  Land  Trade,  and  difl&culties  attending  Ship 
Caravans  or  Mercantile  Fleets. — Products  of  the  Countries  on  the  Mo- 
zambique.— Distance,  and  Time  required  for  a  Voyage  to  this  Coast. — 
The  other,  or  Eastern  Voyage,  was  probably  founded  on  a  previous 
Caravan  Trade  to  India. — Sanscrit  Names  of  the  Merchandize. — Aurea 
Chersonesus  supposed  to  be  Ophir. — Distance,  and  Time  required  for  a 
Coasting  Voyage  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca. — Trade  by  Barter. — The 
Tyrians  employed  by  Solomon. — The  Tynan  Hercules,  and  early  Colonies 
of  Tyre. — Establishment  of  Carthage,  and  various  Settlements  made  by 
this  commercial  kingdom  in  Spain  and  elsewhere. — Accession  of  Reho- 
boam,  and  separation  of  the  Ten  Tribes. — Shishak  invades  .Judea. — Con- 
solidation of  the  Armenian  Kingdom. — Invasion  of  Zerah  the  Ethiopian. 
— The  Kings  of  Assyria,  according  to  Ctesias. — Invasion  of  Judea  by 


1 10  GOVERNMENT  OF  EGYPT  UNDER  SESOSTRIS.       [CHAP.  IV. 

short  time,  a  nominal  dependency  of  Egypt.  But,  as  soon  as 
the  conqueror  quitted  the  country,  Pharaoh,  who  had  been 
left  in  charge,  constructed  strongholds,  as  a  protection  against 
future  incursions.^ 

The  glory  of  Sesostris  was  not  confined  to  his  conquests,  for 
he  appears  to  have  been  almost  equally  celebrated  for  his  good 
Sesostris'        government,  and  his   management  of  the  resources    of   the 
|°j;r''''°^ country:  the  subdivision  of  Egypt  into  thirty  inferior  king- 
doms, or  nomes,  is  said  to  have  been  his  arrangement.     The 
discovery  of  the  canicular  period  of  1460  years,  in  which  the 
festivals  of  the  sacred  year  (containing  365  days  without  a 
fraction)  would  return  to  the  same  seasons  as  at  the  commence- 
ment, is  no  doubt  due  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;  and,  according 
B.C.  1327.      to  Strabo,^  Plato,  who  resided  during  several  years  in  Egypt, 
learned  from  the  priests  of  that  country  what  portion  of  a  day 
was  to  be  added  to  365  days  in  order  to  make  up  a  complete 
tropical  year,  or  the  period  in  which  the  sun,  setting  out  from 
the  first  point  of  Aries,  returns  to  the  same  point. 

'  Hist,  of  Arraen.,  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq.,  vol.  I.,  p.  260. 
*  Lib.  XVII ,  p.  806. 


(      HI      ) 


CHAPTER  V. 

OUTLINE  OF  EGYPTIAN  AND  JEWISH  HISTORY,  FROM  THEIR  SETTLE- 
MENTS IN  PHCENICIA  AND  PALESTINE,  IN  1584  B.C.,  TO  THE 
DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  ASSYRIANS  UNDER  SENNACHERIB,  ABOUT 
709  B.C. 

Egyptian  Religion  and  Philosophy  carried  into  Greece. — The  Shepherds 
settle  in  Phoenicia,  and  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine. — Colonies  proceed  from 
Phoenicia  and  Eg)'pt  to  Greece, — Origin  of  the  Argonautic  Voyage. — 
The  Fleet  returns  from  Colchis  to  Byzantium,  plunders  Troy,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  Spain. — Some  of  the  Argonauts  return  to  Greece  by  sea,  others 
by  land,  with  the  booty  acquired. — Lydia  and  Assyria. — Ninus  succeeds 
to  the  Throng  of  the  latter  Kingdom. — He  conquers  Bactria,  and  marries 
Semiramis. — This  Queen  becomes  a  great  conqueror,  and  founds  the  City 
of  Shemiramgerd. — Inscriptions  regarding  Semiramis  found  near  Lake 
Van. — Ninus  succeeds  and  organizes  the  Kingdom. — Period  of  the  Trojan 
War. — Memnon  serves  at  the  siege  with  an  Armenian  contingent. — Esta- 
blishment of  the  Hebrew  Kingdom. — David  succeeds  Saul,  and  is  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Twelve  Tribes. — He  makes  Jerusalem  the  capital,  and 
establishes  his  dominion  over  Judea,  Syria,  and  a  part  of  Mesopotamia. — 
Accession  of  Solomon. — The  Court  and  Regal  Establishments  of  this 
Monarch. — Cost  of  the  great  Temple  at  Jerusalem. — Solomon  erects 
another  Temple  for  his  Egyptian  Queen,  and  constructs  Tadmor  and  the 
other  Store  Cities. — Inquiry  concerning  the  position  of  Ophir. — Visit  of 
the  Queen  of  the  South,  or  Abyssinia. — Her  Posterity  by  Solomon  reign. 
— Saba  and  Sheba  synon5'mous. — The  Himyarites  and  Sabaeans  of  Africa 
the  same  people. — Early  Land  Trade,  and  difficulties  attending  Ship 
Caravans  or  Mercantile  Fleets. — Products  of  the  Countries  on  the  Mo- 
zambique.— Distance,  and  Time  required  for  a  Voyage  to  this  Coast. — 
The  other,  or  Eastern  Voyage,  was  probably  founded  on  a  previous 
Caravan  Trade  to  India. — Sanscrit  Names  of  the  Merchandize. — Aurea 
Chersonesus  supposed  to  be  Opliir. — Distance,  and  Time  required  for  a 
Coasting  Voyage  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca. — Trade  by  Barter. — The 
Tyrians  employed  by  Solomon. — The  Tynan  Hercules,  and  early  Colonies 
of  Tyre. — Establishment  of  Carthage,  and  various  Settlements  made  by 
this  commercial  kingdom  in  Spain  and  elsewhere. — Accession  of  Reho- 
boam,  and  separation  of  the  Ten  Tribes. — Shishak  invades  .Judea. — Con- 
solidation of  the  Armenian  Kingdom. — Invasion  of  Zerah  the  Ethiopian. 
— The  Kings  of  Assyria,  according  to  Ctesias. — Invasion  of  Judea  by 


carried  into 
Greece 


112  SPREAD  OF  COMMERCE  AND  CIVILIZATION.         [cHAP.  V. 

Pul. — Tiglath  Pileser  carries  the  Jews  captive  into  Assyria.— Nabonassar, 
and  Works  of  Semiramis  at  Babylon. — Second  Captivity  of  the  Jew^s,  by 
Shalmaneser,  and  interchange  of  the  Ten  Tribes  with  the  Assyrians. — 
Sennacherib  succeeds  Shalmaneser  ;  subjects  the  Babylonians,  and  invades 
.Judea. — Siege  of  Jerusalem  and  destruction  of  the  Assyrians.  — Sen- 
nacherib flies  to  Nineveh  ;  is  assassinated  by  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
his  sons. — Profane  Accounts  of  the  Discomfiture  of  the  Invaders. 

Egyptian  It  appears,  from  various  sources,  that  many  of  the  religious 
phibsTphy  rites  of  the  Egyptians  had  been  carried  into  Greece,  together 
with  such  knowledge  of  astronomy,  geometry,  and  philosophy, 
as  had  been  derived  by  that  people  from  Chaldea ;  and  it  is 
also  known  that  many  of  the  chiefs  who  were  expelled  from, 
or  who  quitted  Egypt  about  the  time  of  the  departure  of  the 
Shepherds,  formed  settlements  in  different  parts  of  Greece. 

Thus  Inachus  founded  a  kingdom  at  Argos ;  ^  Cecrops,  of 
Sais,  another  in  Attica ;  ^  and  Lelex  a  third,  on  the  river 
Eurotas,  afterwards  called  Sparta.^  ,In  addition  to  these 
colonists,  two  races  of  men  proceeded,  as  has  been  lately 
mentioned,  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile  into  Phoenicia  and 
Palestine,  and  thus  commenced  the  two  kingdoms  which 
became  afterwards  so  remarkable  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

One  was  that  of  the  Hebrew  people,  who  were  conducted  by 
Joshua  into  Palestine  about  1584  B.C.;  and  the  other  that  of 
the  Shepherds,  who,  about  thirty-nine  years  previously,  were 
led  by  Arcles,  or  Certus,  their  last  sovereign,  into  Phoenicia, 
where,  having  become  a  maritime  instead  of  a  pastoral  people, 
they  assisted  in  founding  the  city  and  kingdom  of  Tyre ;  in 
which,  even  as  early  as  the  coming  of  the  former  people, 
they  appear  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  navigation  and 
commerce. 
Colonies  from  The  Settlement  of  the  Cadmonites  in  Boeotia,  which  took 
Greece%c.  placc,  according  to  the  fable,  on  their  failing  to  tind  Europa,* 
and  probably  a  little  more  than  a  century  after  the  emigration 
of  the  Shepherds,  may  therefore  be  considered  as  an  Egyptian 

'  Pausanias,  Greece,  vol.  I.,  p.  117. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  7,  and  vol.  II.,  p.  254;  and  Died.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  sec.  I.,  cap.  16. 
'  Pansanius,  vol.  I.,  p.  11  (i. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  cxlvii. 


CHAP,  v.]  VOYAGE  OF  THE  ARGONAUTS.  113 

rather  than  as  a  Phojnician  colony ;  by  which,  the  knowledge 

of  letters  and  rudiments  of  commerce  were  drawn   indirectly 

from  Egypt.     It  will  be  remembered,  that,  in  addition  to  the 

preceding,  a  direct  intercourse  took  place  at  a  later  period,  by 

the  arrival  of  Danaus  in  Greece  from  Egypt,'  apparently  about  Danaus  pro- 

1230  B.c.^     These  establishments  were  followed  by  others  in  Greece. 

widely-distant  countries ;    and   though   the   expeditions  which 

led  to  them  were  merely  commercial  or  piratical,  they  proved 

of  great  importance,  by  diffusing  civilization  and  a  knowledge 

of  useful  arts. 

Phryxus  and  Helle,  having  fled  from  the  threatened  wrath  First  voyage 
of  Ino,  proceeded  from  Argos  in  a  galley,  either  called  the 
Ram,  or  possibly  bearing  a  ram's  head,^  to  seek  an  asylum  at 
the  court  of  their  relative  JEetes,  king  of  Colchis.  After  the 
accidental  death  of  Helle  in  the  straits  leading  towards  the 
Black  Sea,  which  event  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  Hellespont, 
ever  since  borne  by  those  straits,  Phryxus  continued  his  voyage 
to  Colchis,  where  he  was  afterwards  murdered,^  for  the  sake  of  and  death  of 
the  treasures  belonging  to  his  father,  which  he  had  brought  ^^ 
from  Thebes.  The  desire  of  revenging  this  atrocity  caused  the 
memorable  enterprise  of  the  Argonauts,  which  has  generally 
been  considered  allegorical,  or  rather  mythological.  But 
although  blended  with  fiction,  and  partly  lost  in  the  romance 
of  poetical  description,  the  voyage  comes  to  us  so  well  sup- 
ported, that  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  the  foundation,  at 
least,  to  have  been  correct.  The  early  connexion  of  Colchis 
with  Egypt,  the  concurring  testimony  of  the  Greek  historians, 
together  with  the  names,  parentage,  city,  and  nation  of  each 
individual  engaged  in  the  expedition,^  seem  to  leave  little 
doubt  regarding  the  authenticity  of  an  undertaking  which  had, 
as  is  well  known,  many  important  consequences. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxxvi. 

*  Jos.,  Cont.  Apion,  lib.  II.,  s.  2,  says  that  there  intervened  a  period  of 
393  years  between  the  departure  of  the  Shepiierds  and  the  flight  of  Danaus, 
which  being  deducted  from  1623  (see  above,  p.  To)  leaves  1230.  Tlie  de- 
parture of  Danaus  from  Egypt  has  however  been  placed  two  centuries 
earlier.     See  note  on  p.  58,  vol.  I.,  "Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyptians. 

^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xii.  *  Ibid. 

*  Apollonius  Rhodius  and  Apollodorus  Atheniensis. 

VOL   n.  r 


114 


RETURN  OF  THE  ARGONAUTS. 


[chap.  V, 


Vessels  of  the 
Argonauts. 


Voyage  to  the 
Black  Sea. 


Return  from 
Colchis  to 
Troj. 


The  fleet 
proceeds  to 
Spain,  &c. 


Rise  of  Lydia. 


The  expedition  appears,  from  the  best  authority,  to  have 
been  of  some  extent,  for  it  consisted  of  six  ships,  manned  by 
Grecian  princes  and  their  followers.^  The  principal  vessel, 
(the  galley  of  Jason,  the  admiral,)  the  celebrated  Argo,  was, 
according  to  some,  so  called  from  Argos,  the  builder ;  but  the 
name  was  more  probably  derived  from  Argha,  signifying,  in 
the  Egyptian  language,  a  sacred  vessel,  she  having  been  taken 
to  the  temple  of  Delphos,  and  there  consecrated.^ 

The  flotilla  reached  the  coast  of  Colchis  safely,  where  every 
success  attended  the  land  operations  under  the  Theban  Her- 
cules;'^ and  some  enterprises  of  minor  importance  appear  to 
have  been  undertaken  in  the  countries  lying  northward  of  the 
Euxine,  particularly  towards  the  Ister,  the  Tanais,  and  the 
Don,  which  have  given  rise  to  some  geographical  difficulties, 
in  consequence  of  the  poetical  effusions  of  the  narrators.  The 
Argonauts  are  described  as  shaping  their  course  down  the 
middle  of  the  Pontic  Sea,  where  they  escaped  with  difficulty 
from  a  violent  tempest,  and  finally  reached  the  straits,  which 
they  entered  in  safety,  with  all  the  treasures  they  had  acquired 
during  their  forays."^  In  passing,  they  visited  the  country  of 
Byzas,  afterwards  the  seat  of  Byzantium,  and,  having  erected 
altars  and  offered  sacrifices,  they  proceeded  through  the  Pro- 
pontis  and  Hellespont  to  Troy. 

After  plundering  the  city,  Hercules  bestowed  Hesione,  the 
daughter  of  Laomedon,  upon  his  friend  Telamon,  who  carried 
her  to  Greece.  The  Argonauts  now  continued  their  enter- 
prise, by  proceeding  through  the  Mediterranean  to  Spain,  in 
which  part  of  the  world  colonies  were  already  established,  both 
from  Egypt  and  PhcBuicia.  They  then  returned  to  Greece 
with  great  spoils,  part  of  them  by  sea,  sweeping  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  remainder  by  land ;  and  these  brought  with 
them  immense  herds  of  cattle. 

Lydia  had  already  become  an  important  kingdom,  Alcseus, 
the   son  of  Omphale,  the   twelfth   sovereign   from   Meues,   or 

'  Iliad,  V  ,  641,  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xi. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  clxxix. 

^  Apollodorns  Atheniensis,  de  Hercule,  p.  45. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xiii. 


CHAP,  v.]  CONQUESTS  OF  SEMIllAMIS.  115 

Manes,  (possibly  Noah,)  being  on  the  throne.  Belus,  his  suc- 
cessor, is  said  to  have  subdued  Assyria,  and  having  expelled 
the  Egyptian  colony  left  by  Sesostris  on  the  northern  frontier 
of  Colchis,  he  became  possessed  of  the  whole  empire,  instead  of 
being  monarch  of  Lydia  only.  This  sovereign  was  succeeded  Ninus  sue- 
by  Ninus,  who  was  probably  born  about  the  time  his  father  father  Belus, 
took  the  capital  of  Assyria,  which  from  henceforth  bore  his 
name,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  that  period,  of  attach- 
mg  to  places  the  names  of  distinguished  individuals;  and 
during  his  campaigns  in  Asia  he  obtained  the  name  of  Picus.' 
We  are  elsewhere  told  that  Ninus  arose  from  the  south, ^  and 
came  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  extreme  north,  destroying 
everything.'^  Diodorus  Siculus*  also  gives  nearly  the  same 
account,  adding,  that  Ninus  had  conquered  Bactria  before 
Semiramis  reigned  alone,  and  perhaps  whilst  she  was  still  the 
wife  of  Menon.  The  latter,  who  was  one  of  the  principal 
officers  attached  to  the  army,  is  supposed  to  have  put  himself 
to  death  through  jealousy,  and  this  event  opened  the  way  for 
the  union  of  Semiramis  with  Ninus.  Semiramis  thus  obtained  and  marries 
scope  for  the  exercise  of  her  great  talents,  which  were  after-  ^'^""^™'^- 
wards  employed  most  effectively  in  consolidating  her  second 
husband's  conquests  in  Bactria.^  Here  Ninus  died,  and 
Semiramis  became,  in  consequence,  mistress  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  world,  one  of  her  capitals  being  Babylon.'^  Be- 
markable  specimens  of  the  arts  belonging  to  this  period 
were  not,  however,  confined  to  Babylonia ;  they  have  also 
been  discovered  near  Malatiyah,^  and  in  many  other  places 
throughout  her  dominions.  These  remains  are  particularly 
noticed  by  Diodorus,®  especially  the  magnificent  road  con-  Koad  exca- 
structed  at  great   expense  by  the  Assyrian  queen  across  the  semlramis. 

'  From  Scaliger :  Ancient  Fragments  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  76. 

*  The  Red,  or  the  Erythrean  Sea. 

^  Orosius'  Hist.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv. 

■*  Lib.  II.,  cap.  vi.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  vii. 

^  Strabo.,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  737.     Compared  witli  Diod.  Sic,  lib.   II.,  cap. 


Vlll 

7 


On  a  tablet  between  Malatiyah  and  Kiiarput.    Vol.  X.,  p.  25,  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
'  Lib.  II.,  cap.  xii. 

i2 


116 


REMAINS  OF  THE  TIME  OF  SEMIRAMIS.  [CHAP.  V. 


Summer 
residence  of 
Semiramis. 


Cuneiform 
inscription 
near  Van. 


Elwand  range  of  mountains,  including:  the  ancient  Orontes, 
where  distinct  traces  of  it  were  observed  by  Major  Rawlinson ; 
who  states  ^  that  throughout  its  whole  extent,  from  the  Gung 
Nameh,  the  western  base  of  the  mountain,  it  still  presents  the 
most  unequivocal  marks  of  having  been  artificially  and  most 
laboriously  constructed.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain  the 
pavement  is  still  in  tolerable  preservation.  Having  successfully 
terminated  the  war  in  Armenia,  and  being  pleased  with  the 
salubrity  of  the  air,  as  well  as  the  fertility  of  that  picturesque 
country,  Semiramis  built  a  magnificent  city  on  the  shores  of 
the  sea  Akhthamar  (Lake  Van).  On  this  city  no  less  than 
12,000  workmen,  under  600  overseers  or  architects,  were  em- 
ployed;^ and,  according  to  Armenian  history,  it  became 
henceforth  the  summer  residence  of  its  foundress.^  Several 
ancient  inscriptions  have  been  lately  discovered  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Van,  near  the  ruins  of  Shemiramgerd ;  and  the 
lamented  Professor  Schultz,  who  copied  forty-two  of  these 
inscriptions,  deciphered  the  word  "  Shemiram  "  in  several  of 
them,  particularly  in  one  which  is  written  in  the  arrow-headed 
characters.  The  dominion  of  the  Ass\Tian  queen,  therefore, 
over  Armenia  no  longer  rests  wholly  upon  tradition ;  and, 
thanks  to  the  pains-taking  Schultz,^  and  the  subsequent  labours 
of  Major  Eawlinson,  as  well  as  those  of  another  remarkable 
traveller,  there  are  still  clearer  traces  of  events  connected  with 
this  as  well  as  the  later  and  still  more  interesting  Achaemenian 
period ;  which  have  been  recorded  in  almost  imperishable  mate- 
rials at  Bisutiin.^ 


'  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  X.,  part  iii.,  p.  320. 

*  Michael  Chamish,  History  of  Armenia,  translated  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq., 
vol.  I.  pp.  23.  24.  This  city  has  lately  been  visited  by  James  Brant,  Esq., 
Her  Brit.  Majesty's  Consul  at  Erz-Rum :  its  site  had  been  satisfactorily  de- 
termined during  tiie  previous  journey  of  the  late  Professor  Scliultz. 

^  ^Michael  Chamish,  History  of  Armenia,  translated  by  J.  Avdall,  Esq., 
vol.  I.,  p.  24. 

■*  Memoire  sur  le  Lac  de  Van  et  ses  environs,  par  Monsieur  Fr.  W.  Schultz. 
Journal  Asiatique,  vol.  IX.,  1840,  p.  257-322. 

'  Tiie  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Bisutun,  deciphered  and  translated 
by  Major  H.  C.  Kawlinson,  C.B.  Journal  of  tlie  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 
vol.  X.,  parts  i.,  ii.,  and  iii. 


CHAP,  v.]  SCULPTURES  AND  SYRIAC  INSCRIPTIONS.  Il7 

The  sculptures  and  Syriac  inscriptions  so  particularly  men- 
tioned by  Diodorus'  as  having  been  executed  by  order  ofBisutunthe 
Seniiraniis  at  this  place,  which  is  now  identified  with  the  Mount  gbistau. 
Baghistane  of  that  author,  are  supposed  by  Major  Rawlinson^  to 
have  been  totally  effaced  by  Khusrau  Parviz,  when  he  was  pre- 
paring to  form  the  long  surface,  scarped  by  the  Assyrian  queen, 
into  the  back  wall  of  his  palace.  According  to  another 
traveller,  however,  Mr.  Masson,  certain  remains  of  these  sculp- 
tures still  exist ;  three  female  heads,  and  some  traces  of  Syriac 
characters,  having  been  discovered  by  him  on  his  visit  to 
Bisutun  in  1830.-' 

'  Lib.  IT.,  cap.  xii. 

*  Journal  of  the  Geog.  Society,  vol.  IX.,  p.  114. 

*  From  a  manuscript  paper  in  possession  of  the  London  Asiatic  Society, 
and  some  other  observations  by  Charles  Masson,  Esq. : — 

'•  The  scarped  mountain  at  Bisutun,  I  considered  to  have  been  once 
covered  with  the  bas-reliefs  or  sculptures  noticed  particularly  by  Diodorus 
Siculus,  as  well  as  intimated  by  Isidorus.  I  had  not,  and  have  not  any  Female  figures 
doubt  upon  the  matter,  because  there  are  still  three  female  faces  of  very  ^°^ 
singular  beauty,  which  have  been  spared  by  a  very  lucky  chance,  when 
either  wantonly  (if  the  act  of  Muhammedans)  or  designedly  (if  the  act  of 
others)  the  chisel  was  employed  to  obliterate  all  traces  of  these  sculptures. 
Above  the  faces  are  also  the  remains  of  an  inscription,  but  not  in  cuneiform 
characters  :  the  forms  to  me,  looking  from  the  plain  below,  were  circular 
and  square,  such  as  certain  of  the  Greek  letters  might  be,  or  square  Sama- 
ritan, or  even  Indo-Sali.  These  faces,  as  well  as  characters,  I  believe  have 
been  unnoticed  by  modern  travellers ;  still  they  certainly  exist,  and  once 
seen,  no  one  could  again  look  upon  the  scarped  mountain  without  having 
them  in  full  view.  The  prominent  feature  of  Cambadena  is  Baptana,  where, 
according  to  Isidorus,  '  there  is  a  statue  and  pillar  of  Semiramis.'  The 
location  of  Baptana,  at  Bisutun,  having  been  adndtted,  it  is  natural  to  in-  inscriptions  at 
quire  if  we  have  at  that  spot  any  traces  of  the  remarkable  sculptures  described  *"  ^°' 
by  Diodorus,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  be  able  to  assert  that  we  have.  Diodorus 
says,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xii.,  'Semiramis  having  completed  all  these  works, 
marched  with  a  great  army  against  the  Medes,  and  liaving  reached  the  foot 
of  a  mountain  called  Baghistane,  she  there  formed  her  camp,  and  traced  out 
in  the  plain  a  garden,  &c.  Mount  Baghistane,  which  is  consecrated  to 
Jupiter,  had  one  of  its  sides,  a  precipitous  rock  17  stadii  in  height,  and  full 
of  inequalities,  turned  towards  the  garden.  Semiramis  caused  it  to  be 
smoothed  at  the  bottom,  and  had  her  head,  accompanied  by  a  hundred  of  her 
guards,  sculptured  on  it.  She  added  to  this  an  inscription  in  Syriac  cha- 
racters,' &c.  "  At 


118 


ACCESSION  OF  NINYAS. 


[chap.  v. 


Semiramis 
conquers 
Bactria,  and 


is  succeeded 

by  Ninyas. 


Referring  to  the  successes  of  Semiramis,  it  may  readily  be 
imagined  that  an  ambitious  woman,  possessing  despotic  power 
and  ample  means,  would  be  ready,  not  only  to  follow  out  her 
husband's  plans  in  the  neighbouring  country  of  Bactria,  but 
even  to  push  them  further  eastward,  as  stated  by  Diodorus 
Siculus,  who  makes  her  forces  in  this  campaign  amount  to  the 
prodigious  number  of  3,000,000  of  foot,  500,000  horse, 
100,000  chariots,  and  100,000  men  mounted  on  camels,  besides 
several  hundreds  of  stuffed  elephants,  to  impose  upon  the 
Indians.^  Her  career,  however,  terminated  with  this  expe- 
dition, for  having  met  with  a  repulse  on  the  frontiers  of 
India,  and  her  life  having  been  soon  afterwards  attempted  by 
an  assassin,  at  the  instigation  of  her  own  son,  she  resigned  the 
throne  in  disgust. 

Ninyas  being  thus  placed  in  possession  of  a  powerful  and 
extensive  empire,  his  first  care  was  its  consolidation  by  the 
appointment  of  provincial  governors  in  whom  he  could  confide, 
and  under  whom  were  judges,  generals,  and  all  other  officers 
requisite  for  its  well-being.^  The  satraps,  or  deputies,  were 
instructed  to  raise  a  certain  description  of  force,  which,  after 


as  described 
by  Diod.  Sic. 


"  At  Bisutun  is  a  high  mountain,  the  lower  parts  of  which  have  been 
smoothed  or  scarped,  exactly  as  the  historian  describes  his  Mount  Baghistane 
to  have  been.  On  this  smoothed  front  are  still  to  be  recognized  the  faces  of 
three  colossal  figures;  and  what  is  much  to  the  point,  they  are  obviously 
female  faces.  Diodorus  does  not  mention  in  the  above  extract  that  the 
guards  delineated  on  the  rock  were  females  ;  but  if  my  memory  deceive  me 
not,  we  have  evidence  in  some  author  tliat  the  Assyrian  Queen  was  attended 
by  guards  of  her  own  sex.  Above  the  three  faces  are  tlie  vestiges  of  symbols 
or  characters,  possibly  tlie  faint  remnants  of  the  historian's  Syriac  inscription. 
The  faces  are  carved  in  bas-relief,  and  of  exquisite  workmanship,  attesting 
tlie  perfection  of  the  arts,  of  sculpture  at  least,  at  so  early  a  period.  But  the 
circumstance  of  these  colossal  figures  being  carved  in  bas-relief,  unfortunately 
rendered  their  obliteration  comparatively  easy  to  be  effected,  and  the  whole 
front  of  the  rock  exhibits  the  marks  of  the  chisel  employed  in  the  work  of 
destruction.  These  faces  might  escape  the  observation  of  a  casual  or  inat- 
tentive observer,  but  they  are  readily  as  well  as  more  favourably  seen  by 
looking  upwards  upon  the  rock  in  an  oblique  direction,  and  from  the  north, 
as  in  that  case  their  profiles  are  turned  towards  the  obseiver." 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xvi.,  xvii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xvi. 


CHAP,  v.]  TROJAN  WAR,  AND  ITS  ORIGIN.  1  19 

performing-  military  service  for  one  whole  year,  should  be  dis- 
charged, and  replaced  by  another  levy.  This  is  the  first 
militia  upon  record  in  history. 

The  intercourse  existing  between  Greece  and  the  shores  of  Cause  of  the 
the   Black  Sea,  previously  to  the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts,    ^•'^^  '^^^' 
became  more  constant  after  this  event,  and  so  continued  up  to 
the  siege  of  Troy.     This  celebrated  war  appears  to  have  had  a 
more  remote  cause  than  the  abduction  of  Helen,  being  sup- 
posed to  date  from  the  journey  of  An  tenor  to  demand  his  sister 
Hesione  from  Telamon :  and  its  connexion  with  the  Argonauts 
is  the  more  probable  from  the  circumstance  that  the  sons  of 
some  of  the  heroes  engaged  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  were 
employed  on  this  occasion.     Hence  the^commencement  of  the 
siege  may  be  fixed  at  about  forty-five  or  fifty-five  years  later 
than  the  voyage  alluded  to,  and  probably  about  the  same  time 
after  the  departure  of  Danaus  from  Egypt  for  Argos.     This 
would  place  the  landing  of  the  Greeks  in  Asia  between  1185  B.C.  118.5. 
and    1175  B.C.,  or  nearly  the  time  hitherto    assigned  to  that 
remarkable  event,  which  has,  in  a  great  measure,  served  to  fix 
so  many  dates  belonging  to  the  heroic  age.'     Armenia  appears  An  Armenian 
to  have  shared  in  this  war;  Teutamos,  the  sovereign  of  that empiofed^at 
country,  having  sent  Memnon  thither,  at  the  head  of  a  con-  *^^  ^'''=^- 
tingent  of  10,000  Ethiopians   (of  Asia),  and  as  many  Susians, 
with  the  addition  of  200  chariots.^ 

At  this  period,  Lydia  also  held  an  important  place  in  the 
history  of  the  w^orld,  having  become  a  maritime  power ;  and 
thus,  by  intercourse  with  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  Asia 
Minor  became  one  of  the  links  by  which  knowledge  spread 
westward  from  the  cradle  of  the  human  race. 

In  a  neighbouring  territory,  the  theocracy  of  the  Hebrews 
had  lately  terminated  M'ith  the  death  of  the  prophet  Samuel, 
and  the  regular  Jewish  monarchy  succeeded.     Saul,  the  first  Saul's  acces- 
king,   had    carried    on    successful   w^ars    against    his   pow-erful  ^^"° ^"    ^^  ' 
neighbours  the  Philistines,^  the  Ammonites,^  and  the  Amale- 

'  A  later  time,  namely.  900  b.c,  has  been  given.  See  pp.  31,  32.  40,  54 
of  the  Tables  of  Synchronology,  &c.  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Crossth\vaite. 
Parker,  AYest  Strand.  *  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xvii. 

'  1  Samuel,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  31.         "  Ibid.  v.  47. 


120 


EXTENT  OF  DAVID  S  KINGDOM. 


[chap. 


The  Hagar- 
ites,  Itureans, 
&c. 


David  is 
chosen,  and 


reigns  over 
the  twelve 
tribes. 


The  limits  of 
bis  kingdom 
extended 
beyond  the 
Euphrates. 


kites,'  as  well  as  into  the  more  distant  territories  of  the 
Hagarites,  the  Itureans,  the  Nephisbites,  &c.,  lying  towards 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  He  took  from  these  wealthy 
nomads  100,000  men,  50,000  camels,  250,000  sheep,  and 
2,000  asses,^  notwithstanding  the  support  they  received  from 
the  king  of  Zobah.^  These  nations  had  not  been  able  to 
regain  the  authority  formerly  possessed  by  Cushanrishathaim, 
by  whom  the  nomadic  tribes  west  of  the  Euphrates,  as  well  as 
the  Hebrews  themselves,  hid  been  subjected ;  and  they  were 
overcome  by  the  prudence  and  valour  of  Saul;  but  this 
monarch,  having  experienced  a  signal  defeat  from  the  Philis- 
tines in  the  plains  of  Esdraelon,  fell  by  his  own  hand  in  the 
year  1056  b.c.  The  Philistines  followed  up  their  victory  by 
taking  many  cities,  and  spreading  themselves  over  the  country." 
Things  were  in  this  discouraging  state  when  the  rulers  of  the 
tribe  awarded  the  sceptre  of  Judah  to  David,  in  Hebron ;  the 
other  eleven  tribes  recognizing  Ishbosheth,  the  son  of  Saul,  as 
their  king.  A  civil  war  was  the  consequence  of  this  opposition, 
but  it  was  terminated,  at  the  end  of  seven  years  and  six  months, 
by  the  murder  of  Ishbosheth.  David's  authority  being  then 
acknowledged  by  all  the  tribes,  he  besieged  and  took  Jehus 
from  the  Jebusites,  which  became  from  thenceforth  his  capital. 

Being  now  sole  monarch,  and  free  from  all  internal  enemies, 
the  new  sovereign  gradually  extended  his  dominions  over  Coelo- 
Syria,  Damascus,  Palmyrene,  and  Iturea ;  he  also  subdued  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  Philistines,  and  other  sections  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  who  had  previously  occupied  the  whole 
range  of  country  from  Thapsacus  to  the  borders  of  Egypt; 
thus  realizing  the  covenant  which  was  to  give  to  Abraham  and 
his  posterity  the  territory  from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  the  great 
river.^ 

After  subjugating  the  Edomites,  Moabites,  &c.,  David  added 
still  more  to  his  territory,  having,  towards  the  close  of  his 
reign,  extended  the  borders  even  beyond  the  Euphrates.     Here 

'  1  Samuel,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  48.  *  1  Cluoii.,  chap.  V.,  v.  19,  20,  21. 

'  I  Samuel,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  47. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  XXXI.,  v.  1,  2,  and  following  verses. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  XV.,  v.  18. 


CHAP,  v.]  ROYAL  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SOLOMOX.  121 

he  encountered  Hadarezer,  son  of  Rehob,  king  of  Zobah  (pro-  Brass  brought 
bably  Nisibis),  the  ally  of  the  king  of  Syria ;  and  having  tl^a!  "^^"^ 
defeated  him,  he  brought  "  very  much  brass "  from  Tibhath 
and  Chun,  two  of  his  cities.'  This  commodity  was,  no  doubt, 
the  produce  of  the  mines  near  Diyar  Bekr,  where  it  may  have 
been  found  in  the  same  abundance  as  in  the  present  day,  for 
we  read  that  in  the  time  of  Solomon  there  was  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  left  "  to  make  the  brazen  sea,  the  pillars,  and  the 
vessels  of  brass,"  for  the  service  of  the  Temple.^ 

A  few  months  before  his  death,  David  resigned  to  Solomon,  ^^^^h  °^  ^ 

.        .  .        David,  and 

one  of  his  youngest  sons,  the  government  of  his  kingdom,  which 
was  then  the  principal  monarchy  in  western  Asia.  It  extended, 
as  we  have  seen,  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  country 
of  the  Phoenicians  to  the  Euphrates ;  and,  again,  from  the 
river  of  Egypt  and  the  Elanitic  gulf^  till  it  included  Berytus, 
Hamath,  and  even  Thapsacus.^  The  Canaanites,  who  seem  to 
have  been  obedient  and  peaceful  subjects,  were  tributary  to 
David,  as  were  also  the  Moabites,  Ammonites,  the  nomad 
Arabs,  and  the  Syrians  of  Damascus. 

Finding  peace  on  all  sides,  Solomon's  attention  was  speedily  accession  of 
given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  the  promotion  of  com- 
merce, all  of  which  found  an   active  protector  in  a  monarch 
who  was  distinguished  for  his  learning,  as  well  as  for  his  archi- 
tectural taste.     The  latter  was  displayed  in  his  design  for  the 
celebrated  Temple ;    and   for   the   execution   of  this  splendid 
work  there  w^ere  introduced  into  the  country  many  foreigners, 
from    whom    the    Hebrews    acquired    instruction    in    different 
branches    of   the    mechanical    arts.^      Besides   artizans,   many 
distinguished   individuals,   and    even    sovereign    princes,   were  Tyrian 
attracted   to  Jerusalem,   in   order   to   see    and   converse   with  employed  on 
the  royal  sage,  and  have,  at  the  same  time,  an  opportunity  ^^^  Temple, 
of  examining  in  detail  the  institutions  of  the  State.^     These 
comprehended  the  administration  of  the  laws,  and  the  regu- 

^   1  Chron.,  chap.  XVIII.,  v.  8,   the  Betah  and  Berothai  of  2  Samuel, 
chap.  VIII.  V.  8. 

*  1  Chron.,  chap.  XVIII.,  v.  8.  ^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  539,  540. 

*  2  Chron.,  chap.  II.,  v.  13,  14,  &c.    "  I  have  sent  thee  a  cunning  man," 
&c.     "  Skilful  to  work  in  o^old  and  in  silver,"  &c. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  IX.,  v.  1  and  following  verses. 


122 


ROYAL  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SOLOMON.  [CHAP.  V. 


lations  relating  to  the  discipline  of  an  army,  consisting  of 
infantry,  cavalry,  and  chariots,  for  the  security  of  the  kingdom 
from  foreign  as  well  as  domestic  enemies.  The  court  con- 
tained within  it  all  the  establishments  becoming  the  state  of  a 
great  monarch;  and  the  inferior  details  of  domestic  labours 
were  performed  by  servants  or  slaves,  who  were  designated 
hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water. 
Materials,  ."cc,  The  greater  part  of  Solomon's  subjects  were  employed,  either 
thSucfure.  in  preparing  the  materials  or  in  the  building  of  the  temple,  for 
a  period  of  thirty-nine  years,  having,  besides,  the  effective 
assistance  of  Hiram.  It  appears  that  80,000  men  were 
occupied  in  the  mountains  preparing  stone ;  others,  numbering 
30,000,  were  engaged  in  hewing  wood,  and  there  were  70,000 
bearers  of  burdens,  making  in  all  180,000  constantly  employed, 
under  3,600  overseers.'  The  gold,  silver,  and  other  costly 
materials  left  by  David  expressly  for  the  erection  of  this  superb 
building,  with  the  additions  made  by  Solomon,  and  the  free 
labour  bestowed  upon  the  work,  have  been  estimated  at  a  sum 
exceeding  the  national  debt  of  Great  Britain ;  but  even  at  the 
moderate  computation  of  Josephus,  the  10,000  talents  of  gold 
and  100,000  talents  of  silver,  at  the  lowest  value,  namely  the 
Syrian  talent,  would  be  17,718,750/.' 

Shortly  after  the  completion  of  this  edifice,  Solomon  erected 
what  was  no  doubt  an  idolatrous  temple,  for  the  use  of  his 
Cushite  wife,  the  daughter  of  Miphra  Muthosis,  with  whom  he 
had  received  as  a  dower  the  city  of  Gaza,  which  the  king  of 
Egypt  had  recently  captured.^ 

Solomon  also  built  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness,  and  all  the 
store  cities  in  Hamath;  likewise  Beth-boron  the  upper  and 
Beth-horon  the  nether,  and  Ba'alath  ;  ^  but  the  greatest  under- 
taking of  all,  was  the  establishment  of  regular  commercial 
intercourse  by  sea,  with  that  part  of  the  eastern  world  known 
under  the  name  of  Ophir. 

'  1  Kings,  chap.  V.,  v.  15,  16  ;  2  Cliron.,  chap.  II,,  v.  18  ;  Jos.,  lib.  VIII. 

cap.  ii.  s.  9. 

*  Jos.,  chap.  XIII.,  description  of  the  Temple. 
»  1  Kings,  cliap.  III.,  v.  1. 

*  2  Chrou.,  chap  VIII.,  v.  4,  5,  6,  compared  with  Jo.^..  lib.  VIII.  cap.  vi. 


Cost  of  the 
Temple. 


Store  cities 
built  by 
Solomon. 


CHAP,  v.]    INQUIRY  CO^XERXING  THE  LOCALITY  OF  OPHIR.  123 

The  coasts  of  Arabia  and  eastern  Africa,  with   those  on  Opiiir  sought 
both  sides  of  the   peninsula  of  India,   have  each  in  turn  been  Veil  as  Asia, 
considered  the   place   bearhig  that  name  ;  but  as  the  fir.>t  does 
not  correspond,    either  as  to   distance  or  products,   with   the 
indications  afforded  in  the  Scriptures,  the  question  lies  between 
the  second  and  third  regions. 

Each  of  these  possesses  the  chief  requisites  for  the  return 
cargoes,  but  the  greatest  number  of  authors  are  in  favour  of  the 
coast  of  India,  which  has  all  the  different  products,  possibly  in- 
cluding the  doubtful  almug,  or  algum.^  Although  so  much  has 
been  written  on  the  subject,  a  few  remarks  on  the  time  and 
means  by  which  the  united  fleets  may  have  overcome  the  dangers 
of  Tharshish,  or  the  open  sea,  in  search  of  wealth,  may  not  be 
out  of  place.  In  connexion  with  the  time  mentioned,  a  difli- 
culty  has  arisen  regarding  the  country  of  "the  Queen  of  the 
South,  which  is  imagined  by  some  to  have  been  on  the  eastern, 
whilst  it  has  been  placed  by  others  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Red  Sea.  The  first  rests  in  a  great  measure  on  Arab  history 
and  tradition ;  and  whilst  the  Saba  of  Yemen,  by  its  southern  Saba  of  Yemen 
position,  agrees  with  the  supposed  seat  of  the  Queen's  govern-  ^°  '  ^^°^' 
ment,  the  ancient  Saba,  afterwards  Meroe,^  not  only  agrees  as 
M-ell,  but  it  may  with  greater  propriety  be  styled,  "the  utter- 
most parts  of  the  earth."'^  It  has  already  been  seen  that  the 
Himyarites  of  Arabia  and  the  Sabaeans  of  Africa  were  one  and 
the  same  people/  and  that  the  name  of  Sheba  or  Saba,  equally 
of  Arabic  derivaticn,  is  found  in  both  countries.  But  a  writer, 
whose  veracity  is  now  better  understood  than  formerly, 
mentions  the  interesting  fact,  which  has  been  repeated  by  most 
subsequent  travellers,  that  the  Abyssinians  claim  the  celebrated 
princess  who  visited  Solomon  as  one  of  their  sovereigns ;  The  Queen  of 
adding,  that  her  posterity  reigned  over  their  country  for  a  long  Soiomou. 
time.  Moreover,  the  Abyssinian  annals  describe  the  journey 
of  the  learned  Queen  of  Sheba,  Saba,  or  Asaba  (meaning 
south),  to  visit  Solomon,  and  add  that   she  had  a  son  by  this 

'  Possibly  the  odoriferous  thyon  of  Pliny,  in  lib.  XIIT.,  C!ip   xvi, 

*  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  x.  s.  2.  ^  Matthew,  chap.  XII.,  v.  42. 

*  Ludolphus,  Hist,  ^thiop.  I.,  and  Comment,  ad  suam  Hist,  ^thioji..  lib. 
XVI.,  p.  60. 


124  LAND  AND  SEA  CARAVANS.  [cH.AP.  V. 

monarch,  to  whom,   after  a   reign  of  forty  years,  she  left  the 
kingdom.' 

This  occurred  about  986  B.C.,  and  it  has  been  remarked  that 
the  existing  usages,  and  even  the  religion  of  the  Abyssinians, 
show  traces  of  an  early  intercourse  with  the  Hebrews. 

The  voyage  under  consideration  was  not,   however,   neces- 
sarily directed  to  the  country  of  the  Queen  of  the  South.     It 
Earliest  trade  will  be  rccoUccted  that  the  gold  of  Ophir  was  known  in  the 
^  "^'        time  of  Job,"  as  well  as  in  that  of  David,  having  been  brought 
to  Judea  chiefly,   or  perhaps  entirely,  by  land ;  and,  whatever 
be   the  place  from  whence  that  metal  was  obtained,  the  local- 
ities  of  other  portions  of  the  merchandize  must  be  sought  for 
beyond  the  limits    of    Arabia.      It  has  been  seen   that  this 
Caravan         country  is  at  present  traversed  by  several  caravan  routes  •,^  and, 
Arabia.  ^°°^  in  ancient  times,   those  of   the  Sabseans  towards  the  western 
side  of   the  peninsula  converged  on   Petra  and  Egypt;    the 
Sabean  city  of  Mareb  being  the  grand  mercantile  depot,  while 
those  towards  the  eastern  side  tended  to  Tadmor,  which  was 
another  great  emporium,  from  whence  there  were  branches  to 
Jerusalem,  Tyre,  Ba'alat  (Baalbek),  and  the  other  store  cities. 
Since  the  camel  finds  sustenance  even  in  the  most  desert  tracts, 
almost  any  distance   may  be  accomplished  by  caravans  com- 
posed of  these  animals  ;  the  allotment  of  a  sufficient  number,  to 
transport  from  place  to   place  the   supplies  of  provisions  and 
water,    in    addition    to    the    merchandize,   being    all    that  is 
required :  the  formation  of  ship  caravans,  however,  must  have 
been   very  difi'erent,  owing  to  the   extreme  difficulty  of  their 
organization.     The  compass  was   unknown,    as    well    as    the 
Difficulties      monsoons ;  and  even   if  there  had  been  sufficient  knowledge  of 
trad"e*^by^sea.    ^^^  winds  and  of  the  geography  of  the  countries,  to  enable  the 
navigators  to  shape  a  direct  course,  the  sort  of  ship  then  in  use 
must  necessarily  have   confined  them   to    a   coasting    voyage, 
which,  in  fact,  was  all  that  the  Phoenicians  attempted  at  a  later 
period  with  superior  vessels.     Supposing  the  barks  depicted  in 
the  grottos  of  Eleutherium  and  other  places  in  Egypt,  as  well 

'  Bruce's  Travels,  &c.,  vol.  II.,  p.  109-113. 

*  Chap.  XXII.,  V.  24. 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.  pp.  618,  629,  630,  637,  685. 


CHAP,  v.]  TIME  or  A  VOYAGE  TO  AFRICA.  125 

as  in  the  temples  of  India,  to  give  some  idea  of  those  in  use 
on  the  Red  Sea  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  and  taking  the  size  of  ^^^eil^""^"^ 
the  men  and  other  objects  as  a  guide  in  forming  a  judgment, 
the  vessels  must  have  been  mere  flat  boats,  of  between  three 
and  five  tons  burthen  ;  sometimes  with  a  square  sail  to  assist, 
but  depending  chiefly  on  rowers.  For  this  reason,  they  had  a 
much  greater  proportion  of  men  than  sailing  vessels  require ; 
and  supplies  of  water  would  have  been  requisite  almost  every 
day,  and  of  provisions  very  frequently.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  flotilla  was  not  likely  to  accomplish  more  than  the 
vessels  of  Nearchus  did ;  the  daily  progress  during  the  cool 
season  in  day-time,  and  at  night  during  the  summer,  may 
therefore  be  estimated  at  twenty-five  miles  at  most. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  about  the  Mozambique  channel,  Products  of 
would  afford  gold,  silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks  or  parrots ;  LLtof Africa. 
and  the  distance,  following  the  coast,  including  that  of  the  Red 
Sea,  is  about  4405  miles.  This,  at  25  miles  per  day, 
would  require  170  days,  or,  with  the  sabbaths  and  halts,  218. 
This,  with  90  for  the  monsoon,  and  120  for  the  delay  in 
collecting  the  merchandize,  would  give  428  days  in  all ;  w  hich, 
adding  308  for  the  return  voyage,  would  be  two  years  and  six 
days ;  and  this,  according  to  Hebrew  computation,  w^ould  be 
called  three  years. 

But  as  the  gold  of  Ophir,'  and  at  least  some  of  the  other 
objects  of  merchandize  were  prepared  during  the  reign  of 
David,^  it  follows  that  the  countries  from  whence  they  were 
brought  must  also  have  been  known  before  communications 
were  opened  by  vessels,  and  the  destination  of  the  latter  must 
therefore  be  sought  somewhere  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
existing  caravan  lines. 

The  most  important  of  these  was  that  adopted  by  Solomon,  Trade  between 
which  passed  through  Tadmor  towards  the  Persian  Gulf    This  persLu^Guif 
line  appears  to  have  been  in  use  since  the  Phoenicians  removed 

'  Three  thousand  talents  of  the  gold  of  Ophir,  and  TOGO  talents  of  refined 
silver  ;  also  wood,  onyx  stones,  and  all  manner  of  precious  stones.  1  Chron., 
chap.  XXIX.,  V.  2-5. 

*  For  preparation  of  the  materials,  see  1  Chron.,  chap.  XXII.,  XXVIII.. 
XXIX. 


126  TIME  AND  DISTANCE  OF  [CHAP.  V. 

from  the  shores  of  the  latter  to  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
Arados  and  Tylos  being  afterwards  depots  for  imports  from 
more  distant  countries.  No  doubt  the  merchandize  sought 
was  brought  there  in  the  first  instance  by  land,  but  probably 
afterwards  by  water  also  ;  and  circumstances,  otherwise  trifling, 
go  far  to  show  that  a  remote  tract  of  the  east  was  the  seat  of 
this  trade.  The  Siugalese  kakyn  nama,  or  sweet-wood,  cinna- 
mon,^ together  with  other  Indian  articles,  such  as  pepper,  fine 
linen,  or  muslin  and  cotton,  have  each  a  Greek  name,  which 
corresponds  with  the  original  Sanscrit.^ 

Moreover,  it  is  expressly  stated  by  Josephus,  that,  in  order 
to  fetch  gold,  the  shipping  of  Hiram  and  Solomon  proceeded 
to  a  land,  which  of  old  was  called  Ophir,  but  is  now  the  Aurea 
Chersonesus,  and  belongs  to  India.^     As  the  ancient  Egyptian 
The  Aurea      name   of  the  latter  country  was  Sophir,"*  which  is  nearly  that 
considered  as  uscd  in  the  Scptuagint,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  peninsula 
Ophir.  q£  Malacca  and  the  adjoining  tracts  may  represent  the  Ophir 

of  Job,  David,  and  Solomon.  The  name  itself  is  still  pre- 
served, being  given  to  Gounang-passaman,  one  of  the  culmi- 
nating points  of  the  great  chain  in  the  island  of  Sumatra,  a 
lofty  mountain  rising  to  the  height  of  13,842  feet. 

The   country  lying  between  this  island  and  Cape  Comorin 

produces  sandal-wood  (which  probably  represents  the  algum), 

as  M^ell  as  the  other  objects  of  the  voyage.     These  were,  in  all 

Products        probability,  obtained  by  barter  only,  at  the  expense  of  much 

byTelus*o7^  time    in    going    from   place   to  place ;    and  the   delay  which 

barter.  occurrcd  ou  this  account  must  have   been   increased   by  the 

necessity  of  waiting  for  a  change  of  monsoon  to  return.     As 

the  nature  of  the  flotilla  put  a  direct  voyage  out  of  the  question, 

that  to  Ophir  could  have  been  accomplished  only  by  coasting 

along  the  shores  of  Arabia,  afterwards  (supposing  Ophir  were 

'  This  name  was  imported  with  the  commodity.  Ilerod.,  lib.  III. 
cap.  iii. 

*  Ileeren's  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  II.  p.  421  et  seq.,  Bohn,  184(>,  com- 
pared with  Quatreraere,  Mem.de  I'Acad.  des  Inscriptions,  tome  XV.  pt.  ii. 
p.  ;349-402. 

''  Ant.,  lib.  VIII.  cap.  6,  s.  4. 

*  Michaelis,  Spicilegium  Geog.  Heb.,  II.  184. 


y 


T^^A 


}   J 


■> 

\'''^"  4' 

CHAP.  V.J  THE  OPHHUAX   VOYAGE..  127 

in  India),  keeping  along  that  of  Mekran,  and  finally  following 
both  sides  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan  : — 

From  Ezion-geber,  or  Dlialiab,'  pursuing'  the  windings  of 

the  coast,  the  western  side  of  Arabia  gives  a  distance  of  1206  miles. 
The  southern  side  of  the  peninsula  to  tlie  coast  of  Persia, 

at  the  Straits  of  Ormuz.          .....  1660 

From  the  Straits  of  Ormuz  to  the  liiver  Indus       .          .  732 

P>om  the  latter  to  Cape  Comorin        ....  1390 

From  Cape  Comorin  to  the  River  Ganges    .           .          .  1350 

From  the  River  Ganges  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca.           .  1500 

Total         .  .     7838     ,, 

At  the  rate  of  about  25  miles  in  24  hours,  this  would  occupy  Distances  aud 
313  days,  which,  with  the  addition  of  the  sabbaths,  44  days,  fo^th^vojage. 
and  other  halts,  as  rests,  at  intervals  of  about  10  days,  say  31, 
would  make  the  outward  voyage  to  the  coafet  of  Sumatra  quite 
388  days;  and  this  is  exclusive  of  detention  from  bad  weather, 
which  must  have  occurred  frequently,  especially  during  the 
monsoons ;  for  assuredly  such  frail  barks  could  not  venture  to 
proceed,  excepting  at  the  commencement,  or  towards  the 
termination  of  these  periodical  winds.  This  applies  more 
particularly  to  the  Red  Sea ;  for  outside  of  the  straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  and,  again,  along  the  coasts  of  Mekran  and 
the  western  side  of  India,  the  only  resource  would  be  to  haul 
up  the  flotilla  until  the  strength  of  the  gale  were  passed.  It  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  time  lost  in  consequence  of  these 
delays,  outward  and  homeward ;  but  as  a  monsoon  would  be  Delay  and 

,      ,       .  ,  difficulties 

encountered  durnig  each  voyage,  about  three  months  may  be  caused  by  the 
allowed,  making  90  days  each  way  ;  and  as  from  90  to  120 
days  would  probably  be  occupied  on  the  coasts  of  Ophir  and 
Parvaim'  in  bartering  for  the  desired  articles,  and  in  refitting 
the  ships,  this  number  of  days,  with  478  for  the  return  voyage, 
will  give  1076  days,  or  nearly  three  years  in  all,  for  the  time 
consumed  in  an  enterprise  which  forms  one  of  the  glories  of 
Solomon's  reign. 

As  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  skill  and  intrepidity  of  the  The  early 

n   TT  1  1  1  •  ^     r\    ^  •  ii       trade  of  the 

ship-men  or  Hiram  that  the  trade  with  (Jphir  was  opened  by  Pha-nicians 

'  This  place  is  represented,  Plate  45. 
*  2  Chron.,  chap.  III.  v.  6. 


128 


PH(ENICIAN  VOYAGES  WESTWARD. 


[chap.  V. 


extended  by 
the  Tyrians 


into  Africa 
and  Europe. 


sea,  it  will   not  be  out  of  place  to  revert  to  the  progress  pre- 
viously made  by  these  mariners. 

By  the  extension  of  the  earliest  navigation,  Tzur,  or  Tyre, 
had  assumed  a  high  place  as  the  emporium  of  trade  with 
various  kingdoms,'  having  gotten  gold  and  silver  into  her 
treasures,  by  great  wisdom  and  traffic." 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  their  leader  was  Arcles,  who, 
as  the  Tyrian  Hercules,^  was  the  first  navigator  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  the  founder  of  several  colonies ;  he  was  deified 
by  the  Tyrians,  and  even  by  the  Egyptians,  by  whom  he  had 
been  expelled. 

The  settlement  in  Spain,  which  Arcles  had  intrusted  to  his 
son  Hispal,  speedily  became  the  most  valuable  of  these  infant 
colonies. 

From  Cadiz,  the  principal  port  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
Peninsula,  voyages  were  undertaken  to  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  where  the  colonies  appear  to  have  been  so  numerous 
that,  at  a  later  period,  we  are  told  the  Getuli  destroyed  about 
300  settlements  belonging  to  the  Phoenicians.'*  Other  voyages, 
again,  were  directed  northward,  and  appear  to  have  been 
extended  to  the  British  islands,  and  the  estuary  of  the  Khine, 
if  not  also  to  the  Baltic  Sea. 

The  mines  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula  of 
Iberia,  about  Tartessus,  Carteia,  &c.,  seem  to  have  contributed 
still  more  to  the  extension  ol  the  trade  of  Phoenicia.  Gold 
and  silver,  which  were  at  this  period  so  abundant  as  to  be  used 

'  Fine  linen  with  broidered  work  from  E^ypt  was  woven  in  thy  sail,  blue 
and  purple  from  the  Isles  of  Elisha  (Hellas).  They  of  Persia,  of  Lud,  and 
of  Phut  were  in  thine  army.  Tarshish  was  thy  merchant ;  Javan,  Tubal,  and 
Meshech,  they  were  thy  merchants  :  they  traded  in  men  and  vessels  of  brass. 
Togorniah  traded  in  thy  fairs  with  horses  and  mules.  The  men  of  Dedan 
brought  thee  horns  of  ivory  and  ebony.  Syria  was  thy  merchant :  they 
occupied  in  thy  fairs  with  emeralds,  purple,  and  broidered  work,  and  fine 
linen,  and  coral  and  agate.  Haran,  and  Canneh  (Calneh),  and  Eden,  the 
merchants  of  Sheba,  Asshur,  and  Chilmad,  were  thy  merchants,  &c. — Ezekiel, 
chap.  XXVII.,  v.  7,  10,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  23. 

^  Ibi.l.,  chap.  XXVIII.,  V.  4,  5. 

*  Cic,  de  Xat.  Divin.,  lib.  III.,  compared  with  Jusephus,  Ant.,  lib.  VIII. 
cap.  V. 

*  Strabo,  lib.  XVII.,  p.  825. 


CHAP,  v.]  TARLV   USE  OF  IRON  AND  OTHER  METALS.  129 

for  anchors,  and  even  farming  implements,  were  sent  into  the 
latter  country  to  be  exchanged,  together  with  glass,  purple, 
fine  linen,  and  trinkets,  for  the  commodities  of  eastern 
countries. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  Tyrians  had  availed  themselves  Early  com- 
of  the  waters  of  the  lied  Sea  for  commercial  purposes  previ-  Red'seaf 
ously  to  the  voyages  undertaken  by  Solomon,  although  no  dis- 
tinct proofs  of  the  fact  have  been  handed  down  in  connexion 
with  their  history.  Gold  of  Ophir,  coral,  pearls,  and  the  topaz, 
were  known  in  the  time  of  Job ;  ^  and  when  Joseph  was  sold, 
we  hear  of  a  mixed  caravan  of  Ishmaelites  and  Midianites, 
merchantmen  engaged  in  trade.^  During  the  Exodus,  gold, 
silver,  brass,  iron,  tin,  and  lead,  were  found  in  Idumea ;  ^  and 
it  will  be  remembered  that  David's  preparations  for  the 
Temple,  included  gold  of  Ophir,  silver,  bfass,  iron,  the  onyx, 
and  other  precious  stones.^ 

It  appears  that  during  the  reign  of  the  latter  monarch,  the 
idolatrous  title  of  Abii  Ba'al  (Abibalus),  which  had  been  given 
to  the  first  sovereign  of  Tyre,  was  renewed,  and  bestowed  on 
the  father  of  Hiram. 

The  reign  of  this  prince  was   particularly  connected  with  The  temples 
the   religion   of   the   country,  for,   according  to   Menander  of  dedicated  to 
Ephesus,  he  pulled  down  the  existing  temples,  and  constructed  Astarte^^  ^^'^ 
others,  which  he  consecrated  to  Hercules  and  Astarte.^ 

The  historian  of  the  Jews  continues  the  line  from  this 
sovereign  to  Pygmalion,  in  the  seventh  year  of  Mhose  reign, 
and  143  years  after  the  building  of  the  temple,  Dido  fled  into 
Africa.^ 

Whether  in  consequence  of  growing  dissensions  or  want  of  Departure  of  a 

r-im-  1  1    J   1.       ^  L  colony  from 

space,  a  portion  oi  the  1  yrian  people  proceedea  to  tne  coast  Tyre, 
of  Africa,  where  a  suitable  site  was  obtained  for  a  city;  and  as 
the  best  means  of  maintaining  a  position  situated  at  the  extre- 
mity of  a  continent  inhabited  by  a  warlike  people,  they  con- 
sented to  pay  a  ground-rent  or  tribute."     Carthage  occupied  a 

'  Chap.  XXVIII.,  V.  15-20.  '  Gen.,  chap.  XXXVII.,  v.  28,  36. 

^  Xumb.,  chap.  XXXI.,  v.  22,  50.      "  I  Chron.,  cliap.  XXIX.,  v.  2,  4. 
*  Josephus,  Cont.  Apion,  lib.  I.,  s.  18.  "  Ibid. 

^  Justin,  XIX.,  2. 
VOL.  II.  K 


130 


VARIOUS  COLONIES  ESTABIJSHED  IN  AFRICA.        [cHAP.  V. 


of  Carthage 
and 


peninsula  between  Tunis  and  Leptis,  which,  by  projecting  into 
the  gulf  of  the  former,  gave  rise  to  two  bays,  both  of  which 
Establishment  wcre  tolerably  well  sheltered  by  the  projection  of  Cape  Bon. 
The  city  was  defended  on  the  land  side  by  the  citadel  of 
Byrsa,  and  triple  walls,  ninety  feet  high  by  thirty  feet  broad, 
the  rest  of  its  circumference  being  protected  by  a  single  line.^ 

The  system  which  had  raised  the  parent  city  to  a  hitherto 
unexampled  state  of  prosperity  was  pursued  at  Carthage,  with 
the  advantage  of  occupying  the  centre,  instead  of,  as  at  Tyre, 
the  extremity  of  the  commercial  outlets,  which  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  commanded,  into  Europe  and  Africa.  The  former 
continent  especially,  on  account  of  the  rich  mines  of  Andalusia, 
required  intervening  stations,  such  as  the  Balearic  Isles,  Sar- 
dinia, Sicily,  &c.,  in  addition  to  a  chain  of  settlements  along 
the  African  shores,  from  the  pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  seat  of 
government.  Besides  the  preceding  colonies,  some  of  which 
were  merely  renewed,  having  been  first  instituted  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, others  were  placed  in  different  parts  of  Mauritania, 
Numidia,  Cyrenaica,  and  Marmarica.~ 

The  latter  stations  fulfilled  the  double  object  of  promoting 
agricultural  industry  and  encouraging  the  trade  of  the  mother- 
country,  by  serving  as  depots  of  merchandize  at  suitable  dis- 
tances, for  the  use  of  the  caravans  trading  to  the  interior ;  and 
as  the  safety  of  these  isolated  positions  required  the  good-will 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  were,  generally  speaking,  warlike,  their 
sanction  was  secured  by  territorial  acknowledgments  and  other 
considerations.^ 

The  colonies  in  the  interior  contributed  largely,  partly  in  the 
shape  of  tribute,  but  chiefly  in  agricultural  produce,  towards 
the  expenses  of  Carthage,  whose  resources  were  also  augmented 
by  supplies  from  her  numerous  colonies  elsewhere.  These 
were  partly  received  as  taxes,  and  partly  as  donations  to  the 


various 
colonies 
elsewhere. 


Colonial 
resources  of 
Carthage. 


'  Appian,  I.,  435,  &c.,  compared  with  Campomanes,  Antiquidad  Maritima 
de  la  Republica  Carthago. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  compared  with  Heeren's  Hist.  Researches,  Africa, 
vol.  I.,  p.  7,  and  pp.  39,  40. 

"  Polybius,  I.,  177,  compared  with  Heeren's  Hist.  Researches,  Africa, 
vol.  I.,  p.  30. 


CHAP,  v.]  GREATNESS  OF  CARTHAGE.  131 

chief  city  of  a  kind  of  federation,  which  was  established  for  the 
object  of  mutual  benefit,  rather  than  with  the  view  of  exercising 
an  acknowledged  dominion. 

Having  in  the  very  outset  the  advantage  of  the  experience  Phoenician 
which  the  parent  city  had  derived  from  several  centuries  offou,m°°of^ 
traffic  by  laud  as  well  as  by  sea,  the  African  colony  of  Carthage,  q^\^^ 
instead  of  seeking  new  paths,  such  as   those  pursued  by  its 
predecessors,  had  only  to  follow  their  steps,  taking  advantage 
of  a  more  extensive  field.      For,  besides  additional  maritime 
colonies,  Carthage  possessed  the  resources  derived  from  the  con- 
tinent of  Africa,  through  the  agricultural  establishments  which 
had  been  formed  in  the  interior,  in  connexion  with  the  capital. 

Africa,  including  Egypt,  produced  corn,  fruits,  wax,  honey,  Commercial 
skins  of  wild  beasts,  ivory,  gold,  silver,  flax,  linen,  kc,  in  great  AfticT^  ° 
abundance.  Frankincense,  perfumes,  gold,  pearls,  and  precious 
stones,  together  with  the  purple,  trinkets,  and  rich  stuffs,  &:c., 
of  Tyre,  were  received  from  the  Red  Sea  and  Arabia,  as  well 
as  the  countries  Iving  eastward  of  the  latter;  and  from  the 
western  and  northern  countries  they  imported  iron,  tin,  copper, 
lead,  amber,  gold,  and  silver. 

Having  thus  the  greatest  part  of  the  resources  of  the  world  Nature  of  the 
at  command,  with  the  advantages  of  a  government  which,  being  fnd^™™^°  ' 
partly  aristocratic  and  partly  democratic,  was  considered  the 
most  perfect  hitherto  known,^  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  Car- 
thaginians should  have  gradually  raised  their  city  to  a  pitch  of 
greatness,  exceeding  that  of  Tyre  at  her  most  splendid  period. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,   extensive  colonization  necessarily 
produced   many  jealousies,  while   ambition  excited   by  pros- 
perity, speedily  led  to  foreign  wars ;  and  with  mercenary  troops,  cause  of  the 
which  could  be  raised  to  almost  any  extent  in  Africa  and  Spain,  ^arg'^^^'"'^" 
Carthage    subsequently  engaged    in   a    protracted    and,    as    it 
proved,  fatal  contest  with  the  future  mistress  of  the  world. 

But  before  becoming  involved  in  a  struggle  for  existence, 
maritime  enterprises,  similar  to  those  made  to  Ophir  in  the 
time  of  Solomon,  were  occasionally  undertaken  by  this  people ; 
which,  as  coming  within  the  limits  of  this  work,  will  be  noticed 
in  their  proper  places. 

'  Aristotle,  de  Rep.,  lib.  IV. 

k2 


132  DIVISION  OF  THE  HEBREW  KINGDOM.  [CHAP.  V. 

The  infant  kingdom  of  Israel  acquired  much  strength  towards 
the  close  of  David's  career,  and  it  continued  to  progress  during 
that  of  his  successor,  when  its  power  was  increased  and  consoli- 
dated, by  means  of  extensive  commercial  and  political  relations 
with  other  countries. 
Dissatisfaction  But  a  chaiigc  took  placc  about  the  end  of  Solomon's  till 
of  the  Hebrew  ^l^gj^  pposperous  reign:  the  introduction  of  idolatry,^  and  the 
heavy  taxes  exacted  for  the  support  of  his  luxurious  capital  and 
effeminate  court,  having  sown  the  seeds  of  defection  previously 
to  this  monarch's  decease.  The  bulk  of  the  Israelites  were 
consequently  ready  to  revert  to  a  state  of  discord ;  and  the 
enterprising  Jeroboam  was  the  most  formidable  of  the  three 
principal  leaders,  whose  attempts  to  gain  power  distracted  the 
commencement  of  the  succeeding  reign. 

The  imprudent  conduct  of  Eehoboam  speedily  caused  a 
separation  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom,  and  Jeroboam  having 
returned  in  haste  from  Egypt,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  ten 
tribes  and  of  the  tributary  nations.  The  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment, now  called  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  was  at  Shechem. 
The  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  forming  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  only  remained  to  Rehoboam,  whose  capital  was  Jeru- 
salem. The  idolatry  of  Egypt  had  been  adopted,  in  a  great 
measure,  by  the  bulk  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and  Jeroboam 
easily  induced  the  Egyptians,  his  allies,  to  punish  and  humble 
the  king  of  Judah,  who  having  permitted  idolatry  in  his  own 
dominions,  had  drawn  upon  himself  this  chastisement,  the 
coming  of  which  was  made  known  to  him  by  the  prophet 
Shemaiah.^ 
Shishak  Amcnophis,  who,    according  to   Manetho,  was   the   son   of 

inTades  Judea.  Tg|-}^^-fjQgis  and  grandsou  of  Myspharmuthosis,  or  Misphragmu- 
thosis,  the  father-in-law  of  Solomon,  was  on  the  throne  at  this 
time.^  He  was  the  Bala  of  the  Arabians,  and  appears  to  have 
been  deified  under  the  title  of  Ba'al,  or  Belus :  *  he  is  supposed 
also  to  have  been  the  famous  Shishak,  or  Schesonk.     At  the 

'   1  Kings,  chap.  XI.,  v,  7,  8. 

*  2  Chron.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  2,  3,  4. 

'•'  Ancient  Fragments  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  118. 

*  Crossthwaite's  Synchronology,  p.  245. 


CHAP,  v.]  EXTENT  OF  THE  ASSYRIAN  DOMINION'.  133 

head  of  1200  chariots,  60,000  horsemen,  and  a  people  without  B.C.  971. 
number,  inckiding  the  Lubims,  the  Sukkiims,  and  Ethiopians, 
he  took  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah  ;  Jerusalem  itself  surrendered 
to  his  arms,  when  he  carried  off  the  treasures  of  the  Temple 
and  those  of  the  palace,^  leaving  Rehoboam  weaker,  and  con- 
sequently less  able  than  before,  to  contend  with  the  increasing 
power  of  Jeroboam  and  the  Israelites. 

Turning  towards  western  Asia  at  this  period,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  extension  of  the  Haiganians,  or  Armenians,  as  a  people, 
had  hitherto  been  chiefly  towards  the  east ;  they  followed,  in  the  Spread  of  the 
first  instance,  one  of  the  vales  of  Eden,  now  a  fertile  valley  of  •™'''^^^'^^- 
the  Araxes,  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  from 
thence  they  spread  into  the  gorges  of  the  Caucasus,  under  the 
name  of  Haikanians. 

They  are  the  Gargareis  of  Strabo,  who  places  them  north  of 
Albania,  close  to  the  Amazons,  and  says  that  they  came  with 
the  latter  from  Themiscyra,  on  the  Black  Sea."  In  all  proba- 
bility they  are  one  of  the  many  colonies  that  came  into 
Armenia  after  the  first  great  emigration  from  Shinar. 

The  Armenian  kingdom  appears  to  have  been  consolidated 
at  this  particular  period  under  Pharnak,  who  made  the  country 
independent,  and  succeeded  in  so  maintaining  it,  although 
exposed  to  the  invasion  of  two  powerful  enemies,  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians,  who  menaced  him  in  turn  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  fifty-three  years  of  his  reign. 

The  Assyrian  or  Cushite  dominion  was  very  extensive  about 
this  time,  for  it  not  only  included  Arabia  and  I'ran,  which  was 
now  the  seat  of  government,  but  also  the  dependencies  of  the 
latter  in  central  Asia,  and  even  in  India.  At  this  remote 
period,  the  latter  region  was  composed  of  three  immense  pro-  India  com- 
vinces :  that  of  the  Ganges,  that  of  the  Indus,  and  peninsular  provinces.  ^^^ 
India,  all  of  which  paid  tribute  to  I'ran,  having  been  previ- 
ously subjected  by  Feridiiu  or  Arbaces.' 

Subsequently,  however,  Tartary  appears  to  have  gained  a 
temporary  ascendancy,  I'ran  having  been  occupied  for  twelve 
years  by  Afrisiab,  king  of  Tiiran.     This  prince  was  in  turn 

'  2  Chron.,  chap.  XII.,  v.  3,  9.  *  Strabo,  XL,  p.  504. 

^  Sir  William  Jones,  vol.  I.,  p   49. 


134  CUSH  USED  TO  SIGNIFY  ARABIA.  [CHAP.  V. 

expelled    by   Zal,    father    of    Rustam,    hereditary   prince    of 
Seistan ;  and  the  last  was  succeeded  by  Loo,  or  Loah. 

This  sovereign,  and  the  period  of  his  reign,  appear  to  syn- 
Zerah.the  chronisc  with  Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  and  his  invasion  of  Judea 
Tades  Judea?"  "  with  a  vast  amiv  and  300  chariots."  ^  Dr.  Wells  remarks 
that  the  original  word  Cush  could  not  have  meant  the  portion 
of  Africa  so  called,  which  lay  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
Judea  to  permit  such  an  invasion :  moreover,  if  it  had  taken 
place  from  that  part  of  the  world,  the  intervening  country  of 
Egvpt  must  have  been  passed  through,  and  subdued  by  such  a 
powerful  host." 

But  the  geographical  difficulty  will  cease  if  we  bear  in  mind, 
that  the  word  Cush  was  applied  to  the  Arabian  as  well  as  to 
the  African  territory ;  and  probably  it  formed  at  this  moment 
a  part  of  that  extensive  empire  which  stretched  continuously 
from  the  shores  of  the  Ked  Sea  to  the  territories  of  I'ran,^ 
from  whence  Judea  had  already  been  frequently  invaded. 

About  this  period  Assyria  resumed  her  place  in  the  history 

of  the  world,  after  having  been  for  a  lengthened  period  almost 

The  Assyrians  a  Complete  blank,  and  scarcely  noticed  in  profane  history.     It 

in  the  time  of  is,  howevcr,  clear  that  the  dominion  founded  by  Nimriid  con- 

ra  am;       ^iuued  iutact  up  to  the  time  of  Abraham,  when  the  subsidiary 

kings  of  Elam,  Shinar,  and  Ellasar,  are  mentioned  as  following 

Tidal,  the  Assyrian  king  of  kings,  or  of  nations,  to  the  borders 

of  Palestine ;  ^  and  it  seems  to  have  been  unimpaired  at  the 

time  of  Balaam's  prophecy  regarding  Ashur,^  as  well  as  when 

Cushan-rishathaim,  the  dependent  sovereign  of  3Jesopotamia, 

occupied  Judea.^ 

The  defensive  preparations  of  the  Hyksos,  as  mentioned  by 
profane  writers,'  also  show  that  at  this  period   the  Assyrian 

and  also  at  a      '  i     i      i  ^       ^        ^  p  -r^  i   •     •   ^•1 

later  period,  power  extended  almost  to  the  borders  oi  Egypt ;  and  it  is  hke- 
wise  evident  that  it  was  in  full  force  more  than  a  thousand 
years  after  its  formation,  when  Teutamos,  the  twentieth  sove- 

'  2  Chron.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  7. 

''  Wells'  Geog.  of  the  Bible,  vol.  1.,  p.  192. 

*  Kuscli  Kabgok. 

■*  See  page  65  of  present  volume,  and  Gen.,  chap.  XIV.,  v.  I. 

*  Numbers,  chap.  XXR'.,  v.  22.  *  Juiiges,  chap.  III.,  v.  8,  10. 
"  See  above,  p.  73. 


CHAP,  v.]  ASSYRIAN  AND  MEDIAN  DYNASTIES.  135 

reign  from  Niiiyas,  led  a  contingent  to  the  siege  of  Troy.'  '^}^^  Assyrian 
Other  incidental  circumstances  are  mentioned  by  Euscbius, 
Syncelhis,  and  Diodorus  Sicuhis,  in  addition  to  the  more 
detailed  history  of  the  kingdom  given  by  Ctesias  from  the 
Persian  archives.  The  latter,  who  had  the  advantage  of  col- 
lecting his  materials  during  a  residence  of  seventeen  years  at 
the  court  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  commences  with  Nimrikl  or 
Ashur,  and  gives  in  succession  Ninus,  Semiramis,  Ninyas, 
Arius,  Azalius,  Xerxes  or  Baleus  I.,  Armamithres,  Belochus  I., 
Baleus  II.,  Sethos  (called  Attados),  Mamythus,  Ascaleus, 
Ascarius  or  Maschaleus,  Spherus,  Mamylus,  Spartheus, 
Ascatides,  Amyntes,  Belochus  II.,  Baletores  or  Beletaras, 
Lamprides,  Sosares,  Lamparus,  Panyas,  Sosarmes,  Mithreus, 
Teutamus  or  Tautanus,  Teuteus,  Thineus,  Dercylas,  Em- 
pacmes  or  Eupales,  Saosthenes,  Pertiades  or  Perithiades, 
Ophrateus,  Ephecheres,  Acraganes,  and  Thonos  Concolerus  or 
Sardanapalus. 

The  reign  of  this  monarch,  who  appears  to  represent  the  Median 
earlier  Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks,  was  terminated  by  a  revo-  cording'to 
lution,  in  which  he  w'as  overthrown  by  Arbaces,  who,  assisted 
by  the  Babylonian  forces  under  Belesis,  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  The  dynasty  of  the  former,  namely,  Mandauces, 
Sosarmus,  Artychas,  Arbianes,  Arta^us,  Artynas,  Astybaras, 
Aspadas  or  Astyages,  and  Cyrus,  ten,  including  Arbaces,  is 
called  Median  by  Ctesias,  owing  to  the  founder  being  con- 
sidered one  of  this  people,  though  in  reality  an  Assyrian.  This, 
and  a  similar  circumstance  at  a  later  period,  regarding  Deioces, 
have  caused  some  historical  difficulties,  which  may,  however, 
be  in  a  great  measure  removed  by  distinguishing  the  Median 
dynasty  of  Ctesias,  which  commenced  with  Arbaces,  from  the 
later  line,  beginning,  according  to  Herodotus,  with  Dejoces  :^ 
Media  being  in  each  case  a  satrapy  of  the  empire,  and  not  a  Historical  dif- 

.  ^  "  '■  ficulties  caused 

separate  nation.^  by  the  Median 

But  even  if  no  such  explanation  were  offered  respecting  the  ^^^  ' 

'  Diod  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xvii. 

"  This  distinction  is  the  result  of  the  talented  researches  of  the  late  T.  M. 
Dickinson,  Esq.,  Secretary  of  the  Bombay  branch.— See  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  vol.  IV.,  p.  217,  &c.     London,  1837. 


136  DURATION  OF  THE  ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE.  [cHAP.  V. 

relative  condition  of  Media,  it  could  scarcely  be  supposed  that 

the  once-powerful  kingdom  of  Assyria  should  have  ceased  to 

exist   from    the    reign    of    Ninyas   to    that   of    Sardanapalus. 

The  Assyrian  Indeed,  it  is  shown  by  undoubted  authority,  that  at  the  time 

empire,  and  ^  •'  .  ''  . 

of  the  commencement  of  the  Median  revolt  under  Deioces,  or 
Kaikobad,  the  Assyrians  had  already  been  masters  of  upper 
Asia  for  a  period  of  520  years.^  And  the  probability  that  in 
his  last  work  on  Assyria,  the  historian  may  have  distinguished 
between  the  great  empire  over  central  Asia,  and  the  previous 
state  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  is  strengthened  by  the  account 
of  Trogus  Pompeius  in  Justin,  who  says  -  that  the  Assyrians 
ruled  in  Asia  for  the  term  of  1300  years. 

There  must,  doubtless,  have  been  a  line  of  sovereigns  during 
its  line  of        the  period  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  if  not  the  whole  of  the 
probably         interval  in  question  ;  and  possibly  such  as  that  supposed  to  have 
uninterrupted,  j^^^,^  taken  from  the  Persian  archives.     And  as  several  circum- 
stances mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  later,  as  well  as  the 
earlier  sovereigns,  are  substantiated  from  other  sources,  may 
not  greater  weight  be  claimed  for  the  historian  of  Cnidus,  than 
that  which  has  usually  been  given  to  his  enumeration  of  the 
earlier  kings  ?     It  is  just  possible  that  the  monumental  history 
and  inscriptions  now  being  rescued  from  the  ruins  left  by  time 
Remains  near  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  may,  when  deciphered,  not  only 
enlighten  the    prove  that  the  archives  in  question  existed,  but  also  in  some 
hiSory!"        degree  restore  the  important  link  wanting  in  the  early  history 
of  Assyria.^ 

'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xcv. 

*  Lib.  T.,  cap.  ii.,  compared  with  Agathias  Scholasticus,  lib.  II.,  p.  63. 

^  Considering  the  vast  importance  of  these  discoveries  in  connexion  with 
the  earliest  postdiluvian  liistory,  it  cannot  be  uninteresting-  to  give  the  extract 
of  a  letter  addressed  by  Mr.  Hector,  an  officer  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition, 
to  Tliomas  Stirling,  Esq.,  of  Sheffield,  dated  June,  1845,  respecting  his  visit 
to  Khorsabad,  &c. : — "  Khorsabad  is  eighteen  to  twenty  miles  N.N.E.  of 
Mosul.  I  examined  the  excavations  over  and  over  again,  and  the  more  I 
looked  at  the  remaining  sculptures,  the  more  was  I  struck  with  astonishment 
as  I  thought  of  the  ages  and  ages  tliat  have  passed  by  since  they  were  exe- 
cuted and  buried.  There  are,  I  think,  fifteen  immense  chambers  or  streets 
cleared  out,  all  connected  with  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  all  covered 
with  sculptures  and  inscriptions  of  various  sizes  and  sorts,  representing  pro- 
cessions of  men  in  state,  tl;e  same  of  horses,  richly  caparisoned,  apparently 


CHAP,  v.]      THE  MEDIA.N  DYNASTY  OF  CTESIAS  CORRECT.  137 

Whatever  doubts  may  have  been  justly  entertained  regarding 
the  preceding  sovereigns  do  not  apply  to  the  so-called  Median 
dynasty  of  Ctesias,  since  it  is  found  that  Arbaces,  as  well  as 

led  as  an  ofiering-  to  tlie  king ;  scenes  of  battles,  and  fighting  of  all  descrip- 
tions, witli  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  daggers,  and  shields,  &c.  &c. ;  armies 
marching  with  horses  and  chariots,  besieging  towns,  &c.  ;  drinking  parties, 
with  tables  and  cliairs  and  wine-cups,  with  servants  pouring  out  the  wine ; 
garden  scenes ;  hunting  parties,  shooting  birds  and  hares  in  forests,  with 
bows  and  arrows  ;  men  impaled  before  besieged  towns ;  dead  men  falling  off 
ramparts  in  fighting ;  prisoners  in  chains ;  sea  scenes,  with  fish  swimming 
about.  There  is  one  scene  which  would  exactly  correspond  to  the  taking  of 
Tyre  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezekiel,  ch.  xxix.,  v.  18),  where  the  prophet 
says,  '  everj''  man's  head  was  bald,  and  every  shoulder  was  peeled.'  There 
were  a  great  many  large-winged  bulls,  with  men's  heads,  about  twenty  to 
thirty  tons  each,  and  generally  of  beautiful  execution.  They  were  placed  at 
the  end  and  corners  of  the  diflPerent  passages  or  cha«Tibers,  and  generally  in 
pairs ;  these  the  people  seem  to  have  worshipped,  and  placed  there  as  pro- 
tecting deities.  The  remaining  sculptures  looked  very  well  and  perfect 
M'hile  standing  in  their  places,  but  fell  to  pieces  immediately  on  attempting 
to  disturb  them.  It  is  evident  that  the  place  was  destroyed  by  fire,  from  the 
quantity  of  charcoal  found  in  excavating ;  and  in  some  spots,  where  the  fire 
had  been  strong,  the  marble  sculptures  were  burnt  to  lime  to  a  considerable 

depth   on    the    face  that   had   been   exposed I  left  Mosul   on  the 

2nd  June,  travelling  by  night,  on  account  of  the  heat,  and  took  the  road 
along  the  east  or  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  on  purpose  to  see  Tell  Nimrud. 

"  June  3. — Arrived  at  Nimrud.  The  place,  as  to  shape,  has  somewhat 
the  appearance  of  Khorsabad,  but  is  three  or  four  times  as  large.  The 
artificial  mound,  which  I  suppose  to  have  been  the  palace,  is  of  an  oblong 
form,  about  two  miles  in  circumference,  and  from  50  to  60  feet  high, 
perhaps  more,  with  a  high  conical  pyramid  raised  at  the  north  corner  of  the 
mound,  about  120  feet  high,  which  must  have  been  a  watch-tower,  or  some- 
thing of  that  kind.  The  apparent  wall  of  the  city  is  from  six  to  eight  miles 
in  extent,  forming  a  kind  of  square,  cori-esponding  to  the  four  cardinal 
points.  The  mound  is  placed  at  the  S.W.  corner  of  the  enclosure,  where  the 
Tigris  had  at  one  time  washed  its  two  sides.  At  present,  the  Tigris  has 
receded  some  four  miles,  and  left  a  large  plain  between  the  mound  and  the 
present  bed  of  the  river.  On  the  top  of  the  mound  I  saw  the  upper  end  of 
some  marble  slabs  above  the  ground,  closely  joined  together,  forming  a 
chamber  or  cistern,  22  feet  by  12 ;  it  was  nearly  filled  with  earth.  I  was 
informed  its  depth  was  from  8  to  10  feet.  No  appearance  of  writing  was  to 
be  seen  ;  but  had  it  not  been  so  dreadfully  hot,  I  would  have  dug  it  out. 
There  are  quantities  of  broken  bricks,  with  cuneiform  characters  upon  them, 
scattered  over  the  mound  ;  they  appeared  to  be  inscribed  all  over,  and  the 
characters  are  much  larger,  and  seem  to  have  been  cut,  not  stamped,  in  the 
centre,  like  those  generally  brought  from  Babylon,  and  those  which  I  saw  at 


138  MENAHEM  PURCHASES  PEACE.  [cHAP.  V. 

Assyrian         Several  of  his  successors,  not  only  figured  in  Persian  history, 

ne?te7whh     but  Were  likewise  connected  with  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 

that  of  Judea.  jy^j^^i-^ .    ^^q^q  particularly  Sosarmus,  the  thirty-ninth  of  the 

general  list  of  Ctesias  and  the  third  of  his  Median  dynasty,  who 

is  represented  by  Pul. 

Menahem,  the  murderer  of  the  regicide  Shallum,  appears  to 
have  brought  on  his  country  the  vengeance  of  the  Assyrians,  by 
the  temporary  conquest  of  Tipshah  or  Thapsacus ;  and  having 
on  his  return  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Israel,  he  purchased, 
on  the  appearance  of  the  Assyrians,  an  ignominious  peace,  by 
paying  1000  talents,  and  Pul,  or  Sosarmus,^  returned  to  his  own 
dominions. 

Alexander  Polyhistor,   in   noticing   the   circumstance,   says 

Pul  overcomes  there  was  a  king  of  the  Chaldeans  whose  name  was  Phulus,  of 

Menahem.       ^y}jQj^^  ^Iso  the  historical  writings  of  the  Hebrews  make  mention 

under  the  name  of  Pul,   who  they  say  invaded  the  country 

of  the  Jews.^ 

But  a  small  kingdom,  sufficiently  wealthy  to  raise  at  a  short 
notice  about  375,000/.^  as  a  peace-offering  to  the  Assyrians, 
was  not  likely  to  enjoy  for  any  lengthened  time  the  deliverance 
thus  purchased  by  Menahem,  who,  though  he  had  the  command 
of  60,000  soldiers,  paid  this  contribution  in  preference  to 
defending  his  country.  After  this  humiliating  treaty  was 
made,  the  intestine  wars,  which  continued  with  alternate  suc- 
cess between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  in  which  that 
of  Syria  occasionally  took  a  part,  afforded  the  Assyrians  a  pre- 
text for  interference. 
Tigiath-Piie-  Tiglath-Pileser,  or  Artychas,  had  succeeded  his  father 
?udeYan?      Sosarmus,  or  Pul,   on    the   throne  of  Assyria;    Nabonassar, 

Khorsabad.  On  the  south  side  of  the  mound  there  is  a  piece  of  a  I^ind  of 
rough  sandstone,  with  cuneiform  writing  upon  it,  very  roughly  executed.  In 
the  edge  of  the  mound,  where  the  rains  have  formed  guts  10  or  12  feet  below 
the  surface,  pavements  of  bricks  of  bitumen  are  to  be  seen.  I  had  nothing 
with  me  that  would  dig  out  one  of  tiiese  bricks,  to  see  if  they  contained 
inscriptions," 

'  Royal  Asiatic  .Journal,  vol.  IV.,  p.  231. 

*  Euseb.,  Ar.  Chroii.,  39. 

^  One  thousand  talents  of  silvei*.  — Jos.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xi.,  compajed  with 
2  King?,  chap.  XV.,  v.  20. 


I 


CHAP,  v.]      SPOLIATION  OF  THE  TEMPLE  BY  TIGLATIl-PILESER.       139 

probably  another  son  of  the  latter,  being  viceroy  at  Babylon, 

which  in  consequence  became  for  a  time  a  separate  government. 

The  former  monarch,   on   some   pretence,   now  fell  upon  the  carries  the 

kingdom  of  Israel,  and  took  Ijon,  Abel-beth-]\Ia'achah,  Janoah,  captiveshuo^ 

Kedesh,  Ilazor,  Gilead,  Galilee,  and  all  the  land  of  Naphtali,  ^^^J"'*- 

and  carried  the  inhabitants  captive  to  Assyria.' 

Afterwards,  Ahaz,  the  king  of  Judah,  being  besieged  in  Jeru- 
salem by  the  united  forces  of  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and  Rezin, 
king  of  Syria  (who  at  this  juncture  recovered  Elath),  made  an 
urgent  appeal  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  sending  as  a  propitiation 
the  treasures  of  the  Temple  and  palace,  &c.  Moved  by  these 
presents,  and  by  the  submission  of  the  king  of  Judah,  Artychas 
marched  to  his  assistance,  and  having  taken  Damascus,  he  slew 
Rezin,  and  carried  the  people  captive "  to  Kir.^ 

On  learning  the  death  of  Rezin,  and  the  advance  of  the 
Assyrians  into  the  dominions  of  Israel,  Ahaz  proceeded  to 
Damascus,  taking  with  him  all  the  gold  and  silver  from  the 
royal  treasury,  as  well  as  from  the  Temple  of  God,  together 
with  its  precious  gifts ;  and  having  carried  the  whole  to 
Tiglath-Pileser,  at  Damascus,  agreeably  to  his  engagement,  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem.* 

These  events  took  place  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Babylon  under 
Artychas,  or  Tiglath-Pileser ;  whilst  Babylon  continued  under 
his  brother  Xabonassar.  This  is  the  sovereign  who  has  obtained 
such  unenviable  notoriety  by  his  vanity  in  destroying  the 
records  of  his  country,  in  order  that  a  fresh  era  might  be 
supposed  to  commence  with  his  reign. 

The  city  of  Babylon,  which  had  of  late  declined,  in  conse- 
quence of  Nineveh  being  the  seat  of  the  supreme  government, 
was  now  destined  to  recover  its  former  splendour  under  the 
second  Semiramis.     This  queen  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  Semimmis 
been  the  mother,  and  by  others  the  wife,  of  Nabonassar,  and  ^  ^  *''^""  " 
she  has  been  greatly  celebrated  by  Herodotus  for  the  works 

*  2  Kings,  chap.  XV.,  v.  29. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  XVI.,  v.  8,  9. 

*  So   called  by  the  Persians.      This  is  the  Kur  or  Cyrus,  a  tributary  of 
the  river  Araxes  ;  the  Kur  of  the  Russians. — See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  10,  12. 

*  Josephus,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  12. 


140 


WORKS  OF  THE  SECOND  SEMIRAMIS. 


[chap.  V. 


Bestoration 
of  Babylon. 


with  which  the  capital  w^as  adorned  during  her  time.  These 
consisted  in  spacious  quays,  magnificent  palaces,  and  other 
noble  edifices.  One  of  the  royal  palaces  was  erected  on  the 
eastern,  the  other  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
they  w^ere  connected  by  a  bridge,  as  well  as  by  a  tunnel  under 
the  river.  Descriptions  of  the  famous  temple  of  Belus,  of  the 
stupendous  w^alls  encircling  the  town,  and  of  the  lake  to  drain 
it,  are  familiar  to  all  from  the  descriptions  of  Herodotus, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other  ancient  historians.  Strabo  also 
enumerates,  in  a  general  w^ay,  the  magnificent  works  exe- 
cuted by  this  queen,  as  the  walled  cities,  aqueducts,  ditches, 
roads,  &c.^ 

Nadius,  who  usurped  the  government  of  Nabonassar,  pro- 
bably after  the  death  of  Semiramis,  was  succeeded,  two  years 
later,  by  Chinzius  and  Porus,  whose  joint  reign  lasted  five 
years.  Judaeus,  the  next  monarch,  was  followed  by  Merodach 
Baladan,  and  during  the  reign  of  the  latter  the  neighbouring 
territories  became  the  theatre  of  some  important  events. 

Hoshea  having  failed  in  furnishing  the  usual  tribute  to 
Assyria,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  in  consequence  invaded 
Shaimaneser  by  Shalmancser,  and  compelled  to  submit  to  that  powerful 
of  monarch,  the  Arbianes  of  Ctesias.  But  the  Assyrians  had 
scarcely  recrossed  the  Euphrates  when  Hoshea  attempted  to 
shake  off  the  yoke ;  and  having  for  this  purpose  formed  an 
alliance  with  So,  or  Sabacus,  king  of  Egypt,  he  began  by 
imprisoning  the  Assyrian  officer  who  was  stationed  in  his 
capital  to  receive  the  tribute. 

Kesolved  to  punish  effectually  the  indignity  thus  offered  to 
the  representative  of  the  supreme  monarch,  Shaimaneser  again 
invaded  Syria :  he  immediately  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  and  as 
Sabacus  made  no  effort  whatever  to  give  the  promised  aid  to 
his  ally,  that  city  fell,  after  having  been  beleaguered  for  three 
years,  when  Enemessar,  as  he  is  now  called,^  carried  away  the 
His  return,  and  seven  tribcs  from  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan  into  Assyria, 
&eveTtni)€s.  ^^  his  father,  Artychas,  had  previously  done  the  others,  from 
the  eastern  side  of  the  same  river.     The  captivity  of  the  ten 

'  Lib.  XVI.,  p.  737. 
*  Tobit,  chap.  I.,  v.  2. 


invades  the 

kingdom 

Israel. 


CHAP,  v.]    THE  ASSYRIAN  IDOLATRY  ESTABLISHED  IN  SYRIA.  141 

tribes  was  thus  completed.^  On  the  present  occasion,  Arbianes  TobU  is 
carried  the  principal  inhabitants  to  Ilalah,  and  to  the  Khabur,  Nhl^eveh" 
the  river  of  Gozan,"  and  to  the  cities  of  the  Medes.  Babylon, 
the  capital,  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  being  the  abode  of  the 
captives,  but  many  of  them  were  taken  to  the  country  lying 
about  the  Khabur,  and  even  to  the  Assyrian  capital,  Nineveh, 
in  which  Tobit's  kindred  were  placed.^  This  person  there 
became  the  purveyor  of  Enemessar,  the  father  of  Sennacherib,* 
and  through  the  kindness  of  the  king  he  was  permitted  occa- 
sionally to  visit  the  other  captives  in  Media.^  From  the  latter 
circumstance  it  would  appear  that  the  country  of  the  Medes 
was  again  subject  to  Assyria  at  this  period. 

Not  content  with  the  removal  of  the  prisoners  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Media,  Arbianes,  or  Shalmaneser,  by  way  of  securing 
effectually  his  dominion  over  Syria,  sent  colonists  thither  from  Assyrian 
some  of  the  most  populous  cities  in  his  empire,  as  from  Babylon,  into  syrfa. 
Cutha,  Ava,  Hamath,  and  Sepharvaim  (Sippara),  and  located 
them  in  Samaria,  where  the  idolatrous  practices  of  the  Assyrians 
soon  became  firmly  established/' 

Elibus,  having  slain  Merodach-Baladan,  and  usurped  the 
throne  of  Babylon,  with  the  intention  of  becoming  independent, 
Sennacherib,  who  had  recently  succeeded  his  father  Shalma-  Sennacherib 
neser,  proceeded  with  an  army  against  the  Babylonians,  and,  ^^^^^^  ^'  ^^ 
after  routing  them,  he  commanded  that  Elibus  and  his  adhe- 
rents should  be  carried  into  the  land  of  the  Assyrians.  In 
consequence  of  this  success,  Sennacherib  took  upon  himself  the 
government"  of  the  Babylonians,  appointing  his  son  Asadanius, 
or  Esar-Haddon,  to  be  king,  and  then  retired  into  Assyria. 
Having  heard  a  report  that  the  Greeks  had  made  a  hostile 
descent  upon  Cilicia,  he  put  himself  immediately  at  the  head  of 
his  army,  and  overthrew  them  in  a  pitched  battle.-  overthrows  the 


Greeks. 


'  2  Kings,  chap.  XVIII.,  9  and  following  verses ;  and  1  Chron.,  cliap.  V., 
V.  26. 

*  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Tigris. 

'  Tobit,  chap.  I.,  v.  10.  *  Ibid.,  v.  15. 

*  Ibid.,  V.  14. 

"  2  Kings,  chap.  XYII.,  v.  24. 
^  Ancient  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  p.  61 

^  Ibid.,  from  Euseb.,  Ar.  Chron.,  p.  62.     He  afterwards  built  the  city  of 
Tarsus,  after  the  likeness  of  Babylon,  and  called  it  Tharsis. 


142  Sennacherib's  invasion  of  judea.  [chap.  v. 

The  first  invasion  of  Judea  by  Sennacherib  (the  Sargon  of 
Isaiah)/  took  place  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah,  when, 
all  the  fenced  cities  being  taken  by  the  Assyrians,  the  king  of 
Judah,  in  the  hope  of  arresting  their  progress,  resorted  to  the 
desperate  expedient  of  stopping  all  the  fountains,  as  well  as  the 
overflow  of  the  brooks  running  through  the  land.^  He  was 
compelled,  however,  to  submit  to  the  powerful  conqueror;  and 
the  latter  having,  as  the  price  of  peace,  received  the  sum  of 
thirty  talents  of  gold  and  three  hundred  of  silver,  sent  his  army 
iieinvades      towards    Egypt,   Under   the    command    of   Tartan,   who   took 

judea  and  r*    ^ 

Ashdod,^  one  of  the  frontier  towns. 

Notwithstanding  this  success,  Sennacherib  appears  to  have 
considered  it  dangerous  to  continue  the  invasion  of  Egypt, 
whilst  the  kingdom  of  Judea  remained  unsubdued  in  his  rear, 
particularly  at  the  moment  when  a  vast  force  was  on  the  march 
in  that  direction,  under  Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia.^ 

He  therefore  abandoned  hostilities  against  Egypt,  in  order 
to  hasten  the  conquest  of  Judea ;  when,  having  overcome  and 
subdued  the  whole  country  and  its  cities,  with  the  exception  of 
Libnah  and  Lachish,  he  renewed  the  siege  of  those  places, 
and  also  commenced  in  form  that  of  the  capital  itself     But 

besieges  Jeru-  whilst  the  majority  of  his  forces  were  employed  in  pushing  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  hope  of  anticipating  the  intended 
assistance  of  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians,  Tirhakah  was 
marching  his  army  through  the  Desert,  in  order  to  fall  directly 
on  their  rear.  At  this  juncture  the  operations  of  the  Assyrian 
monarch  were   completely   paralyzed    by   the    sudden   loss   of 

Destruction     nearlv  his  whole  army.     God,  says  Berossus,  had  sent  a  pesti- 

of  his  army       i         •  "i     t  ,^  ^  i  r>      ,        •    i  c 

before  Jeru-     Icntial  distcmpcr  aiiioug  them,  and  on  the  very  first  night  oi 
saiem.  ^-^^  sicgc  185,000  mcu,  with  their  captains  and  generals,  were 

destroyed/  Sennacherib,  in  consequence  of  this  disaster,  fled 
with  all  speed  to  Nineveh,  where  he  was  assassinated  in  the 
temple  of  the  idol  Nisroch,  by  his  sons  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer;^  or  by  one  of  them  only,  according  to  Eusebius. 
'  Chap  XX.,  V.  1. 

*  2  Chron.,   chap.   XXXII.,   v.   4  ;   the   outlet   of  Cedron  towards   the 
besiegers. 

*  Isaiah,  chap.  XX.,  v.  1.  ^2  Kings,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  9. 

*  Berossus,  quoted  by  Joseph.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  i. 
«  2  Kings,  chap.  XIX.,  v.  37. 


CHAP,  v.]  DESTRUCTION  OF  SENNACIIERIB's  ARMY.  143 

The  latter  author,  after  enumerating  the  various  exploits  of  this  Death  of 
monarch,  whom  he  calls  Sennacherim,   adds,  that  lie  reigned 
eighteen  years,  and  was  cut  off  by  a  conspiracy  which  had  been 
formed  against  his  life  by  his  son,  Ardumusanus.^ 

The  overthrow  of  Sennacherib  in  this  expedition,  which  was 
destined  against  Egypt,  is  described  by  Herodotus,^  who  gives 
such  a  version  of  the  affair  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
vanity  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  from  whom  he  received  the 
account,  and  who  w^ould  naturally  ascribe  the  deliverance  to 
their  own  gods.  The  relation  given  by  Herodotus  is  as  follows  : 
— "  After  this,  Sethos  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt,  and 
treated  his  soldiers  with  great  severity ;  he  took  from  them  the 
lands  which  had  been  granted  by  former  kings,  and  the  con- 
sequence w^as  that  they  refused  him  any  aid  against  Senna- 
cherib. This  caused  great  perplexity  to  Sethos,  who  went  into 
the  tem.ple,  and  complained  with  tears  to  his  idol  of  the  peril 
he  was  in.  In  the  midst  of  his  distress  he  was  overtaken  by 
sleep ;  and  in  his  vision  he  was  told  to  be  of  good  courage,  for 
no  misfortune  should  befall  him.  Confiding  in  this  dream,  he  Account  of  this 
took  such  of  the  merchants,  artificers,  and  populace  as  were  Herodotu?!^  ^ 
willing  to  follow  him,  and  marched  to  Pelusium,  where  the 
Assyrian  army  was  encamped.  When  arrived  at  this  place, 
field-mice  in  great  numbers  spread  themselves  about  among  the 
invaders,  and  gnawed  in  pieces  the  quivers,  bows,  and  thongs 
of  the  shields  ;  so  that  on  the  following  morning,  being  destitute 
of  arms,  they  w^re  obliged  to  fly,  and,  being  closely  pursued, 
many  of  them  fell."  "  Even  to  this  day,"  adds  Herodotus, 
"  there  stands  in  the  temple  of  Vulcan  a  statue  in  stone  of  this 
king,  having  a  mouse  in  his  hand,  and  saying,  as  expressed  by 
the  inscription,  'Let  him  who  looks  on  me  reverence  the  B.C.  710  or 
Gods.'"^  '"'• 

'  Euseb.,  Ar.  Chron.,  42.  '  Lib.  II.,  cap.  Ml. 

''  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  IH. 


(  1^4  ) 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  SENNACHERIB,  ABOUT  709  B.C.,  TO  THE  FALL 
OF  BABYLON,  538  OR  536  B.C. 


Hezekiah's  Treasures. — Babylon  and  jSTineveh  united. — Ecbatana  taken. — 
March  to  Cilicia. —  Chinilidanus  and  the  Scythian  Invasion. — Cyaxares. — 
Nabopolasar  and  Kineveh.  —  Saracus  destroys  himself.  —  Nabopolasar 
governs  Nineveh. — Pharaoh  Necho's  Fleets  and  invasion  of  Babylonia, 
Carchemish,  &c. — Nebuchadnezzar  as  the  General  of  his  father  invades 
Palestine  and  Egypt. — Daniel  carried  captive. — The  Army  returns  by  two 
routes  to  Babylonia. — Nebuchadnezzar  mediates  between  the  Lydians  and 
Medes. — March  to  Jerusalem. — Plunder  of  the  Temple. — Nebuchadnezzar 
adorns  Babj-lon. — Rebellion  of  Zedekiah. — Jeremiah's  prophecy. — Nebu- 
chadnezzar besieges  Jerusalem,  and  carries  Captives  to  Babylon. — Judea 
laid  waste. — Tyre  besieged  and  taken. — Nebuchadnezzar  attacks  Esypt 
and  carries  Spoils  to  the  Temple  of  Belus. — Commerce,  Canals,  and  Works 
of  Nebuchadnezzar. — Nebuchadnezzar's  Prophecy. — He  loses  his  reason. 
— He  resumes  the  throne. — His  Death  and  Character. — Evil-Merodach 
succeeds,  and  is  Assassinated.  —  Neriglessor  succeeds. — His  War  with 
Cyrus. — An  embassy  comes  from  India  to  Babylon. — Depravity  of  tlie 
Babylonians. — Belshazzar  ascends  the  throne  of  Babylon. — His  mother, 
Nitocris,  prepares  for  a  Siege. — Advance  of  Cyrus. — The  river  Gyndes 
drained  by  means  of  numerous  Channels. — Babylon  beleagured. — The 
stratagem  of  diverting  the  River. — Assault  of  Babylon. — Babylonia  added 
to  Assyria. 

Division  of  From  several  circumstances  mentioned  in  Scripture,  it  is 
the  death  of  evident  that  the  preceding  short  and  disastrous  reign  had 
Sennacherib,  j^pgught  the  affairs  of  Assyria  into  a  very  troubled  and 
confused  state.  The  death  of  Sennacherib  was  followed  by 
a  temporary  division  of  his  empire ;  in  consequence  of  the 
efforts  made  by  the  rulers  of  some  of  the  satrapies  to  establish 
their  independence.  One  of  the  number,  Merodach  Baladan, 
the  Mardoch  Empadus  of  Ptolemy,^  and  son  of  Nabonasar  or 

'  Jahn's  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  I.,  p.  149. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ESARIIADDON's  ACCESSION.  145 

Baladan,  who,  as  his  deputy,  had  hitherto  governed  Babylon, 
now  sent  an  embassy  to  congratulate  Ilezekiah  on  his  recovery 
from  sickness,  as  well  as  on  his  miraculous  delivery  from  the 
invasion  of  Sennacherib ;  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that,  in 
the  pride  of  his  heart,  Hezekiah  showed  the  treasures  of  his  Hczekiah's 
house,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Temple.'  He  received,  as  the  ^^^^^^' 
punishment  of  his  vanity,  prophetic  intelligence  of  the  coming- 
captivity,  at  the  moment  when  Babylon  had  just  revolted  from 
Assyria,  and  become  a  separate  kingdom.^ 

After  a  reign  of  twelve  years,  Merodach  Baladan  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Arkianus,  who  reigned  only  five  years ;  and  this 
period  was  followed  by  an  interregnum  of  two  years,  on  the 
termination  of  which  Belus  mounted  the  throne ;  but  the  rule 
of  that  sovereign  did  not  exceed  three  years.  Apronadius 
succeeded,  and  at  the  expiration  of  six  years  the  sceptre  passed 
to  Rigebelus.  After  the  short  space  of  one  year  the  crown 
devolved  upon  Messomordacus,  who  reigned  only  four  years: 
after  which  another  interregnum  occurred  at  Babylon. 

Esarhaddon,  the  third  son,  succeeded  his  father  (Sennacherib)  Esarhaddon 
in  the  government  of  Assyria  after  a  short  interval ;  he  appears  throne  of 
to  be  represented  by  Artacus,  the  sixth  of  the  Median  dynasty  ^^^y^^^- 
of  Ctesias. 

This  monarch  found  the  kingdom  in  a  very  distracted  state.  Revolt  of  the 
owing  to  the  revolt  of  one  portion  of  his  people,  probably  the   ^'^**°^' 
Persians,  called  Cadusians,^  who  maintained  a  bloody  contest 
with  the  Medians ;    but  having   at  length  restored  peace  by 
gradually  extending  his  dominion  over  both  kingdoms,  he  was 
prepared,  now  that  his  power  was  consolidated,  to  take  advantage 
of  the  favourable  opportunity  offered  by  the  interregnum  at 
Babylon,  to  add  that  kingdom  to  his  other  possessions.     Being 
thus  placed  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  by  the  temporary 
re-union  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  Esarhaddon  determined  to  Esarhaddon 
pursue  his  father's  project  of  extending  his  dominions,  and  he 
proceeded  to  the  invasion  of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  leav- invades  Syria 

and  Egypt. 
'  Deau  Prideaux's  Connexion,  vol.  I.,  p.  19,  (ed.  1831);  Jos.,  Ant.,  lib. 
X.,  c.  2. 

*  2  Kings,  chap.  XX.,  v.  12,  13,  17,  18. 
^  Diod.  Sic,  HI).  II.,  cap.  xxii. 
VOL.  II.  L 


146  NABUCHODONOSOR.  [cHAP.  VI. 

Dejoces  raised  ing  Dejoces,  who  Fulcd  at  Ecbatana,  to  govern  the  kingdom, 
of  Medh™"^    to  which  the  latter  had  been  called  by  the  unanimous  voice  of 
the  Medes.' 

It  was  during  these  wars  in  the  western  countries  that  Sar- 
dochoeus  or  Saosduchinus,  son  and  general  of  Esarhaddon, 
having  defeated  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  and  overtaken  him 
Captivity  of  in  his  flight,  carried  him  to  Babylon  in  chains.^  Some  com- 
anasse  .  mentators,  and  amongst  them  Dr.  HaleSj  are  of  opinion  that 
Esarhaddon  was  the  great  Sardanapalus  f  but  the  capture  of 
Nineveh  does  not  appear  to  synchronise  with  the  reign  in 
question. 

Saosduchinus  *  succeeded  his  father  Esarhaddon,  after  having 

been  his  deputy  over  Nineveh  and  Babylon ;  and  Phraortes, 

about  the  same  time,  succeeded  Dejoces  on  the  throne  of  Media. 

Accession  and  Being    of    an    ambitious   and   warlike    disposition,    Phraortes 

Phraortes?     iuvadcd  his  neighbours  in  Iran  with  such  success,  that  he  was 

enabled  to  conquer  the  whole  of  that  part  of  Asia.     In  the 

belief  that  the  same  success  would  attend  him  in  a  still  greater 

undertaking,   he  subsequently  turned  his  arms  southward,  and 

commenced  that  rebellion  against  his  sovereign,  which,  in  the 

end,  proved  fatal  to  himself 

Saosduchinus       We  cau  scarccly  feel  a  doubt  that  the  monarch  here  alluded 

douosor!'^^^"    to  is  the  same  who  is  so  particularly  mentioned  as  Nabuchodo- 

nosor  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  for  the  dates,  as  well 

as  the  whole  of  the  circumstances,  perfectly  correspond.     There 

we  find  that,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Nabuchodonosor's  ^  reign  at 

Nineveh,  Arphaxad,  or  Phraortes,  who  reigned  over  the  Medes, 

rebelled,   and  fortified  the   palace  and  treasury,   built  by  his 

father  Dejoces  ®  in  Ecbatana,^  with  walls  of  hewn  stone,  having 

towers  and  gates  seventy  cubits  high  by  forty  cubits  broad,  for 

the  going  forth  of  his  mighty  men.® 

'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  97,  98.  *  2  Chron.,  chap.  XXXIII.,  v.  11. 

*  Crossthwaite's  Synchronology,  p.  260. 

*  Ancient  Fragments,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq.,  pp.  80,  83. 
^  The  Nabuchodonosorus  of  Chaldean  history. 

«   Herod.,  lib.  I.,  c.  98,  99. 

^  Now  Takhti-Soleimdn ;   also  Shiz  or  Gaza,  vol.  X.,  pp.   157,  158,  of 
Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
"  Judith,  chap.  I.,  v.  1-4. 


CHAP.  VI.]  PREPARATIONS  FOR  WAR.  147 

The  city  and  fortress  of  Ecbatana  are  particularly  described  Description  of 
by  Herodotus.  The  palace  and  treasury  occupied  the  centre  Ecbataua/^ 
of  an  enclosure,  consisting  of  seven  concentric  circles,  each 
being  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  its  battlements  over- 
topped the  neighbouring  wall.  The  battlements  of  the  first 
circle  were  white,  those  of  the  second  black,  the  third  scarlet, 
the  fourth  blue,  the  fifth  orange,  and  all  were  thus  distinguished 
by  different  colours,  except  the  sixth,  which  was  plated  with 
silver,  and  the  seventh  with  gold.^  The  conical  hill  and  posi- 
tion of  the  ruins  of  Takhti  Soleiman  appear  to  coincide  with 
the  descriptions  of  Herodotus,  the  seven  colours  being  derived 
from  a  fable  of  Sabean  origin,  the  walls  here  representing  the 
seven  heavenly  spheres,  and  the  seven  climates  through  which 
they  revolve.^ 

In   order  to  overcome  this  rebellious  attempt,  Nabuchodo- Nabuchodono- 
nosor  assembled  all  that  dwelt  by  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  the  forces  of 
and  the  Hydaspes  ^  (Hedypnus),  in  the  plain  of  Arioch/  with 
the  king  of  the  Elymseans,  also  very  many  nations  of  the  sons  of 
Chilod   or    Gelod/    and  marched  the  whole  to  the   field    of 
battle. 

In  addition  to  the  troops  thus  assembled,  the  king  of  the  Ms  empire, 
Assyrians  sent  to  all  that  dwelt  in  Persia,  and  westward  in 
Cilicia,  Damascus,  Libanus,  and  Anti-Libanus,  as  well  as  on  the 
sea-coast ;  also  in  Carmel,  Galaad  (Gilead),  Esdraelon,  Sa- 
maria, Jerusalem,  Betane,  Chellus,  Kades,  Taphnes,  Ramesse, 
and  all  the  land  of  Gezen  (Gosen)^  together  with  Tanis,  and 

'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xcviii.,  xcix. 

*  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  X.,  pp.  126,  127, 

^  The  Hydaspes  is  evidently  a  mistake,  probably  in  transcribing  the  Hedyp- 
nus. The  latter  is  supposed  (see  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  205)  to  be  represented 
by  the  eastern  arm  of  the  river  Kariin  ;  and  as  it  flows  along  the  northern 
border  of  Elymais,  the  next  province  mentioned  in  Judith,  its  geographical 
position  coincides. 

*  Judith,  chap.  I.,  v.  6,  and  Tobit,  chap.  I.,  v.  14.  Now  the  district  of 
Mah-Sabadan,  described  under  the  name  of  Massabatice  by  Strabo,  pp.  524, 
725,  as  intervening  between  Susiana  and  the  districts  around  Mount  Zagros ; 
also  as  the  Sambata^  of  Ptolemy,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  i.  See  vol.  IX.,  p.  47,  of 
Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

*  Supposed  to  be  part  of  the  Arabs,  probably  of  the  Palmyrene  district, 
and  others  bordering  upon  Syria. 

l2 


148 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  WAR. 


[chap.  VI. 


Ecbatana 
captured,  and 


IMemphis,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  as  far  as  the  borders 
of  Ethiopia.  But  as  many  of  these  nations  were  very  remote, 
they  made  light  of  his  commands,  and  sent  his  ambassadors 
away  in  disgrace ;  ^  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  his 
power  to  command  them  was  merely  nominal. 

This  took  place  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign,  and  the 
preparations  of  Nabuchodonosor  had  occupied  more  than  four  ^ 
years  previously  to  taking  the  field.  Being  victorious  in  his 
enterprise  over  the  horsemen,  chariots,  and  cities,  he  took  the 
towers  of  Ecbatana ;  and  Arphaxad  being  slain  with  darts  in 
the  mountains  of  Eagau  (the  Rhages  of  Alexander),^  the  con- 
queror returned  to  Nineveh,  where  he  took  his  ease,  banquet- 
ing with  all  his  army  for  the  space  of  120  days,  as  Ahasuerus 
(Artaxerxes  Longimanus)  did  at  a  later  period." 

The  preceding  account  perfectly  agrees  with  that  given  by 
Herodotus  of  Phraortes,  the  son  of  Dejoces,  who  was  doubtless 
the  same  monarch,  and  who,  not  being  content  with  Media, 
proceeded  from  conquest  to  conquest,  till  he  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  Assyrians  of  Nineveh,  in  which  he  perished 
with  the  greatest  part  of  his  army.^  It  is,  besides,  a  remark- 
able corroboration  that  the  defection  of  the  allies  of  the  Assy- 
rians is  also  stated  by  Herodotus,  who  adds,  as  Judith  does, 
that  they  were  still  powerfiil.^ 

The  defection  of  the  western  states  led  to  the  invasion  of 
Judea  by  the  Assyrians :  of  this  there  is  not  any  account, 
excepting  that  which  is  given  in  the  book  of  Judith ;  this  book, 
therefore,  supplies  some  important  links  in  profane  as  well  as  in 
sacred  history. 

During  this  time  of  continued  festivity,  and  in  remembrance 
of  his  oath  to  be  avenged  upon  the  people  of  the  provinces 
westward  of  Assyria,  also  with  the  purpose  of  bringing,  as  he 
said,  the  whole  world  under   his  dominion,   Holofernes,   the 


'  Judith,  cliap.  I.,  v.  7 — 12.  *  Judith,  chap.  I.,  v.  14. 

^  Represented  by  the  remarkable  ruins  of  Kal'eh  Erig  near  Veramin,  east- 
ward of  those  of  Rei,  and  also  of  the  city  of  Teheran.  Vol.  X.,  p.  135  of 
Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

*  Esther,  chap.  I.  *  Lib.  I.,  cap.  cii. 

*  Herod.,  ibid. 


CHAP.  Vl]  the  ASSYRIAN  ARMY.  149 

general  of  his  armies,'  was  called  into  his  presence;  when  the  ^'■™y°*' 
great  king,  or,  as  he  is  also  called,  the  "  lord  of  all  the  earth, "^ 
proceeded  to  give  him  detailed  instructions  to  move  with 
120,000  men  and  12,000  horsemen,  or  mounted  Median 
archers,  against  the  disobedient  people  in  the  western  country, 
at  the  same  time  commanding  this  people  to  send  him  earth 
and  water,  such  having  been  at  all  times  the  tokens  of  sub- 
mission in  the  east. 

The  account  of  the  succeeding  operations,  as  given  in  the 
book  of  Judith,  has  a  great  interest  for  the  military  historian, 
since  it  shows  that  the  Assyrian  forces  were  regularly  divided 
into  horse  and  foot,  with  a  proportion  of  officers,  the  whole 
systematically  organized  according  to  their  several  grades,  from 
the  general-in-chief  to  the  followers  of  the  Gamp.  This  organiza- 
tion not  only  secured  the  due  performance  of  all  the  executive  Organization 
duties  and  details,  but  was  also  the  means  of  overcoming  the  forceps,  ^^" 
greatest  of  all  difficulties  experienced  by  large  armies,  that  of 
providing  the  supplies.  By  an  efficient  commissariat,  provi- 
sions of  all  kinds  were  prepared  and  transported  for  the  con- 
sumption of  this  vast  force  throughout  its  lengthened  march. 

The  details  in  the  book  of  Judith  are  so  precise,  that  they 
may  be  considered  as  constituting  an  answer  to  the  objections 
which  have  been  made  to  the  marches  of  the  eastern  armies  in 
ancient  times,  on  account  of  the  supposed  difficulty  of  providing 
the  necessary  supplies.  This  difficulty  has  been  thought  insur- 
mountable, though  the  campaigns  of  Darius,  Xerxes,  and  others 
seem  to  establish  the  fact  that  it  was  overcome. 

We  are  told  that  Holofernes  went  from  the  presence  of  his  Supplies  for 
lord,  and  called  together  the  governors,  captains,  and  officers  of 
the  army  of  Assur ;  when,  having  arranged  them,  as  a  great 
army  is  ordered  for  war,^  he  took  camels  and  asses  for  their 
carriages,  a  very  great  number,  also  sheep,  oxen,  and  goats, 

'  Supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Persian  "  Aula  Pharneese,"  as  ex- 
plained by  Col.  D'Arcy,  R, A.,  and  we  find  the  name  of  Artaphernes  amongst 
the  generals  of  Darius. 

*  The  sovereign  of  Persia  still  receives  the  title  of  Shah-in-Shah  of  I'ran. 
— Correspondence  relating  to  Afghanistan :  Parliamentary  Papers,  pp.  78, 
134,  135. 

^  Judith,  chap.  11. ,  v.  14,  16. 


150 


MARCH  OF  THE  ARMY  THROUGH  ASIA  MINOR.    [CHAP.  VI. 


without  number,  for  their  provision,  and  plenty  of  victuals  for 
every  man  in  the  army.  He  then  prepared  depots  to  receive 
the  corn,  to  be  collected  out  of  all  Syria,  for  his  passage ;  also 
gold  and  silver  he  took  out  of  the  king's  house  in  great  abund- 
ance. Then  went  forth  he,  and  all  the  army,  ^yith  the  chariots 
and  horsemen  and  archers,  who  covered  the  face  of  the  earth 
like  locusts.^ 

The  march  from  Xineveh  is  particularly  detailed,  and  the 
geography  of  the  successive  countries  so  faithfully  ibllowed,  that 
even  if  the  book  itself  be  apocryphal,  it  must  have  been  from 
the  pen  of  some  individual,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
whole  of  the  countries  lying  between  the  Tigris  and  the  river 
of  Egypt ;  the  details  are  thus  given :  -  "  And  there  joined 
unto  him  [Holofernes]  all  that  dwelled  upon  the  mountains, 
and  those  that  dwelled  by  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Hydaspes 
(Hedypnus),  and  the  field  of  Arioch,  that  M'as  the  king  of  the 
Elimees  [EXi^/za/wi/]  ;  and  many  people  of  the  nation  of  Gelod 
joined  their  armies  with  him,"^  even  as  far  as  Jerusalem  and 
Bethaven,  and  Chellus  and  Gades  and  the  flood  of  Egvpt.  So 
when  they  were  past  Xineveh  three  days'  journey,  they  came 
unto  the  plain  of  Bectoleth,*  at  the  mountain  Arge  or  Arggeus 
(Arji'sh  Tagh),  which  standeth  on  the  left  hand  of  the  Upper 
Cilicia.  And  it  may  here  be  mentioned  that  as  the  mountain 
in  question  lies  to  the  north  or  left  hand,  and  not  far  from  the 
borders  of  Upper  Cilicia,  the  most  convenient  route  thither 
from  Nineveh  would  be  along  the  valley  of  the  Tigris,  and 
onward  along  the  plain  of  Malatiyah  to  the  Halys  at  the 
A'yanlik  of  Haji  Bektash.^  Holofernes  subsequently  moved 
through  Asia   his  tcnts  from  Bcctolcth,  and  led  his  army,  as  well  horsemen  as 

Minor,  .,,.,.  .  *^  . 

Tootmen,  with  their  chariots,  into  the  mountains ;  and  invading 
their  castles  and  winning  their  holds,  he  broke  into  the  famous 

'  Judith,  cliap.  II.,  v.  20. 

"  In  Day's  black-letter  Apocrypha,  published  in  1549. 

'  Judith,  chap.  I.,  v.  6,  7. 

*  Or  opposite  to  the  plain  of  Bectoleth,  according  to  the  Greek  Apocry- 
pha.    Antwerp,  1566. 

*  As  tiiis  place  is  but  a  little  way  from  the  mountain  in  question,  and  not 
distant  from  the  ancient  Mazaca,  it  is  therefore  probable  that  this  city  may 
represent  Molopus,  and  that  the  plain  near  Bektash  is  that  of  Bectoleth. 


CHAP,  VI.]         PROGRESS  OF  HOLOFERNES.  151 

city  Molopus.     He  destroyed  Phud  and  Lud,  and  spoiled  all 

the  people  of  llasses  and  Ismael,  who  dwelt  toward  the  desert 

at   the  south    side    of  Challeorus.'     And    then   passing   over  ciiicia  and 

Euphrates,  he  went  by  Mesopotamia  and  all  the  noble  cities  ^^™'''*="^' 

that  stood  by  the  river  Arbonai,^  and  he  destroyed  them  even 

to  the  sea-side,  and  subdued  the  coasts  of  Ciiicia,  and  slew  all 

that   withstood   him.      And    he   came    unto    the   borders    of 

Japheth,   that  lie  against  Aluster  and  Arabia,  and  he  went 

through  all  the  country  of  the  Medians,^  and  set  their  tents  on 

fire,  and  burned  their  houses ;  and  then  came  he  down  into  the 

fields  of  Damascus,  in  harvest,  and  set  on  fire  all  their  lands, 

vines,   and  trees,  and  burnt  their  flocks  and  cattle,  and  spoiled 

their  cities  and  fields,  and  killed  all  their  youth  with  the  edge 

of  the  sword. 

Nabuchodonosor,  *  passing  through  Syria,  Sobal,  and  Ala- to  the  coast  of 
pamea,  Mesopotamia  and  Idumea,  came  in  sight  of  Asdrelon/ 
nigh  unto  Dorats,*'  which  is  against  the  strait  passage  of  Jewry; 
and  pitching  his  tents  between  Gaba '  and  Scython-Polim,*  he 
tarried  there  that  month,  whilst  he  gathered  together  all  the 
vessels  that  belonged  to  his  army. 

The  death  of  Holofernes  during  the  siege  of  Bethuliah,  ^  ter-  Death  of 
minated  this  remarkable  campaign,  as  is  supposed  about  656  b.c.    °  °  "°^^* 
Eight  years  later,  648  B.C.,  Chinilidanus,  or  Chuniladanus,'"  also 
called  Saracus,"  succeeded  to  the  dominion  over  the  vast  pos- 
sessions of  Nabuchodonosor ;  and  he  had  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment in  Nineveh.     Being  of  an  effeminate    disposition,    the 
power  entrusted  to  him  was  not  long  recognised,  especially  by 
the  Babylonians  and  Medes;  the  latter  revolted  about  663  b.c.  Revolt  of  the 
and  Cyaxares,   properly  Kei  Axares,  who  succeeded  his  father    ^  ^^" 

'  Perhaps  Chalcis,  in  the  desert  of  Aleppo. 

*  No  doubt  the  Mesopotamian  Khabur. 

^  Probably  so  called  as  being  the  recent  conquests  of  Dejoces  and  Phraortes. 

*  Supplementary  passage  in  black-letter  Apocrypha. 

*  E(7CpccriXior — Esdraelon. 

*  Aoratae,  the  land  of  dates  or  gifts.     Antwerp  Apocrypha. 
^  ra)6a— Gaba. 

"  The  city  of  the  Scythians, 
'  Jotapata  or  Safet.     See  Vol.  I.,  p.  479. 
'°  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  pp.  80,  83. 
'*  Prideaux's  Connexion,  vol.  T.,  p.  40. 


152 


INROAD  OF  THE  SCYTHIANS. 


[chap.  VI. 


Inroads  and 
Conquests 


of  the  Scy 
thians. 


Phraortes,  not  only  recovered  what  had  been  lost  by  the  defeat 
of  his  father,  but  drove  the  Assyrians  within  the  walls  of 
Nineveh. 

About  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign  a  formidable  inroad  into 
Ass\Tia  took  place,  led  by  Madyas.^  A  swarm  of  Scythians 
from  Central  Asia  passed  the  Caucasus  in  search  of  a  richer 
country  with  a  milder  climate,  and  having  penetrated,  probably 
by  the  route  of  Derbend,  into  Media,  they  defeated  Cyaxares 
in  a  bloody  contest,  overran  that  kingdom,  and  established 
themselves  in  the  regions  of  Colchis.  Having  no  other  enemy 
to  contend  with,  the  Scythians  extended  their  conquests  to 
Svria,  and  even  to  the  borders  of  Egypt ;  from  whence,  owing 
to  the  judicious  entreaties  and  presents  made  to  them,  they  re- 
turned through  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  Wars,  however, 
appear  to  have  been  carried  on  with  various  degrees  of  success 
during  a  period  of  twenty- eight  years  ^  against  both  the  Medes 
and  the  Assyrians :  within  that  time,  such  a  division  of 
interests  was  created  as  led  to  the  downfal  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  ;  and  the  two  collateral  empires  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians rose  upon  its  ruins. 

The  importance  of  Media  among  the  ancient  nations  had 
ery  much  at  this  period ;  for,  Cyaxares  having  deli- 
vered his  country  from  the  Scythians,  by  murdering  the  greatest 
part  of  them  at  a  general  feast  which  was  given  in  every  family, 
the  Medes  regained  their  freedom,  and  with  it  their  ancient 
boundary,  the  Halys.^  A  war  succeeded  with  the  Lydians  on 
account  of  the  protection  given  by  the  latter  to  some  fugitive 
Scythians;  and  after  a  battle,  made  remarkable  by  a  total 
eclipse  which  terminated  the  engagement,  peace  was  subse- 
quently restored  by  the  intervention  of  Labynetus,  the  king  of 
forms  an  Babylon,  and  Syennesis,  king  of  Cilicia ;  which  was  cemented 
the  Ljdians.  by  the  marriage  of  Astyages,  sou  of  Cyaxares,  to  the  daughter 
of  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia.^ 

At  this  period  Babylonia  was  a  separate  government  under 
Nabopolasar,  who,  having  been  sent  thither  as  commander  of 
the  army  of  Saracus,  took  this  opportunity  of  revolting,  and 


Cyaxares 

recovers  his       .  . 

dominions  and  increased 


Ilerod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ciii. 
Tbid.,  cap.  cvi. 


*  Ibid.,  cap.  cv, 

■*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxiii.,  Ixxiv. 


CHAP.  VI.]      CAPTURE  OF  NINEVEH,  AND  DEATH  OF  SARACUS.       153 

turning  his  arms  against  his  sovereign.'     This  individual,  also 
called  Busalossorus,^  having  obtained  Amuhean,  the  daughter 
of  Astyages,  satrap  of  Media,  to  be  affianced  to  his  son,  Nabo- 
palasarus,  who  is  called  by  Eusebius  Nabuchodorosorus,^  and 
being  assisted  by  the  Medes,  under  Cyaxares,  marched  to  sur- 
prise the  city  of  Ninus  or  Nineveh.     Saracus,  the  king,  being  siege  of 
apprised  of  these    proceedings,   sent  his   three  sons  and  two    '"^^*''  " 
daughters,  with  a  great  treasure,  to  Paphlagonia,  and  being 
reduced  to  extremities  by  the  joint  attacks  of  his  traitorous 
enemies,  which  continued  upwards  of  two  years,   he  burnt  him- 
self with  his  concubines,   in  the  royal  palace.*     Nabopolasar 
succeeded  to  the  dominion  of  the  empire  in  consequence  of  this 
event,   and  Nineveh   having  been   almost   entirely  destroyed 
during  the  late  siege,  he  determined  to   establish  the  seat  of 
government  at  Babylon :  this  city,  which  was  soon  afterwards  Babylon 
surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,^  thus  became  the  capital  of  the  capital. 
Assyrian  empire. 

Reverting  to  another  kingdom,  it  appears  that  about  this  Psammeticus 
period  the  attractions  of  commerce  had  broken  down  the  bar-  !he™omLerce 
rier  which  had  hitherto  excluded  foreign  vessels  from  the  ports  °^^^p^' 
of  Egypt.     For  Psammeticus,  the  reigning  prince,  having  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  advancement  of  trade,  did  not  hesitate  to 
bring  about  this  great  change  by  admitting  foreign  vessels  in 
future,  and  receiving  with  hospitality  the  strangers  who  accom- 
panied them. 

The  gifted  Nechus  or  Pharaoh  Necho,  his  successor,  directed  Pbaraoh 
the  energies  of  his  enlarged  mind  to  carrying  out  on  a  grand  acauaiatSuez, 
scale  the  mercantile  projects  of  his  father.  He  endeavoured, 
as  it  were,  to  cause  the  isthmus  itself  to  disappear,  by  opening 
a  communication  between  his  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
and  those  in  the  Arabian  Gulf,  by  means  of  a  canal.  This  was 
sufficiently  broad  for  two  triremes  to  sail  abreast  in  passing 
between  the  Ped  Sea  at  Suez,  and  the  river  Nile  at  the  town 
of  Bubastis.®     Being  warned  by  an  oracle  to  leave  its  comple- 

'  Euseb.,  Chron.,  p.  46.  *  Euseb.,  Ar.  Chron.,  p.  53. 

^  Ibid.  *  Jackson,  Anc.  Chron.,  vol.  I.,  p.  342, 

*  Euseb.,  Chron.,  49. 

*  Ilerod.,  lib.  II.,  cap,  clviii.,  clix. 


154  CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  AFRICA.  [cHAP.  VI. 

tion  to  a  foreigner/  he  relinquished  the  excavations  for  a  still 
more  remarkable  undertaking, 
and  sends  a  Nechus  being  determined  to  solve  the  geographical  problem 

fleet  of  the  peninsular  form  of  Africa,  employed  certain  Phoenicians 

for  this  purpose,  despatching  them  with  instructions  to  cir- 
cumnavigate this  continent,  and  return  to  Eg^^pt  through  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  In  accordance  with  these  commands,  the 
fleet  prepared  for  this  purpose  sailed  down  the  Arabian  Gulf, 
and  entering  the  Indian  Ocean,  continued  to  coast  southward 
till  the  autumn,  when  the  crews  landed  and  sowed  some  grain ; 
and  having  aAvaited  the  harvest,  they  continued  the  voyage, 
again  putting  ashore  to  sow  and  reap  as  they  advanced.  After 
the  lapse  of  two  years  they  reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and 
to  circumna-  during  the  third  year  they  returned  to  Egypt,  and  stated,  adds 
Mgae  uca.  jj^pQ^jQ^-^g^  "  what  is  uot  Credible  to  me  though  it  may  be  so  to 
others,"  that  in  their  circumnavigation  of  Libya  they  had  the 
sun  on  their  right  hand,  that  is  on  the  north.^ 

The  alleged   difiiculty  of  giving  credence  to  the   fact  thus 
stated,  is  precisely  that  which  in  modern  times  best  confirms  its 
truth,  resting  as  it  does  upon  a  change  of  position  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  voyage,  which  the  mariners  could  not  by  any 
possibility  have  imagined.     But  independently  of  the  confirma- 
tion thus  given,  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  at  the  time  in 
Previous        question  was  not  so  much  a  fresh  voyage  of  discovery,  as  the 
the  «)aste^of    extcusion  of  othcrs  which  had  been  already  carried  along  the 
Africa.  coasts  of  this  continent  for  the  extension  of  commerce.     The 

western  coast  was  already  known,  whilst  the  previous  and  more 
difiicult  enterprise  to  Ophir  must,  in  connexion  with  the  land- 
trade,  have  given  some  knowledge  of  the  eastern  coast ;  so  that 
only  the  southern  coasts  of  Africa,  on  each  side  of  the  continent, 
were  in  reality  unknown  at  the  time  Nechus  despatched  his 
fleet. 
Pharaoh  ^N^ot  Satisfied  with  the  well-merited  distinction  which  he  had 

acquired  in  consequence  of  the  benefits  conferred  upon  man- 
kind,  more   particularly  by  the   circumnavigation   of  Afi'ica, 

'  Seventy  years  later  it  was  resumed  by  Darius  Ilystaspes,  and  ultimately 
completed  by  Ptolemy  the  Second.     Strabo,  lib.  XVII.,  p.  1157. 
*  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xlii.;  and  Rennel,  p.  672,  ed,  1800. 


CHAP.  VI.]  PHARAOH  NECHO's  CAMPAIGNS.  155 

Pharaoh  Necho  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  unsettled  invades  Judea, 
state  of  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  marched,  at^° 
the  head  of  a  large  army,  to  Akko  (now  Ptolemais),  in  order  to 
proceed   through   Palestine    and  Gilead   to  the  dominions  of 
Nabopolasar.     Being   refused    a   passage,    however,    by   king 
Josiah,  a  battle  took  place  at  Megiddo,^  in  which  the  king  of 
Judah  was  killed  ;  when  a  contribution  of  one  hundred  talents 
of  silver  and  one  of  gold  was  levied  upon  Jerusalem,  and  car- 
ried into  Egypt.^     Having  now  secured  the  intended   line  of 
march,  and  made  all  the  necessary  preparations,  he  proceeded 
towards  Assyria.     This  was  in  the   third  year  after  the  battle  advances  into 
of  Megiddo,  and  after  crossing  the  Upper  Euphrates  he  attacked    "^^^^'^ 
the  celebrated  city  of  Carchemish.     During  this  operation  an 
extensive  revolt  having  taken  place  in  Cosle-Syria  and  Phoenicia, 
two  provinces  which  had  been  conquered  by  Nabopolasar,  that 
king  determined  to  punish  the  delinquents  in   these  provinces, 
but  being  himself  too  far  advanced  in  life  to  undertake  such  a 
campaign,  he  sent  his  son,  who  is  best  known  as  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, then  the  partner  of  his  throne,  with  a  powerful  army 
against  the  Egyptians  and  revolted  Syrians.    A  complete  victory  ivebuchad-  • 
over  the  former,  at  Carchemish,  was  the  consequence;  and  the  the Egjptiaos, 
young  prince,  pursuing  his  success,  subdued  the  whole  country 
to  the  river  Nile,  with  the  exception  of  Judea,  which  was  then 
under  Jehoiakim.    Against  this  province,  however,  he  speedily 
turned  his  arms;  and  Jerusalem  being  surrounded,  Jehoirikim iavadies Judea^ 
saved  his  capital  by  promising  tribute  for  the  next  three  years. 
As  security  for  this  payment  a  number  of  the  principal  inha- 
bitants, amongst  whom  was  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  were  delivered 
up,  together  with  a  portion  of  the  treasures  of  the  tem.ple,  and 
carried  as  hostages  to  Babylon.^ 

On  the  death  of  his  father,  Nebuchadnezzar  returned  to  the  and  returns  to 
capital ;  and  to  this  event  we  owe   the  knowledge   that  two    ^  '  ''^  ^ 
different  lines  of  march  were  in  use  at  the  period  in  question 

*  Magdolus;  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  clix.  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  157. 

*  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIII.,  v.  29-33;  2  Chron.,  chap.  XXXVL,  v.  3-4  ; 
compared  with  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  clix. 

^  Jos.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  vi.  ;  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  1  ;  2  Chron.,   chap. 
XXXVI.,  V.  6. 


156  NEBUCHADNEZZAR  DESTROYS  NINEVEH.  [CHAF.  VI, 

the  route  of  between  Babylon  and  Jerusalem.  The  king,  as  we  are  told  by 
Berossus,  gave  orders  that  the  part  of  the  forces  which  wore 
heavy  armour,  together  with  the  captives  and  the  baggage, 
should  proceed  leisurely  to  Babylonia,  no  doubt  through  the 
populous  countries  in  the  line  of  Syria ;  whilst  he,  with  a  few 
of  his  attendants,  returned  home  by  crossing  the  desert  direct 
to  Babylon.  When  he  arrived  there  he  found  that  his  affairs 
had  been  faithfully  conducted  by  the  Chaldeans,  the  principal 
person  among  them  having  preserved  the  kingdom  for  him  ; 

Nebuchad-      and  he  accordingly  obtained  possession  of  all  his  father's  domi- 

?beXoTe!°*^"ions  without  opposition.^ 

The  tranquillity  of  Jerusalem,  ^vhich  had  thus  been  purchased 
at  the  expense  of  its  treasure,  continued  undisturbed  during  the 
three  first  years  of  the  captivity.  Nebuchadnezzar  had  at  this 
time  become  a  mediator  between  the  Medes  and  the  Lydians ; 
and  having  united  with  the  sovereign  of  the  former  people  he 
proceeded  to  besiege  Nineveh,^  w^hich  was  then  occupied  by  the 
Lydians. 

Jehoiakim  seized  this  opportunity  to  rid  himself  of  the  tribute 
imposed  upon  him,  by  rebelling,  probably  trusting  to  assistance 

Siege  and  from  Egypt.  Ncbuchadnczzar  however,  continued  his  opera- 
tions against  Nineveh  till  he  had  depopulated  the  city  and  laid 
it  in  ruins ;  thus  accomplishing  all  that  the  prophets  had  pre- 
dicted concerning  it.'  After  this,*  having  also  in  the  mean 
time  established  his  authority  over  the  dominions  of  Nabopo- 

Nebuchad-      lasar,  hc  marchcd  westward  to  punish  his  rebellious  satraps  in 

Jifdea  and*^^^  ^^^^  direction.  In  this  expedition,  he  took  the  whole  line  of 
country  from  the  river  Euphrates  with  all  that  appertained  to 

*  Corj-'s  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  329;  from  Syncel.  Chroii.,  220;  Euseb. 
Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  IX. 

*  Nahum,  chap.  II. 

^  Ibid.,  also  chap.  III. 

■*  There  is  a  difference  of  three  years  at  this  period  among  the  commen- 
tators ;  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, who  was  engaged  with  more  weighty  matters,  had  left  the  subjugation 
of  Palestine  to  the  neighbouring  tribes,  the  Chaldeans,  Syrians,  Moabites, 
and  Ammonites,  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  2.  These  ravaged  the  country 
from  602  to  599  B.C.,  and  shut  up  Jehoiakim  in  tlie  city,  probably  till  near 
the  time  of  Kebucluuhiezzar's  return  to  tlie  western  provinces. 


destruction  of 
Nineveh, 


ciiAr.  VI.]  jehoiakin's  captivity.  1.57 

the  king  of  Egypt,  including  Jerusalem  itself/  which  was  in  alli- 
ance with  the  latter  kingdom  at  that  time.^     Jehoiakim  having 
been  killed  and  thrown  before  the  walls,^  the  money  of  the  royal  carries  spoil 
treasury,  with  the  golden  and  other  vessels  of  the  temple  of  Solo-  Babyl'ou'7'^^  ° 
mon,  were  taken  away  and  placed  in  the  temple  of  Babylon ;  ^ 
3023  Jews  were  at  the  same  time  conveyed  as  captives  to  that  city. 

Jehoiachin,  also  called  Jechoniah,  and  in  contempt  Coniah, 
succeeded  his  father  at  eighteen  years  of  age.     The  peace  of 
the  city  was  not,  however,  of  long  continuance,  for  after  the 
short  interval  of  three  months,   Nebuchadnezzar  returned  to  Second  siege 
besiege  it,  and  took  Jehoiachin,  with  his  mother  and  his  whole  and*^  ' 

court,  and  all  the  treasure  of  the  house  of  the  Lord  and  the 
king's  house,  and  carried  away  all  the  princes,  the  mighty  men 
of  valour,  even  8,000  captives,  and  all  the  craftsmen  and 
smiths,  together  with  the  mighty  of  the  land,  to  Babylon.^  A 
portion  of  these  was  planted  on  the  river  Chebar,  and  amongst 
them  was  Ezekiel,  whom  we  find  prophecying  in  the  land  of  the 
Chaldeans,  on  the  banks  of  that  stream.*'  Farther  in  the  in-  further  cap- 
terior  were  Mordecai  and  others ;  for,  as  Berossus  expresses  it,  jews. 
*'  he  distributed  the  captives  in  colonies  in  the  most  proper 
places  of  Babylonia." ' 

On  his  return  from  this  campaign,  Nebuchadnezzar  devoted  Embeiiish- 
his  attention  for  some  years  to  the  embellishment  and  enlarge-  Babylon. 
ment  of  Babylon  ;  but  in  this  occupation  he  w^as  interrupted  by  a 
hostile  confederacy  of  the  kings  of  Amnion,  Moab,  Edom,  Tyre, 
and  Sidon.     Into  this  conspiracy,  notwithstanding  the  warnings 
of  Jeremiah  ^  and  Ezekiel,^  Zedekiah,  once  Mattaniah,  then  king 

'  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  7.  *  Ibid.,  chap.  XXIII.,  v.  33,  34. 

^  Jos.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  vi. 

*  2  Chron,,  chap.  36,  v,  6,  7,  and  Jer.,  chap.  LII.,  18th,  and  following  verses. 

*  2  Kings,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  15,  16. 

*  Ezekiel,  chap.  I.,  v.  3. 

I  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments  from  Berossus,  p.  39,  and  Syncel.  Chron., 
p.  220. 

®  "Where  are  now  your  prophets  who  prophesied  unto  you,  saying  the 
king  of  Babylon  shall  not  come  against  you,  nor  against  this  land  ?  Chap. 
XXXVII.,  V.  19. 

^  Ezekiel  gave  a  very  remarkable  but  enigmatical  warning  of  the  fate  of 
Zedekiah,  by  predicting  that  he  should  be  carried  to  Babylon,  and  yet  that 
he  should  not  see  it,  though  he  should  die  there.     Chap.  XII.,  v.  13. 


158  CAPTIVITY  OF  ZEDEKIAH.  [cHAP.  VI. 

Eebeiiion  of    of  Judah,  had  entered,  hoping  that  with  the  powerful  assistance 

zedekiah.       ^^  ^^-^  ^jj^^^  pharaoh  Hophra,  king  of  Egypt/  he  might  be  able 

to  throw  off  the  Chaldean  yoke,  and  release  the  Jewish  captives, 

who  were  then  looking  for  a  speedy  return  from  AssjT-ia  as  well 

as  Babylonia,  to  their  native  land. 

On  the  news  of  Zedekiah's  rebellion,  the  Babylonian  monarch 
anticipated  the  promised  succour  of  the  Egyptians,  by  making 
a  hasty  march  and  surrounding  Jerusalem.^  Having  thus  in- 
Nebuchad-  tcrposcd  his  forces  between  those  of  Zedekiah  and  the  Egyp- 
jerusakmT^^^  tians,  hc  marchcd  to  meet  the  latter  during  their  advance.  On 
this  movement^  being  made,  the  Egyptians  hastily  retreated  into 
their  own  country,  without  even  hazarding  a  battle  in  support 
of  their  allies ;  and  Nebuchadnezzar  being  thus  at  liberty,  began 
the  siege  of  the  city  in  form,  that  is,  by  building  forts  round 
about  it.*  After  a  siege  of  eighteen  months '"  a  famine  pre- 
vailed, and  all  the  men  of  war  fled  by  night,  by  the  "svay  of  the 
gate,  between  the  two  walls.  The  Chaldeans  pursued  the  king, 
and  having  overtaken  him  in  the  plains  of  Jericho  they  carried 
him  to  Riblah,^  where  his  sons  were  put  to  death  in  his  pre- 
sence by  order  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  After  this,  Zedekiah's  own 
eyes  having  been  put  out,  he  was  led  in  fetters  of  brass  to 
Babylon,''  where  he  died,  without,  as  had  been  predicted,  having 
seen  the  splendour  of  the  city,  now  adorned  with  Jewish  spoils, 
including  the  magnificent  vessels  of  Solomon's  temple,^  which 
are  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  materials  for  the  golden 
colossus  on  the  plain  of  Dura, 
and  adorns  his  Thcsc  had  been  Carried  thither  by  Nebuzar-adan,  the  com- 
ite^spoiir*  ^  mander  of  the  Royal  Babylonian  Life  Guards,  who  not  only 
set  fire  to  the  temple  as  well  as  to  the  palaces,  but  destroyed 
all  the  defences  of  the  city,®  leaving  merely  some  of  the  poorest 

'  Jerem.,  chap.  37.,  v.  2-7  ;  and  chap.  XVII.,  v.  3. 

*  Joseph.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  viii. 

^  Jerem.,  chap.  XXXVII.,  v.  7. 

*  2  Kings,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  1. 

*  i.  e.  from  the  10th  month  of  590  B.C.  to  the  4th  month  9th  day  of  588; 
Jerem.,  chap.  XXXIX.,  v.  1,  2. 

*  A  province  of  Ilamath.  ^  2  Kings,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  7. 
«  Ibid.,  V.  13-17 ;  2  Chron.,  chap.  XXXVL,  v.  18. 

»  2  Kings,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  8,  9,  10. 


CHAP.  VI.]      TYRE  TAKEN  BY  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  159 

of  the  inhabitants  as  vine-dressers  and  husbandmen  ^  in  Judea, 
under  the  government  of  Gedaliah,  a  Hebrew,  the  son  of 
Ahikam.^ 

The  rebelhon  of  Ismael,  and  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  caused  Destruction  of 
the  return  of  Nebuzar-adan,  who  entirely  deprived  Judea  of  city  o™Jeru- 
its  remaining  inhabitants ;  and  as  these  were  not  immediately  ^^'^™* 
replaced  by  others,  the  country  continued  for  a  time  uninhabited, 
wasted,  and  desolate.^     Such  was  the  melancholy  termination 
of  the  Israelitish  monarchy,  after  it  had  stood  about  468  years 
from  the  commencement  of  David's  reign. 

The  second  year  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Nebu-  Tyre  besieged 
chadnezzar  once  more  crossed  the  Euphrates,  to  make  war  on  Nebuchad-  ^ 
the  western  nations,   and  laid  siege   to  Tyre :    this  siege  or  °^^^'^^- 
rather  blockade  continued  for  a  period  of  thirteen  years,  when 
the  city  surrendered,  but  not  until  it  had  been  deserted  by  its 
inhabitants.^ 

During  this  protracted  siege,  detached  parties  were  sent  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  different  directions  to  reduce  the  Sidonians, 
the  Moabites,  and  the  Ammonites ;  and  to  revenge  the  death 
of  Gedaliah.  Nebuzar-adan,  at  this  time,  carried  745  captives 
from  Judea,  which  completed  the  desolation  of  the  land.^ 

Shortly  after  Tyre  had  fallen,  Nebuchadnezzar  took  advan-  Nebuchad- 
tage  of  the  intestine  disturbances  caused  by  the  rival  claims  of  {he^p'oiisT/^ 
Apius  and  Amasis,  to  invade  Egypt,  and  having  mastered  the  ^fj^/jj'^^" 
whole  country,  and  slain  great  numbers  of  the  natives,  he  en- 
riched himself  and  his  army  with  the  spoils  of  that  kingdom : 
on  this  occasion  he  transferred  numbers  of  Egyptians,  as  he  had 
before  done  Jews,  Phoenicians,  and  Syrians,  to  his  territory 
beyond  the  Euphrates.® 

The  spoils  obtained  in  these  expeditions  were  employed  by 

'  2  Kings,  chap.  XXV.,  ver.  12 ;  also  Jerem.,  chap.  XXXIX. ,  v.  10. 

"^  2  Kings,  chap.  XXV.,  ver.  22. 

^  Dent.,  chap.  XXVIII.,  v.  21  ;  Jerem.,  chap.  XLIV.,  v.  2. 

*  Ezek.,  chap.  XXVI.,  v.  2,  7.  This  city  was  now  taken  for  the  first 
time,  after  a  glorious  resistance,  against  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of 
ancient  times. 

*  Jerem.,  chap.  LII.,  v.  30. 

*  Josephus,  Cont.  Apion,  lib.  I.,  cap.  19;  Syncel.  Chron..  220;  Euseb. 
Praep.  Evan.,  1.  9,  s.  41, 


160 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR  ADORNS  BABYLON.  [cHAP.  VI. 


He  adorns 
Babylon. 


Erects  a 
palace. 


and  forms 

hanging 

gardens. 


The  Nahr- 
Malka  canal. 


Tradition 

conoerning 

Nebuchad- 


Nebuchadnezzar  in  augmenting  tlie  splendour  of  his  capital, 
and  in  adorning  its  temples,  particularly  that  of  Belus,  in  a 
sumptuous  manner.^  The  same  king  also  rebuilt  the  old  city, 
and  added  another  to  it  on  the  outside,  surrounding  each  of 
them  with  three  walls,  as  defences  against  any  subsequent 
attempt  to  besiege  Babylon,  and  effect  an  entrance  into  it  by 
diverting  the  river.  Some  of  these  walls  were  built  of  burnt 
brick  and  bitumen,  and  some  of  brick  only.  When  the  king 
had  thus  fortified  the  city,  and  had  magnificently  adorned  the 
gates,  he  added  another  palace  to  those  in  which  his  forefathers 
had  dwelt:  this  structure  adjoined  the  others,  but  exceeded 
them  in  height  and  splendour,  and  round  it  he  formed  what 
has  been  called  a  pensile  paradise,  or  hanging  garden.  This, 
which  was  composed  of  high  terraces,  and  supported  on  stone 
pillars,  was  made  to  resemble  a  mountainous  tract  of  country, 
and  was  so  arranged  in  order  to  gratify  his  queen,  who  had 
been  brought  up  in  Media,  and  was  fond  of  such  scenery.^ 

The  improvements  of  the  capital  were  not,  however,  the  only 
undertakings  of  Nebuchadnezzar ;  the  great  work  of  the  Nahr- 
Malka  canal,  and  one  portion  of  the  extensive  Nahrawan,  east- 
ward of  the  Tigris,^  are  attributed  to  this  monarch. 

The  object  of  the  former  was  to  open  a  communication  for 
vessels  between  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  It  is  also 
believed  that  the  Pallacopas  was  cut  by  him,  to  carry  the  inun- 
dation of  the  former  river  into  a  lake,  1 200  stadia,  or  about 
120  miles  in  circumference,  from  which  were  to  be  sent  out 
numerous  small  channels,  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  and  fer- 
tilizing this  part  of  Babylonia. 

Eusebius  relates,  from  a  Chaldean  tradition,  that  afler  the 
completion  of  all  his  works,  Nebuchadnezzar  prophesied,  from 
the  roof  of  his  palace,  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  and  then  expired."  This  tradition  is  probably  a 
variation  of  the  account  given  in  the  Scriptures^  of  the  temporary 


'  Jos.,  Cont.  Apion,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xix. 

*  Ibid.,  and  Syncel.  Cliron.,  221  ;  and  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  IX.,  s. 
41,  from  Abydenus. 

"  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  28,  30.  ••  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  IX.,  s.  41. 

*  Daniel,  chap.  IV.,  v.  33. 


CHAP.  VI.]  CHARACTER  OF  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  161 

insanity  with  which  this  great  monarch,  when  at  the  summit  of  Temporary 
prosperity,  was  afflicted :  the  circumstances  there  mentioned,  king'.'  ^  ^ 
may  indicate  either  that  the  king,  under  the  influence  of  his 
malady,  imagined  himself  to  be  transformed  into  an  ox,  and 
wandered  about  the  country,  or  simply  that  he  withdrew  from 
his  palace  and  dwelt  in  retirement,  confining  himself  to  a  vege- 
table diet  till  his  reason  returned.  The  former  opinion  is  not 
improbable,  since  a  person  labouring  under  any  kind  of  mental 
aberration  is  honoured  in  the  East,  and  is  allowed  to  follow  un- 
interruptedly the  tendency  of  his  own  will. 

On  the  recovery  of  his  reason  he  resumed  his  throne,  but  it 
is  not  known  how  long  afterwards  he  occupied  it.     Unfortu- 
nately we  have  only  a  mere  outline  of  the  reign  of  this  monarch, 
who,  from  the  importance  of  his  military  expeditions,  his  en- 
couragement of  commerce,   and  the  splendour  with  which  he 
adorned  his  capital,  was  evidently  one  of  the  greatest  princes  of 
antiquit}\     Vestiges  of  his  canals   remain,   and    his    trade   to  Commerce 
China  is  known  historically;  but  as  yet  no  work  has  reached  ^jjp\;njgQ"/p|° 
us  detailing  the  links  ^Yhich  connected  the  interior  and  exterior  ^"chadnezzar. 
commerce  of  this  great  empire.^ 

El   Voradam,    the   Evil-Merodach   of   Megasthenes,    Evil- Evii-Mero- 
maradach  of  Berossus,  and  the  Iloarudun  of  Ptolemy,  who  had  siou)  anr'^^" 
assumed  the  government  during  the  insanity  of  his  father,^  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  his  death ;   but  having  proved  himself 
both  unworthy  and  tyrannical,  he  was  assassinated  in  the  follow-  death  by 
ing  year,  after  exhibiting  one,   and  perhaps  only  one,  trait  of 
generosity,   in  releasing  the    unfortunate  Jehoiachin,   king  of 
Judah,  after  a  captivity  of  thirty-seven  years. 

During  his  short  reign  Evil-Merodach  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  animosity  between  the  Medes  and  Persians  which  after- 
wards occasioned  the  destruction  of  the  Babylonian  empire.  It 
appears  that  during  a  hunting  expedition,  that  prince,  at  the 

'  In  ancient  times  there  was  a  trade  with  China  from  the  ports  of  Siir  and 
Kilhat  in  the  Persian  Gulf;  an  island  half  way,  called  Kolah  (possibly 
Ceylon),  being  at  one  period  the  entrepot  for  that  trade  :  Arabic  MS.  7503, 
in  the  British  Museum,  compared  with  Masiidi's  Historical  Encyclopaedia, 
p.  328,  translated  by  Aloys  Spernger,  M.D. 

*  Jerome,  Comment,  on  Jerem.,  chap.  LII.,  v.  31,  and  Calmet's  Diction- 
ary of  the  Bible— Evil-Merodach. 

VOL.  II.  M 


162  WAR  BETWEEN  MEDIA  AND  BABYLONIA.         [cHAP.  VI. 

Riseofhosti-  head  of  some  Babylonians,  ranged  through  a  part  of  the  adjoin- 

thTMedlrand  ing  kingdom  of  Media,  when  Astyages,  the  king  of  that  country, 

Babylonians,    accompanied  by  his  son-in-law  Cyrus,  hastily  assembled  some 

troops,  and  having  put  the  followers  of  Evil-Merodach  to  the 

rout,  he  pursued  them  to  their  own  border  with  considerable 

slaughter. 

Nerigiissar  NeHglissar  or  Neglisarus,^  the  Neriglissoorus  of  Josephus,* 

Scceeds  Evil-  son-iu-law  of  Nebuchaduezzar,  took  this  opportunity  of  murder- 

Babyfou,\ud   i"g  ^is  brothcr-iu-law  Evil-Merodach,  and   succeeded  him  as 

king  of  Babylon. 

In  order  to  secure  the  throne  thus  usurped,  and  restrain  the 
growing  power  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,   at  a  period  when 
the  energies  of  the  youthful  Cyrus  were  beginning  to  display 
themselves,  Nerigiissar  proceeded  to  collect  the  forces  of  the 
several  satrapies  of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  Caria,  Cappadocia,  Paph- 
lagonia,  Cilicia,  &c. :  he  even  sent  envoys  to  the  kings  of  India/ 
Cyaxares  sue-  in  order  to  obtain  assistance  from   them,     Cyaxares,   with  the 
inVedia^^    assistauce  of  Cyrus,  had  succeeded  his  father  Astyages  on  the 
throne  of  Media,  and  with  the  view  of  counteracting  the  warlike 
preparations  of  the  king  of  Babylonia,  he  called  his  nephew  out 
of  Persia  with  a  body  of  30,000  men,   appointing  him   corn- 
Cyrus  takes     mander-in-chief  of  all  his  forces.     After  three  years  employed 
against  in  extcnsivc  preparations,  Nerigiissar  the  Babylonian,  assisted 

erig  issar.  |^^  ^  body  of  Arabians,  together  with  the  other  forces,  including 
the  Lydians,  under  the  command  of  the  well-known  Croesus, 
advanced  to  encounter  the  Medes  and  Persians  under  Cyrus. 
The  latter,  on  his  side,  was  assisted  by  a  body  of  Armenians, 
who  had  already  subdued  that  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Ba- 
bylon which  was  next  to  their  country.  Previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities,  it  is  said  that  an  embassy  arrived  from 
India  to  inquire  into  the  grounds  and  causes  of  the  war,  offering 
mediation  if  it  might  be  accepted,  and  threatening  at  the  same 
time  to  join  that  party  which  appeared  to  have  justice  on  its 
The  Indians  sidc  '.*  this  Mas  probably  a  consequence  of  the  mission  just 
oiTerme  la-     j^^eutioned  as  having  been  sent  to  India  by  Nerigiissar. 

In   the   contest  which   followed,    Cyrus   gained  a  complete 
'  Euseb.,  Chron.  Arm.,  pp.  41,  42. 

^  Contr.  Ap.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xx. ;  Euseb.,  Preep.  Evan.,  lib.  IX. 
"  Cyropsedia,  lib.  I.  *  Ibid.,  p.  36. 


si-i 


V' 


.# 


^s^-*-. 


xV>     .    >-^ 


CHAP.  VI  ]  NITOCRIS  AND  HER  SON  BELSHAZZAR.  163 

victory  over  Neriglissar,  who  was  slain  ;^  and  the  Babylonian  Defeat  of  the 
camp,  together  with  all  the  baggage,  and  many  captives,  were  ltd  LydTan^s. 
taken  next  day,  after  much  slaughter.  ^^^ 

Neriglissar  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Laborosoarchodus,  whose 
cruelty  and  oppression  caused  the  revolt  of  two  of  his  provinces, 
and  an  invasion  of  Babylonia  by  Cyrus ;  the  latter,  however, 
returned  into  Media,  being  unable  to  induce  his  enemies  to  quit 
the  impregnable  walls  of  the  city. 

The  Babylonian  monarch  being  thus  freed  from  immediate  Cyrus  returns 
danger,  gave  the  rein  to  all  his  vicious  propensities,   and  that  "''^    ^  y  «" 
to  such  an  extent,  that  his  irritated  subjects  conspired,  and  put 
him  to  death  by  torture."     After  his  decease,  the  conspirators 
assembled,  and  by  common  consent  placed  the  crown  upon  the  Accession  of 
head  of  Nabonnedus,^  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection.^  or^Beulmzzar. 
This  was  the  Belshazzar  of  Scripture,  being  the  son  of  Evil- 
Merodach,   by   Nitocris,    a   very  politic,    active,   and   resolute 
woman,  who  in  reality  governed  the  empire.     Whilst  the  dissi- 
pated and  thoughtless  grandson  of  the  warlike  Nebuchadnezzar 
rioted  in  intemperance,  and  indulged  his  grossest  appetites,  his  works  of 
mother  had  completed  the  great  works  commenced  by  that  con-  ^'***^"^' 
queror,  and  perfected  the  defences  of  the  capital,  more  especially 
the  walls  which  defended  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  which  were 
curiously  built  with  burnt  bricks  and  bitumen.^     The  tunnel 
also  is  supposed  to  have  been  her  work  ;  and  as  a  farther  means 
of  preserving  the  capital  of  an  empire,  then  tottering  to  its  very 
foundation,  Nitocris  laid  in  a  sufficient  store  of  provision  to  Supplies  col- 
supply  the  inhabitants  for  many  years.*^     But  the  period  was  j3abyion^ 
now  fast  approaching  when  the  prophecies  against  this  rich, 
voluptuous,  and  idolatrous  city,''  were  about  to  be  accomplished  ; 
and  the  instrument  chosen  to   "subdue  nations  and  loose  the 

'  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan,,  lib.  X. 

*  Joseph.,  Contr.  Apion,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xx.  ;  Euseb.,  Praep,  Evan.,  lib,  IX. 
^  Nabonnidich   of  Ptolemj^ ;  the  Labynetus  of  Herodotus,  lib.  I.,  cap. 

clxxxviii. 

*  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  41. 

*  Ibid. 

*  Herod,,  lib.  I,,  cap,  cxc. 

^  The  glorj'  of  kingdoms,  and  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldee's  excellency, 
Isaiah,  chap.  XIII.,  v.  19. 

M    2 


164 


THE  GYNDES  DRAINED. 


[chap.  n. 


The  river 
Gyndes 
drained  by 
Cyrus. 


Former  course 
oftheDiyalah. 


Belshazzar  is 
defeated,  and 
takes  refuge 
■within  the 
walls  of 
Babylon. 


Blockade  of 
Babylon. 


loins  of  kings "  ^  was  already  advancing  against  it  from  Sardis, 
accompanied  by  the  Armenian  king,  Tigranes,  with  his  forces. 

It  was  during  this  march  that  the  wild  feat  was  performed  of 
punishing  the  river  Gyndes  for  disrespect  to  the  Persian  prince. 
In  consequence  of  one  of  the  sacred  white  horses  having  been 
drowned  in  attempting  to  swim  across  this  stream,  Cyrus  declared 
that  he  would  make  it  fordable,  without  wetting  the  knees  of 
those  who  were  passing.  Accordingly,  his  whole  army  having 
halted,  and  his  operations  against  Babylon  having  been  suspended 
for  this  purpose,  he  dug  360  channels,  and  diverted  the  body 
of  the  river  into  them.  This  was,  however,  an  operation  of  no 
very  great  difficulty,  in  such  a  country  as  that  through  which 
the  Diyalah  passes  in  the  latter  part  of  its  course,  especially  as 
a  whole  army  of  men,  accustomed  to  the  management  of  water, 
was  employed  upon  it  for  the  remainder  of  the  season.  It 
appears,  that  at  one  time  the  Diyalah  did  not  disembogue  itself 
into  the  Tigris,  but  its  waters  were  carried,  chiefly  in  one 
channel,  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  into  the  Kerkhah,  and  the 
change  may  possibly  be  the  consequence  of  the  canals  dug  by 
Cyrus  on  this  occasion. 

Whilst  the  invaders  were  delayed  by  this  useless  operation, 
Nitocris  was  occupied  in  collecting  a  large  army  to  oppose  them, 
and  the  enervated  monarch,  Belshazzar,  drew  out  these  forces, 
hoping  to  cover  and  save  the  capital ;  but  he  experienced  a  signal 
defeat,  and  was  driven  within  the  walls  of  Babylon  by  the  vic- 
torious Persians. 

Cyrus,  having  thus  become  master  of  the  surrounding  country, 
immediately  commenced  what  was  rather  a  close  blockade  than 
the  regTilar  siege  of  the  city,  which  previously  to  that  time  had 
been  deemed  impregnable,  owing  to  the  extent  and  peculiar 
strength  of  its  works ;  on  which,  in  fact,  all  the  skill  of  their 
architects,  and  much  of  the  wealth  of  successive  sovereigns  of 
that  great  empire,  had  been  expended. 

In  addition  to  the  inner  fortifications  of  the  citadel,  or  palace, 
with  its  gates  of  brass,  there  was  a  triple  line  of  exterior  de- 
fences, flanked  by  lofty  towers,  which  encircled  a  vast  city, 
amply  furnished  with  troops.     It  had,  moreover,  an  enormous 

'  Isaiali,  chap.  XLV.,  v.  1. 


HAP.  VI.]  SIEGE  OF  BABYLON.  165 

population,  which  was  abundantly  supplied  for  a  long  time  to 
come,  owing  to  the  foresight  of  Nitocris.  AVithin  the  walls,  as  strength  of  iu 
is  customary  with  Eastern  cities,  it  had  the  advantage  of  gardens 
and  tracts  of  cultivated  ground,'  and  a  wide  space  between  the 
houses  and  the  walls.^  Such  a  city  might  fairly  be  considered 
to  be  perfectly  secure  against  any  kind  of  open  attack  ;  there- 
fore, it  was  with  a  firm  reliance  upon  its  extraordinary  strength, 
that  the  defenders  of  Babylon  treated  the  hardy  warriors  of 
Cyrus  with  the  utmost  scorn.  It  is  said  that  they  derided  the 
efforts  of  the  besiegers  from  the  summits  of  their  towers  and 
walls.^ 

The  siege  continued  for  more  than  two  years,  without  the  Duration  of 
slightest  impression  having  been  made  on  the  place,  notwith- 
standing all  the  perseverance  and  valour  of  the  besiegers.  At 
that  time  battering-rams,  catapultse,  and  mines,  appear  to  have  and  mode  of 
been  unknown  to  Cyrus  ;  and  the  works  which  he  executed  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  the  city  consisted  merely  of  an  extensive 
circumvallation,  provided  with  towers  constructed  of  date-trees, 
and  sufficiently  elevated  to  command  the  walls.*  The  forces  of 
Cyrus  were,  moreover,  inferior  to  those  of  the  Babylonians, 
while  the  high  walls  and  towers,  with  the  strong  lines  of  defence, 
appeared  to  render  the  city  impregnable.  In  these  circumstances 
Cyrus,  either  of  himself,  or  in  consequence  of  a  hint  from  one 
of  his  generals,^  determined  to  adopt  one  of  those  daring  pro- 
jects, by  which  great  commanders  are  distinguished  from  ordi- 
nary captains. 

Having  learnt,   it  is  supposed  from  Gobryas  and  Gadates,  Project  of 
two  Babylonian  nobles,  who,   having  been  ill-treated  by  their  ducTthe  c^. 
king,  had  deserted  to  the  Persian  camp,  that  a  great  annual 
festival  would  be  held  at  a  particular  time  within   the  walls, 
Cyrus  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the   circumstance  by 
storming  the  city,  at  the  very  instant  when  he  might  expect  to 
find  the  whole  of  its  defenders  lost  in  revelry.     In  order  eftec-  Cyrus  pre- 
tually  to   accomplish   this   project,   he   gradually   and  silently  {he  wat^ers  o7 
prepared  the  means  of  suddenly   diverting  the  waters  of  the  *^^  Euphrates. 

'  Quin.  Cur.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i.  *  Diotl.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii. 

^  Cyropaedia,  lib.  VII. ;  Quin.  Cur.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i. 

*  Cyropaedia,  lib.  VII.  ^  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cxci. 


166 


THE  COURSE  OF  THE  EUPHRATES  CHANGED.      [cHAP.  M. 


and  pushes  the 
siege. 


Euphrates  from  their  ordinary  channel ;  thus  opening  a  passage 
for  his  troops,  along  the  bed  of  the  river,  into  the  very  heart  of 
the  city. 

This  gigantic  operation  was  more  practicable  for  the  Persians 
than  it  would  have  been  for  a  nation  less  accustomed  to  the  ma- 
nagement of  water,  more  particularly  as  they  had  just  practised 
nearly  a  similar  operation,  by  draining  the  river  Diyalah.  More- 
Enlarges  the  over,  they  had  the  great  advantage  of  finding  the  work  facili- 
Semiramis,^  tatcd  by  the  existence  of  a  canal  cut  by  Semiramis,  and  since 
enlarged  by  Nitocris,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  over- 
flowings of  the  great  river  into  the  Chaldean  lake.  Cyrus  had, 
therefore,  only  to  enlarge  this  canal  sufficiently  to  receive  the 
whole,  instead  of  a  portion  of  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates,  which 
would  at  once  flow  into  the  new  channel,  without  the  necessity 
of  constructing  a  bund  or  dyke  for  this  purpose. 

The  plan  being  matured,  Cyrus  continued  to  push  the  siege 
with  increased  vigour ;  and  in  order  to  occupy  the  enemy's 
attention  more  effectually  on  the  side  of  the  city,  he  employed 
his  best  troops  in  that  quarter,  whilst  the  inferior  soldiers,  to- 
gether with  the  numerous  hordes  always  following  in  the  train 
of  an  Asiatic  army,  were  employed  in  working  out  the  bed  of 
the  canal,  which  was  opened  at  some  distance  to  the  north-west 
of  the  city. 

Herodotus  does  not  tell  us  whether  or  not  a  bund  was  con- 
structed as  an  additional  means  of  diverting  the  course  of  the 
river ;  but  this  could  scarcely  have  been  necessary,  for  the 
stream  in  that  part  of  Babylonia  is  so  dull,  that  a  new  bed  with 
a  deeper  channel  in  the  proposed  direction,  and  at  the  most,  a 
partial  bund  projecting  at  a  suitable  angle  from  the  lower  side 
of  the  canal,  would  have  answered  the  purpose. 

The  operation  was  accomplished  after  nightfall  on  the 
evening  of  the  festival,  supposed  to  be  that  of  Sacea,  which, 
according  to  Berossus,  took  place  in  the  eleventh  month,  called 
Loos ;  when,  during  a  period  of  five  days,  it  was  the  custom 
that  the  masters  should  obey  their  domestics,  one  of  whom  was 
led  round  the  house,  clothed  in  a  royal  garment,  and  him  they 
call  Zoganes.' 

'  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  43,  by  I.  P.  Cory,  Esq. 


Facilit)'  of 
diverting 
the  river 
Euphrates. 


CHAP.  VI.]  CAPTURE  OF  BABYLON.  167 

Cyrus  posted  one-half  of  his  army  where  the  Euphrates  enters  Plan  of  the 
the  city,  and  the  other  half  at  its  outlet,  the  columns  being  ge-  *"^'^'*'  ^^^ 
nerally  guided  by  the  two  Babylonian  nobles  just  mentioned ; 
and  the  troops  having  orders  to  enter  the  channel  from  above 
and  below  at  the  same  time.     At  the  appointed  hour,  the  revelry 
being  at  its  height,  the  columns  advanced  along  the  bed  of  the 
river,  in  which  the  water  had  been  suddenly  diminished  so  as  to 
be  quite  fordable  :  and  as  the  gates  leading  from  the  quays  to  the 
river  had  been  left  heedlessly  open/  they  entered  the  streets,  its  success 
imitating  the  shouts  of  the  revellers,   and  were  thus  enabled,  Je"p"fry!'^^ 
unnoticed,  to  unite  at  the  royal  palace  itself.     The  king,   sup- 
posing the  noise  of  the  assailants  to  be  only  the  clamour  of  a 
drunken  mob,  ordered  his  guards  to  open  the  gates  and  ascertain 
its  cause ;  on  which,   his  foes  rushed  onwards  with   resistless 
force,  and  having  killed  the  guards,   forced  their  way  to  the 
palace.     Belshazzar,  with  his  sword  drawn,  defended  his  life  for 
some  time,  but  was  at  length  slain,   and  his  attendants  shared  Death  of 
the  same  fate.     This  took  place  in  the  month  of  November,  in 
the  year  536  b.  c,  perhaps  within  one  hour  after  the  mysterious 
characters  written  by  a  supernatural  hand  on  the  wall  had  been 
interpreted  by  Daniel.^ 

The  main  object  of  the  assault  having  been  accomplished,  by  Humanity  of 

!•  f»i  11  iiiii?ii"  r^  Cyrus  during 

the  takmg  oi  the  royal  palace  and  the  death  ot  the  kmg,  Cyrus,  the  assault, 
in  conformity  with  that  humanity  which  prevailed  with  him,  ^° 
even  during  the  feverish  moment  of  an  assault,  immediately 
issued  a  proclamation,  promising  life  and  safety  to  all  who  might 
come  to  him  and  deliver  up  their  arms,  at  the  same  time 
threatening  death  to  those  who  refused  to  accept  his  proffered 
clemency.  This  had  the  desired  effect,  for  the  inhabitants  soon 
submitted  to  the  conqueror.  Cyrus  in  consequence  became 
master  of  this  mighty  capital  without  further  bloodshed.  So 
quietly,  indeed,  was  this  accomplished,  that  those  who  occupied 
the  citadel,  probably  the  Mujellibeh,  learnt  only  at  day-break 
that  the  city  belonged  to  Darius  the  Mede,  or  rather  to  Cy- 
axares,  who  was  both  uncle  and  father-in-law^  to  Cyrus ;  or,  to 

'  Isaiah,  chap.  XLV.,  v.  1. 

'■'  III  that  night  was  Belshazzar,  tlie  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  slain  ;  and 
Darius,  the  Median,  took  the  kingdom.     Daniel,  chap.  V,,  v.  30,  31. 


168  FIDELITY  OF  CYRUS.  [CHAP.  VI. 

use  the  expression  of  Xenophon,  "  When  that  part  of  the  city 
which  borders  on  the  river  was  already  in  possession  of  the 
enemy,  those  who  dwelt  nearer  the  centre  knew  nothing  of  it."  ^ 
his  fidelity  to  It  was  in  behalf  of  Cyaxares  that  Cyrus  had  undertaken  this 
Cyaxares.  gj-g^t  expedition,  and  though  he  had  added  Babylonia  to  his 
conquests  over  Asia,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  he  still  regarded  his 
uncle  as  the  head  of  the  empire,  being  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life  content  to  govern  as  deputy  or  viceroy  at  Babylon,  as 
he  had  till  then  governed  the  kingdoms  of  Ararat,  Minni,  and 
Askenaz.^ 

'  Cyropsedia,  lib.  VII.  *  Jerem.,  chap.  LI.,  v.  27. 


(     109     ) 


CHAPTER  YII. 

GLANCE  AT  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  MEDO-PERSIAN  EMPIRE  UNDER 
DARIUS  THE  MEDE,  CYRUS,  CAMBYSES,  DARIUS  HYSTASPES, 
XERXES,    ARTAXERXES,   AND   DARIUS  NOTHUS,    FROM  536  B.C.  TO 

404  B.C. 


Cyrus  the  Great  vis^its  Persia. — His  Accession  and  Forces. — Daniel's  autho- 
rity.— Preparations  for  Building  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. — Cyrus' 
Decree. — The  Medes  and  Persians  become  one  Nation. — Cambyses  suc- 
ceeds.— Invasion  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. — His  Death. — Sinerdis  usurps 
the  Throne. — His  Death. — Stratagem  and  Accession  of  Darius  Hystasj)es. — 
Rebellion  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia. — Darius  marches  to  quell  the  latter. 
— Revolt  and  Capture  of  Babylon,  according  to  Herodotus. — A  Revolt  in 
the  Upper  Provinces  recalls  Darius. — His  authority  is  established. — 
Organization  of  the  Empire. — Posts  establislied. — Use  of  Firmans. — The 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  Rebuilt. — Voyage  of  Scylax. — Invasions  of  Scythia 
and  Greece. — Zerd-husht,  or  Zoroaster,  and  the  Religion  of  the  Magi. — 
Invasion  of  Greece. — Battle  of  JNIarathon. — Fresh  Armaments  of  Darius. — 
His  Death. — Character. — Xerxes'  Succession. — Invasion  of  Greece. — 
Contingents. — March. — Bridge  over  the  Hellespont. — Thrace. — Ther- 
mopylae.— Salamis. — Retreat  into  Asia. — Battles  of  Plataea  and  Mycale. 
— Death  of  Xerxes. — His  Character. — Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  or  Aha- 
suerus,  succeeds. — Esther. — The  Jews. —  Reception  of  Themistocles  at  the 
Court  of  Assyria. — Double  Victory  of  the  Greeks  on  the  Coast  of  Pam- 
phylia. — Peace  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Assyrians. — Xerxes  Murdered. 
— Sogdianus  and  Darius  Nothus. 


After  the  fall  of  Babylon,  about  536  b.c,  Cyrus  visited  his  Cyrus  accom- 
father    and  mother  in  Persia,   and   from   thence  he  returned  cTaxareJ 
through  Media,  bringing  with  him  as  his  wife  the  daughter  of^'^'^^^^^-^^°°- 
Cyaxares,  with  whom  as  a  dowry,   he  had  been  promised  the 
kingdom  of  Media  in  reversion,  after  the  death  of  her  father. 
Cyaxares  himself  accompanied   the  bridal  party  to  Babylon, 
where  he  died,  after  having,  in  council  wath  bis  son-in-law, 
divided    the    empire   into    120    provinces,   which  were  to   be  The  empire 
governed  by  those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  during  the  pr"Es  ^'^ 

under 


170 


DECREE  OF  CYRUS. 


[chap.  VII. 


three 
presidents. 


The  rebnild- 
ing  of  the 
Temple  is 


decreed  by 
Cyrus. 


The  sacred 
fire  of  the 
Temple  com- 
pared 


■with  that  of 
the  Magi. 


M  ar,  the  whole  being  under  the  general  superintendence  of  three 
presidents,  of  whom  Daniel  was  the  first :'  a  preference,  to 
which  the  prophet  was  well  entitled,  not  only  in  consequence 
of  great  wisdom,  but  also  his  long  experience;  having  spent 
about  sixty  years  as  prime  minister  at  Babylon. 

On  mustering  his  forces,  Cyrus  found  that  his  army,  distri- 
buted over  the  empire,  consisted  of  600,000  foot,  120,000 
horsCj  and  2,000  chariots  armed  with  scythes. 

Daniel  did  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  favourable 
moment,  offered  by  his  high  position  and  influence  in  the 
empire  at  the  time  of  Cyrus'  accession,  to  press  the  object  most 
at  his  heart;  using  for  this  purpose  the  powerful  argument, 
that  120  years  previous  to  his  birth,  Cyrus  was  predestined  to 
release  the  Israelites  from  their  captivity.^  Accordingly  the 
prophecy,  specially  naming  Cyrus  as  the  shepherd  who  was  to 
perform  the  pleasure  of  God,  by  saying  to  Jerusalem  thou 
shalt  be  built,  and  to  the  Temple  thy  foundation  shall  be  laid,^ 
being  shown  to  that  prince,  Daniel's  Avishes  were  granted ;  and 
about  November  of  the  same  year,  being  also  the  seventieth  of 
the  captivity,  the  decree  was  issued,  giving  permission  to  all  the 
Jews  who  were  so  disposed  to  return  to  Judea ;  and,  to  those 
who  preferred  to  remain,  perfect  liberty  to  contribute  as  they 
pleased,  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stuffs,  to  assist  in  building 
and  adorning  the  Temple.^ 

In  this  memorable  firman,  Cyrus  asserts,  "  that  the  God  of 
heaven  had  given  him  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  and 
charged  him  to  build  a  house  at  Jerusalem  which  is  in  Judah,"* 
where  (it  is  added)   "  they  do  sacrifice  with  continual  fire."^ 

The  last  part  of  the  sentence  seems  to  allude  to  "  the  lamp 
to  burn  always  in  the  temple,"^  which  no  doubt  Cyrus  consi- 
dered the  same  as  the  fire  of  the  Magians.  The  doctrines  of  the 
latter,  as  restored  by   Zoroaster,    constituted   nearly    a   pure 

'  Dan.,  chap.  VI.,  v.  3. 

*  Isa.,  chap.  XLIV  ,  v.  28,  and  chap.  XLV.,  v.  1. 
«  Ibid.,  chap  XLIV.,  v.  28. 

*  Ezra,  chap.  I.,  v.  3,  4,  and  VI.,  v.  3,  4. 

*  Ibid.,  and  chap.  I.,  v,  1,  2. 

«  1st  Esdr.,  V.  6,  24;  and  Brisson,  de  Hegn.  Pers.,  351,  356. 
'  Exod.,  chap.  XXVII.,  v.  20. 


CHAP.  VII.]  PREPARATIONS  TO  REBUILD  THE  TEMPLE.  171 

theism;'  which  being  apparently  the  religion  of  Cyrus,  that 
monarch  caused  the  idols  of  Babylonia  to  be  replaced  by  the 
fire ;  and  that  the  latter  was  maintained  as  a  symbol  of  the  Fire  was  a 
Deity  and  not  as  an  object  of  worship,   is   manifest  from  a S,J'an';,i^"ct 
remarkable   sentence,   which    was    applied   to   Cyrus   and    his  °^^'^'"?^'i'- 
paternal  grandfather.     "  Think  not,"  said  Zoroaster,  "  that  they 
were  adorers  of  fire ;  for  that  element   was  only  an   exalted 
object,    on   the   lustre  of  which  they  fixed   their   eyes ;    they 
humbled  themselves  a  whole  week  before  God  ;  and  if  thy  un- 
derstanding be  ever  so  little  exerted,  thou  must  acknowledge 
thy  dependence  on  the  Being  supremely  pure."^ 

In  accordance  with  the  command  he  had  issued,  Cyrus  not  Cyrus restoios 
only  restored  the  5,400  sacred  vessels  of  the  Temple  of  Jeru- Se  TempL?^ 
salem,  but  also  prescribed  the  size  of  the  building  intended  to 
receive  them  ;  and  even  directed  that  the  expense  of  its  erection 
should  be  defrayed  from  the  royal  treasury."^ 

Shesh-bazzar,  the  Zerubbabel  or  Zorobabel  of  Scripture,  a  de-  Zerubbabei 
scendant  of  David,  and  the  grandson  of  Jeconiah,  having  been  jemsaiem" 
nominated  governor  of  Jerusalem  by  Cyrus,  he  prepared  to  lead 
his  countrymen  homeward ;  and  after  a  delay  of  some  months 
in  assembling  the  bulk  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  in  addition  to 
some  from  the  other  ten  tribes,  and  also  in  making  the  neces- 
sary preparations  for  a  journey  of  about   720  miles,   42,360  accompanipd 
Je%vs,  with  7,337  servants,*  accompanied  him  across  the  Desert,  jews!'from 
and  reached  their  native  land.     This  was  seventy  years  from 
the  commencement  of  the  captivity.^ 

The  limited  number  thus  collected  by  the  first  edict,  deno- 
minated   by   the   Hebrew   writers,    the   bran  or  dregs  of  the 
people,®  were  chiefly  from  Babylonia  and  the  adjoining  region  Babylonia  and 
of  Susiana,  in  which  however,  others  still  remained,  while  the  reavfns'the 
bulk  of  the  ten  tribes  resided  in  Assyria,  Media,   and  other  ten  tribes  in 
parts  of  the  east.     Zeal  for  the  Temple  having  been  the  grand  Meiia.'^  ^" 
motive  of  the  journey,  the  restoration  of  the  altar  for  burnt- 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  85.         ^  Sir  "Wni.  Jones'  Works,  vol.  I.,  p.  89. 

*  Ezra,  chap.  I.,  v.  11,  and  YI.,  v.  3,  4,  5  :  2  Cliron.,  chap.  XXXVL,  v.  23. 

*  Ezra,  chap.  II.,  v.  64,  65. 

*  Jer.,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  11,  and  cliap.  XXIX.,  v.  10. 

*  Talmud,  Bab.  in  Kiddushini. 


172 


CYRUS  UNITES  THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIANS. 


[chap. 


VII. 


Fonndatioa 
laid  of  the 
second 
Temple. 


The  Samari- 
tans interrupt 
the  work,  and 


influence  the 
court  of  Persia. 


The  ^ledes 
and  Persians 
become  one 
people  under 

Cvrus. 


Doubts  re- 
garding the 
manner  of 
Cyrus'  death. 


offerings,  was  the  first  object  ^  of  those  who  returned,  and  the 
contracts  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  building,  as  well  as  the 
preparation  of  materials  having  been  completed,  the  foundation 
of  the  Temple  was  laid  with  great  solemnity,  soon  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  year.^ 

The  size,  and  even  the  plan  itself,  were  the  same  as  those  of 
the  former  structure,  but  the  means  at  command  were  greatly 
inferior,  and  this  disadvantage  was  increased  by  an  unexpected 
circumstance,  which  interrupted  the  progress  of  the  work.  The 
mixed  people  of  Samaria,  who  were  Cutheans  intermixed  with 
a  remnant  of  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  claiming 
descent  from  the  two  last,  proposed  to  assist  in  the  great  national 
work ;  but  from  a  jealous  and  exclusive  spirit,  the  new  comers 
indignantly  rejected  the  proposal.  The  ancient  feud  between 
the  rival  people  was  thus  revived,  and  assumed  a  character  of 
fierce  and  implacable  hatred,  from  which  the  Jews  immediately 
suffered.  Samaritan  influence  and  intrigue  were  successfully 
exerted  at  the  court  of  Persia  to  stop  the  work.  The  Jews, 
however,  hoping  for  a  change,  continued  to  collect  and  prepare 
materials  during  the  remaining  five  years  of  Cyrus'  life,  as  well 
as  the  life  of  his  successor. 

With  Cyrus,  the  sovereignty  had  passed  from  the  Medes  to 
the  Persians,  and  the  two  became  henceforth  one  people  in 
dress,  manners,  and  religion ;  the  customs  of  the  latter  nation, 
being  naturally  adopted  by  the  sovereign,  in  compliment  to  the 
place  of  his  birth ;  and  as  a  matter  of  course  they  were  also  in- 
troduced amongst  the  Babylonians.  Cyrus  likewise  first  esta- 
blished the  custom  of  removing  the  court  from  Babylon  at  the 
expiration  of  the  winter  months  ;  two  months,  in  the  spring, 
were  spent  at  Shushan,  and  the  warmest  season,  at  Ecbatana.^ 

According  to  Xenophon,^  the  subsequent  years  of  Cyrus' 
reign  were  spent  in  peaceable  pursuits.  But  Herodotus  and 
Diodorus  Siculus,  give  a  very  different  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  days  of  this  conqueror  terminated  ;  and  though 
the  tomb  of  this  monarch,  on  the  plains  of  Murgh'-ab,  N.N.E. 
of  Persepolis,  seems    to  favour  the  statement  of  Xenophon, 


'  Ezra,  cliap.  TTT..  v.  3. 

"  Cyropeedia,  lib.  VIII.,  p.  233. 


-  Ibid.,  V.  8,  10. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  viL,  p,  551, 


CHAP.  Vir.]         CAMBYSES  MARCHES  THROUGH  ARABIA.  173 

it  is  unlikely  that  the  circumstances  related  by  the  historians 
concerning  his  expedition  to  a  distant  country,  and  the  manner 
of  his  death,  should  be  altogether  fabulous.  They  expressly 
state  that  Cyrus,  having  invaded  the  country  eastward  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,'  perished  in  a  great  and  bloody  battle  against 
Tomyris,  queen  of  the  Massage t?e,"  after  constructing  a  city 
to  -svhich  he  gave  the  name  of  Cyropolis.^ 

Cambyses,  his  second  son,  who  had  been  appointed  his  sue-  Cambyses 
cessor,  ascended  the  throne  about  529  b.c,  and  manifested  all  ^hronef  ^^^ 
his  father's  love  for  war,  but  without  a  shadow  of  prudence.    This 
prince,  one  of  those  who  bore  the  scriptural  title  of  Ahasuerus, 
having  taken  some  offence  against  Egypt,  made  extensive  pre- 
parations by  sea  and  land  throughout  his  vast  empire,  in  the 
very  commencement   of  his  reign,   for  the    conquest   of  that 
country.     More  than  three  years  were  employed  in   engaging  prepares  to 
the  Cypriots  and  Phoenicians  to  assist  him  with  their  fleets,  and  i^°JJ»<^es  Egypt, 
in  collecting  the  Greek  auxiliaries. 

The  subjugation  of  the  growing  colony  of  Carthage  had  been 
contemplated  also,  but  in  consequence  of  the  Phoenicians  having 
refused  to  assist  against  those  with  whom  they  were  connected, 
(the  Carthaginians  being  originally  from  Tyre),  this  part  of  the 
project  was  abandoned  :  the  intended  operations  were  therefore  to 
be  confined  to  Egypt,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  Nile.  Ac- 
cordingly, leaving  Patizithes,  a  chief  of  the  Magians,  as  his  crosses  the 
deputy  at  Susa,  Cambyses  took  the  field  in  the  fourth  year  of  deTert!" 
his  reign,  and  agreeably  to  the  arrangements  already  made  for 
the  friendly  passage  of  his  army  through  Arabia,  he  marched  at 
the  head  of  an  overwhelming  force  in  a  direct  line  across  the  526  to  525  B.C. 
latter  country,  instead  of  taking  the  more  circuitous  and  ordinary 
route,  through  Upper  Mesopotamia  and  Syria.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Phanes  of  Halicarnassus  ^  contracts  were  made  w-ith 
the  Arabs  for  the  necessary  supplies  of  water ;  and,  faithful  to 
his  engagements,  the  king  of  Arabia  collected  all  the  camels 
in  his  dominions,  and  having  loaded  them  with  large  skins, 
chiefly  those  of  camels,  filled  with  water,  he  sent  them  to   the 

'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cciv.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  cev.,  ccxiv. 

^  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.     See  Appendix  (A.)  to  this  volume. 
*  Herod.,  lib.  III.,  caps,  iv.,  vii.,  ix. 


174 


CAMBYSES  INVADES  ETHIOPIA. 


[chap.  VII. 


The  Arabs 
find  supplies 
for  the  march. 


Pc'lusium 
taken,  and 


Egypt  submits 
to  CambTSes, 


His  rash 

exjieditions 

towards 


the  temple  of 
Ammon 


and  against 
Ethiopia. 


places  which  were  destitute  of  that  indispensable  requisite 
of  life.^  Water  being  thus  provided  the  march  of  Cambyses 
was  safely  accomplished  as  far  as  Pelusium  ;  and  this  strong- 
hold, the  key  of  Egypt,  was  taken  by  the  following  stratagem, 
which  was  proposed  by  Phanes,  who,  on  some  disgust,  had 
revolted  from  Amasis  and  joined  Cambyses.^  The  Persian 
king  placed  a  number  of  cats,  dogs,  sheep,  and  other  animals  in 
advance  of  his  troops,  and  the  Egyptians  being  unable  to  shoot 
an  arrow  that  way,  lest  they  might  injure  some  of  those  sacred 
animals,  the  place  was  carried  without  difficult}^ 

Psammeticus,  who  had  just  succeeded  on  the  death  of 
Amasis,  being  defeated  in  a  great  battle  fought  in  that  neigh- 
bourhood, the  invaders  advanced  to  Memphis,  where  the 
Egyptian  prince  surrendered,  and  the  whole  of  Egypt  sub- 
mitted in  consequence.  Cambyses  being  master  of  the  country, 
indulged  his  ungovernable  temper  by  destroying  many  of  its 
monuments ;  nor  did  he  even  respect  the  dead,  for  the  body  of 
Amasis  was  dug  up,^  and  treated  ignominiously. 

During  his  short  stay  in  Africa,  Cambyses  gave  the  reins  to 
his  headlong  and  reckless  disposition,  by  undertaking  at  the 
same  time  two  distant  land  expeditions  ;  each  of  which  Avas 
attended  with  the  most  fatal  result.  The  first  consisted  of 
51), 000  men,  whom  he  despatched  to  set  fire  to  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Ammon.  This  force  is  said  to  have  been  overwhelmed 
by  a  shower  of  sand  raised  by  a  hurricane,  whilst  traversing  the 
desert  of  Oasis  Magna,*  from  which  it  is  certain  that  the  troops 
did  not  return.^ 

The  second  expedition  proceeded  under  his  own  command 
towards  Ethiopia,  but  the  necessary  supplies  failing,  a  portion 
only  of  the  army  returned  to  Thebes,  the  rest  having  perished  : 
the  troops  had  in  their  retreat,  been  driven  to  the  necessity  of 
consuming  first  the  sumpter  beasts,  and  finally,  as  a  last  resource 
to  maintain  life,  a  number  of  their  companions :  these  were 
taken  by  lot  to  be  put  to  death  for  the  support  of  the  others.'' 


Herod,,  lib.  III.,  cap.  ix. 
Ibid.,  lib.  IV.,  and  Polyggenus,  lib.  VII. 
Ibid.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi.  *  Ibid. 

Ibid.  «  Ibid. 


,  cap.  XXV. 


CHAP.  VII.]  STRATAGEM  OF  DARIUS  HYSTASPES.  175 

Shortly  after  his  return  from  the  expedition,  he  received  in- 
telligence of  a  revolt  in  his  own  dominions,  which  was  headed 
by  Gomates,  a  Magian '  (the  brother  of  Patizithes)  ;  this  man 
having  personated  Smerdis  or  Bardeus,^  who  had  been  mur-  A  revolt 
dered  by  order  of  Cambyses.^     This  information  induced  the  Smeniis 
king  to  set  out  with  all  haste  for  Persia,  leaving  the  government  ^^^^'^^ 
of  Egypt  to  the  care  of  Ariandes.     He  avoided  on  his  return 
the  shorter  route  of  the  Desert  by  which  he  had  advanced,  and 
took  that  of  Syria,  where  he  died  of  a  wound  received  from  his 
own  sword  whilst  precipitately  mounting  his  horse.    This  event  the  return  and 
took  place  on  Mount  Carmel  at  Ecbatana  ;*  which  place  had  Cambjses, 
been  named  by  the  oracle  of  Buto,^  as  that  which  would  be 
fatal  to  him.'' 

We  are  told  that  there  was  not  any  one  sufficiently  bold 
to  oppose  the  Magian,  and  Gomates  had  remained  in  undisputed 
possession  of  the  empire  during  seven  months,  when  Darius, 
the  Gushtasp  of  the  Persians,  son  of  Lohrasp  or  Hystaspes,  one 
of  the  seven  nobles  who  conspired  against  him,  mounted  the 
throne."  According  to  Herodotus,  it  had  been  agreed  among 
these  nobles,  that  he  whose  horse  first  neighed  to  the  rising 
sun  should  be  king ;  and,  by  an  artifice,  the  horse  of  Darius  Darius  obtains 
was  made  to  win  the  monarchy  for  his  master.^  But,  in  de- a  s^tratilgem.^ 
tailing  his  own  achievements  on  the  tablets  at  Bisutiin,  this  is 
made  a  religious  war,  in  which,  by  the  help  of  Ormazd,  Darius 

'  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  X.,  pp.  201,  202. 

*  Ibid.  =*  Herod.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  Ixi. 

*  Plin.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  xix.  ^  Herod.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  Ixiv. 

®  According  to  the  translation  of  the  Bisutun  tablet,  Gomates,  a  Magian, 
having  falsely  declared  liiniself  to  be  Bardeiis,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  and  the 
brother  of  Canibyses,  the  whole  state  of  Persia,  Media,  and  the  other  pro- 
vinces became  rebellious,  and  he  assumed  the  crown  :  and  Cambyses,  unable 
to  endure  his  misfortiuies,  died. — Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 
vol.  X.,  pp.  201,  202. 

^  These  alono,  says  Darius,  were  my  assistants :  Int£ephernes,  tlie  son  of 
Hys  .  .  .  .,  a  Persian;  Otanes,  the  son  of  ,  .  .  .,  a  Persian;  Gobryas 
by  name,  the  son  of  Mardonius,  a  Persian  ;  Hydarnes,  the  son  of  .  .  .  ., 
a  Persian  ;  Megabyrus,  the  son  of  Zopyrus,  a  Persian  ;  and  Aspethines,  the 
son  of  .  .  .  .,  a  Persian.— Bisutun  Tablet.  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  vol.  X.,  p.  257. 

^  Lib,  III.,  cap.  Ixxxv.,  Ixxxvi. 


176  STATISTICS  OF  DARIUS  HYSTASPES.  [cHAP.  VII. 

slew  Gomates  the  Magian,  and  the  chief  men  who  were  with 
him ;  and  having  re-established  the  chaunts  and  sacrificial 
worship,  he  confided  these  duties  to  the  families  who  were  de- 
prived of  them  by  Gomates,  or,  in  other  words,  he  restored  the 
ancient  religion  of  the  country  in  connexion  with  the  State. 
Darius,  although  he  only  followed  the  steps  of  Cyrus  and  his 
uncle  Cyaxares,  may  be  considered  the  real  founder  of  the 
Persian  empire,  in  consequence  of  the  wisdom  he  displayed  in 
the  government  of  the  country,  which  had  only  been  in  part 
reduced  to  order,  after  having  been  subjected  by  the  arms  of 

^'^^saniza-  thosc  monarchs.  Darius  accomplished  these  great  objects  by 
dividing  his  vast  dominions  into  provinces  of  a  convenient  size : 
a  certain  number  of  these  constituted  a  viceroyalty,  of  which 
there  were  twenty,  each  under  the  general  superintendence  of 
a  satrap,  to  whom  all  the  inferior  governors  of  provinces,  dis- 
tricts, &c.,  were  responsible ;  though  they  were  appointed  or 
removed  only  at  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign  himself  By  this 
arrangement,  a  salutary  check  was  maintained  over  the  governors 
of  the  satrapies.     Such  a  check  was  the  more  necessary,  as  in 

various  general  the  satrapies  not  only  comprised  many  provinces,   but 

empire!  somctimes  ouc  of  them  consisted  of  several  kingdoms.     In  the 

first,  for  instance,  were  the  lonians,  the  Carians,  the  Lycians, 
Pamphylians,  and  others  ;^  in  the  second  were  the  Mysians, 
the  Lydians,  and  the  Cabalii.  Babylon,  together  with  the 
territory  of  Assyria,  belonged  to  the  ninth  satrapy." 

Moderate  In  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  even  during  that  of  his  successor, 

contributions  n        ^  •  ^       ^  •  1 

established,  there  was  not  any  fixed  taxation,  and  the  sovereign  only  re- 
ceived uncertain  gratuities  from  time  to  time ;  in  addition  to 
which,  during  war,  contingents  of  men  and  money  were  fur- 
nished for  the  exigencies  of  the  state.  This  system  prevailed 
till  a  fixed  tribute  and  a  regular  quota  of  men  were  esta- 
blished for  each  satrapy^  by  Darius.  This  regulation  induced 
the  Persians  to  designate  him  the  Broker,  whilst  M'ith  equal 
point,  Cambyses  was  called  Master,  and  Cyrus  the  Father  of 

and  inter-       the  Empire.'* 

tious  But  the  statistics,  then  so  wittily  termed  brokerage,  were  the 

'  Herod.,  lib.  IIT.,  cap,  xc.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  xcii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxix.  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  VII.]      REBUILDING" OF  THE  TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM.  177 

more  easily  managed,  in  consequence  of  a  system  of  intercommu-  throughout  the 
nication  which  had  been  commenced  throughout  the  empire  in  ^"P""®* 
the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  was  more  completely  established  in  that 
of  Darius.^     The  object  was  accomplished  by  means  of  couriers, 
who  were  stationed  at  certain  distances,  for  the  rapid  transmis- 
sion of  the  firmans,  which  in  this  way  were  sent  to,  and  answers 
received  from,  the  different  governors.      Those  issued  by  the  Firmans  or 
monarch  are  supposed  to  have  been  stamped  upon  barrel-shaped  Medes  and 
bricks  of  small  size,  which  were  afterwards  solidly  baked  as  the  Persians. 
best  and  surest  means  of  preventing  any  change  in  the  edicts ; 
which  thus  became  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians."     With- 
out doubt  one  of  the  most  memorable  was  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  Darius  causes 
permitting  the  return  of  the  captives  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  and  ofdie^Tempie 
its  Temple.    Encouraged  by  the  prophet  Haggai,  the  work  ^yas  ^*^^^ '■^*^™^'^' 
resumed  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  Darius,  viz., 
520  B.C.     Tatnai,  the  governor  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  having 
made  an  appeal  to  his  sovereign,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  the 
decree  of  Cyrus  really  existed,  as  was  alleged  by  the  elders  of 
the  Jews,  a  search  was  in  consequence  made,  and  the  decree 
being  found  in  the  archives  of  Ecbatana,^  the  king  enjoined 
Tatnai  and  Setharboznai  to  see  it  fully  executed.     These  per- 
sons were  further  commanded  to  carry  out  the  original  inten- 
tions of  Cyrus,    and   to  give   at   the   same   time   all  possible 
assistance  to  the  Jews  in  rebuilding  their  Temple.*     To  this 
measure  Darius  was  no  doubt  moved,  like  his  predecessor,  by  an 
irresistible  impulse,  M^hich  made  each  an  instrument  in  fulfilling 
the  Divine  purposes.    In  other  respects,  it  would  seem  that  the  the  return  of 
court  of  Persia   could  have  no   good  ground  of  objection   to  ^^„l^^^]' 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land,  since,  in  such  ^^^  edict  of 
return,  they  only  moved  from  one  part  of  the  Assyrian  domi- 
nions to  another. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xcviii. 

*  Several  of  these  barrel-sliaped  bricks  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum  ;  and  Asiatic  tradition  connects  tliem  m  ith  the  firmans  of  the  great 
Assyrian  monarchs :  the  character  is  cuneiform. 

'  Ezra,  chap.  YI.,  v.  1-3. 

*  1  Esdras,  chap.  V.,  v.  47,  and  following  verses;  also  Ezra,  chap.  VI., 
V.  5-17. 

VOL.  n.  N 


178 


REVOLT  OF  THE  SUSIANS  AND  BABYLONIANS.     [cHAP.  VIL 


Expedition  to 
Samos. 


Rebellions  in 
Susiana  and 


Completion  of      The  Temple,  which  had  been  commenced  by  Zerubbabel 

tLe'iempie.    ^^yg^ty  years  previously,  or  about  534  B.C.,   was  completed  in 

the  seventh  year  of  Darius,  on  the  same  scale  of  grandeur,  but, 

in  point  of  costly  materials,  it  was  "  as  nothing  "  if  compared 

with  the  former  structure.^ 

The  first  distant  undertaking  of  Darius  was  that  of  sending 
an  army  under  his  general  Otanes  to  Samos,  with  the  view  of 
restoring  Syloson,  the  brother  of  Polycrates  the  tyrant  of  the 
island,  to  his  throne,  from  whom  when  a  private  individual,  he 
had  received  a  splendid  garment.  This  service  was  scarcely 
completed  when  the  attention  of  the  king  was  urgently  called 
to  his  own  dominions,  by  the  revolt  of  the  Babylonians.  Their 
city,  having  been  so  long  mistress  of  the  East,  could  ill  brook 
the  change  caused  by  its  subjection  to  Persia,  especially  when 
Shushan  became  the  capital  of  the  empire ;  this  change  neces- 
sarily diminishing  its  pride  and  splendour. 

It  appears  from  the  Bisutiin  monuments,  that  Darius  was 
occupied  previous  to  his  accession,  and  probably  as  a  satrap  of 
his  father,  who  governed  Parthia  and  Hyrcania,  in  quelling  a 
rebellion  in  Susiana  and  another  in  Babylonia.  The  former, 
led  by  Atrines  the  son  of  Opadarmes,  was  speedily  overcome 
by  his  deputy,  but  the  latter  being  very  serious  required  his 
presence ;  Naditabirus,  the  son  of  Aena,  calling  himself  Nabo- 
chodrossor,  the  son  of  Nabonidus,  having  seized  the  govern- 
ment. An  interesting  description,  and  even  some  of  the 
details,  are  given  of  the  campaign  which  followed.  Darius,  by 
means  of  a  demonstration  and  the  use  of  rafts,  forced  the 
passage,  and  defeated  the  army  of  Naditabirus  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tigris,  and  completely  overcame  him  the  second  time, 
when  disputing  the  passage  of  the  Euphrates  near  a  city  called 
Zanzana  close  to  Babylon.  A  signal  defeat  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
capital  put  an  end  to  the  rebellion,  and  Naditabirus  being 
taken  prisoner  was  put  to  death .^ 

A  fuller  account,  especially  of  the  capture  of  the  city,  is 
however,  given  by  Herodotus. 

'  Haggai,  chap.  II.,  v.  3. 

*  Translations  of  the  Blsutun  Tablets,  vol.  X.,  part  iii,,  pp.  211-214,  of 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  :  London,  1847. 


Babylonia 
quelled  by 
Darius. 


CHAP.  Vri.]  RECAPTURE  OF  BABYLON  BY  DARIUS.  179 

Hoping  to  recover  its  lost  importance  by  an  attempt  like  The  Baby- 
that  M'hich  was  made  by  Nabopalasar  against  the  Assyrians,  ^'^^^  '*^^° 
the  Babylonians  took  advantage  of  the  unsettled  state  of  things 
consequent  on  the  death  of  Cambyses,  to  make  preparations  for 
war,  by  secretly  laying  in  stores  of  provisions  ;  and  at  the  end 
of  four  or  five  years,  the  city  was  so  amply  provided,  that  the 
citizens  openly  revolted,  and  set  up  a  king. 

On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Darius  hastily  assembled  his  Darius 
forces,  and  marched  a  powerfiil  army  to  put  an  end  to  this  against. 
rebellion.     Seeing  themselves   begirt  by  a  force  which  they  ^^^^5^^°- 
could  not  oppose  in  the  field,  the  Babylonians  turned  their 
thoughts  wholly  to  the  best  means  of  resisting  it  within  the 
walls  ;  and  having  for  this  purpose  agreed  to  cut  ofi*  all  unne-  Cruelty  of  the 
cessary  mouths,  they  cruelly  strangled  the  whole  of  the  women 
with  the  exception  of  the  favourite  wife  of  each  individual,  and 
a  maid-servant  to  every  house. ^    After  continuing  the  siege  for 
twenty  months  without  the  slightest  advantage,  Darius  made 
himself  master  of  the  city  by  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
stratagems  hitherto  recorded  in  history.     Zopyrus,   one  of  his  stratagem  of 
most  devoted  captains,  having  cruelly  maimed  himself,  went  to  the  city: 
the   city,    pretending   to   have   fled   from   the  tyranny  of  his 
master :  having  obtained   the  confidence  of  the   besieged,  and 
eventually  the  command  of  some  of  their  troops,  he  thus  gained 
an  opportunity  of  opening  two  of  the  gates  of  the  city  to  the 
Persians.     Darius  in  consequence  obtained  possession  of  the  his  cruelty  to 
place,  when  he  immediately  caused   the   crucifixion  of  3,000  loniai.'^" 
Babylonian  nobles,  who  had  been  the  chief  fomenters  of  the 
revolt ;  he  likewise  took  away  the  hundred  brazen  gates  of  the 
city,  and  reduced  the  height  of  its  walls  from  200  cubits  to 
only  50  cubits.^ 

The  remaining  inhabitants  were  not  however,  molested,  but  Repeopiing  of 
on  the  contrary,  Darius  caused  each  of  his  satrapies  to  furnish      ^  °°'  ^^ 
a  proportion  of  women,  amounting  in  all  to  50,000,  to  replace 
those  who  had  been  so  cruelly  put  to  death  before  the  siege.^ 

Darius  appears  to  have  remained  at  Babylon  till  a  revolt,  or 
rather  an  opposition  to  his  authority,  in  Persia,  Susiana,  Media, 

>  Herod.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  cl.  "  Ibid.,  cap.  clviii.,  clix. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  clix. 

N    2 


180  DARIUS  INVADES  SCYTHIA.  [CHAP.  VII. 

consolidation  Assyrio,  &c.,  obHged  him  to  marcli  in  person,  when  being,  as  it 
o  e  empire.  -^  g^pressed,  by  the  grace  of  Ormazd,  completely  successful  in 
suppressing  these  rebellions,  the  most  formidable  of  which  was 
that  of  Media,^  he  became  the  sovereign  of  Persia,  Susiana, 
Babylonia,  Assyria,  Arabia,  and  the  maritime  parts  of  Egypt. 
Also  of  Sparta,  Ionia,  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Parthia,  Zarangia, 
Asia,  Chorasmia,  Bactria,  Sogdiana  (Gandaria),  the  Sacse,  the 
Sattagydes,  Arachosia,  and  the  Mecians  ;  in  all  twenty-one 
countries.^ 

After  the  accomplishment  of  this   object,    Darius  became 
anxious  to  know  the  state  of  the  countries  lying  eastward  of 
Scythia,  with  a  view  to  their  conquest,  and  more  especially  the 
termination  of  the  river  Indus.     Accordingly  he  built  a  fleet  at 
Caspatyrus,  in  the  territory  of  Pactyica  on  the  Indus,  which  he 
Scyiax  sails     entrusted  to  a  skilful  Greek  mariner  named  Scylax,  a  native  of 
indi^,  and      Caryanda,    who    admirably   fulfilled    the    instructions   of   the 
monarch  by  sailing  down  the  whole  length  of  the  river  ;^  thence 
ascends  the      coasting  to  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,   and  ascending  the 
■  Arabian  gulf  to  the  port  at  its  northern  extremity,  from  which 
the  Phoenicians  had  before  taken  their  departure  to  circum- 
navigate Africa.* 

The  reality  of  the  Periplus  of  Scylax  has  been  much 
questioned,  but  scarcely  it  would  seem  upon  sufficient  grounds, 
since  such  a  voyage  was  but  limited  compared  with  that  of 
Ophir,  and  it  was  in  all  probability  only  following  the  course  of 
the  ordinary  maritime  trade  between  western  India  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  This  voyage  was  accomplished  in  the  short  space 
of  thirty  months  ;  and  Darius  immediately  availed  himself  of  the 
information  acquired  by  it,  to  subjugate  a  portion  of  the  Indian 
territory  westward  of  the  Indus :'  this  afterwards  became  the 
twentieth  satrapy,  and  yielded  a  revenue  of  360  talents  of  gold.® 
Darins invades  Soou  after  the  consolidation  of  the  new  territory,  Darius 
^^  '^'  commenced  preparations  with  a  view  to  the  subjection  of 
Scythia,  by  way  of  punishment,  as  he  alleged,  for  the  invasion 

'  Tlie  name  of  Phraortes  is  mentioned  in  the  Tablet  in  connexion  with 
this  kingdom, 

*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  X.,  pp.  197,  198. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xliv.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xlii. 

[  Ibid.,  cap.  xliv.  •  Ibid.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xciv. 


CHAP. 


vn.] 


HIS  RETURN  TO  ASIA. 


181 


of  Assyria  by  the   people  of  that   country   in    the   time   of 
Cyaxares,'  about  120  years  before. 

The  fleet  which  accompanied  the  troops  consisted  of  600 
vessels,  chiefly  manned  by  lonians  and  others  from  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  ^Yhile  the  land  army  collected  on  this  occasion, 
including  the  cavalry,  amounted  to  700,000  men,^  who  were 
conducted  by  Darius  himself  to  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  Passes  the 
where  they  found  a  bridge  already  executed  for  their  passage  a  bndgrof°° 
into    Europe.     The   preparation   of   a   bridge   of   boats   was^*^^^' 
evidently  a  familiar  operation  at  this  time,  both  in  Babylonia 
and  Assyria.     The  one  in  question  exceeded  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  in  length,  or  according  to  Herodotus,  seven  stadia,^  and 
it  was  successfully  completed  by  Mandrocles  the  Samian,  not- 
withstanding   the    great    difticulty   caused   by   a   very   rapid 
current.'* 

During  the  passage  of  his  troops,  Darius  proceeded  as  far  as 
the  Cyaneoe  rocks,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Black  Sea;  from 
thence  he  despatched  his  fleet  with  directions  to  ascend  the 
Ister  a  certain  distance,  and  prepare  another  bridge.  Having  subdues 
reduced  Thrace,  Darius  continued  his  march  to  the  appointed 
passage ;  and  after  a  fruitless  pursuit  of  the  Scythians  through 
deserts  and  uncultivated  countries^  for  three  months,  he  re- 
turned after  losing  one-half  of  his  numbers,  but  without  aban- 
doning his  purpose,  for  he  left  Megabyzus  the  Persian,  one  of 
his  chief  commanders,  with  80,000  men,  to  finish  the  conquest. 
This  general,  having  succeeded  in  bringing  the  Thracians  and 
others  under  the  Persian  yoke,  rejoined  Darius  at  Sardis,®  from  Returns  to 
which  place  he  afterwards  accompanied  the  monarch  to  Susa.''    susa. 

Soon  after  the  Scythian  expedition,  a  revolt,  arising  out  of  a 
contest    between    two    small    factions    at   Naxos,    one    of  the 
Cyclades,  led  the  way  in   a  most  unexpected  manner  to  an 
important  train  of  events.     Aristagoras  having  failed  in  imme-  Anstagoras 
diately  putting   down    the   revolt   in    that   island,®  and  being         ' 
unable  to  fulfil  the  engagement  made  with  Artaphernes,  his 


'  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  cxxii.,  cxxiii. 
Ibid.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  x.xv. 


*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxvii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxvii. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  xxiii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xxxiv. 


182 


WAR  OF  DARIUS  UPON  GREECE, 


[chap. 


VII. 


immediate  chief,  to  meet  the  expenses,  determined  to  take 
arms  ^  against  Darius.  With  the  assistance  of  the  lonians,  and 
with  twenty-five  vessels  which  had  been  sent  from  Athens  and 
Eretria,'  Aristagoras  and  his  allies  boldly  sailed  to  Ephesus ; 
from  whence  they  marched  to  Sardis,  which  city  being  chiefly 
built  of  cane,  was  burnt  either  accidentally  or  otherwise.  The 
approach  of  the  Persians  and  Lydians  soon  afterwards  caused 
the  retreat  of  the  invaders.  They  were,  however,  overtaken 
and  defeated  at  Ephesus,  from  whence  the  discouraged  Athe- 
nians retreated  with  their  vessels  and  quitted  the  alliance.^ 

These  circumstances  determined  Darius  to  make  war  upon 
Greece,  which  was  carried  on  for  a  time  with  various  degrees 
of  success.  Of  its  principal  events,  a  brief  notice  will  presently 
be  given,  on  account  of  the  consequences  which  resulted  from 
them  to  the  empire  of  Persia  ;  and  because  they  were  the  first 
steps  by  which  the  military  glory  of  the  Grecian  people,  was 
raised  to  the  high  eminence  which  it  subsequently  attained. 

The  lonians  speedily  revenged  the  defeat  at  Ephesus  by  a 
brilliant  descent  which  they  made  on  the  continental  territory 
of  Darius.     In  this  they  not  only  occupied  Byzantium,  and 
different  places  near  the  Hellespont,  but  likewise  many  others 
in   Caria;    and  in   consequence  of  these  successes  they  were 
joined  by  the  people  of  Cyprus.*     In  order  to  punish  this  inva- 
sion, and  at  the  same  time  take  ample  revenge  for  the  burning 
of  Sardis,  Daurises  and  Dardanus  were  sent  with  ample  forces 
first  against  Abydos,  Lampsacus,  &c.,  and  thence  into  Caria. 
In  this  province  they  gained  a  victory  after  a  bloody  battle,^  the 
fruits  of  which,  however,  were  lost  by  a  successful  ambuscade 
placed  by  Heraclides  f  who  followed  up  his  success  by  subduing 
the  Eolians  and  the  rest  of  the  ancient  Teucrians.''     Soon  after 
these  successes,  mutual  discord  and  Persian  intrigues  caused  the 
Samians  and  Lesbians  to  abandon  the  lonians,  and  the  fleet  of 
Darius  having  captured  Milo,  the  inhabitants  were  removed  to 
Susa.    In  the  following  year  Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Tenedos,  shared 


'  Herod.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxxv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  cii.,  ciii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  cxvii.jcxx. 
^  Ibid. 


*  Ibid.,  cap.  xcviii.,  xcix. 
■*  Ibid.,  cap.  ciii.,  civ. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  cxxi.,  cxxii. 


CHAP.  VII.]  THE  ZOROASTERS  OF  PERSIA-  183 

the  same  fate ;'  whilst  the  shores  of  Thrace  were  subjected  by 
the  Phoenician  fleets,  iu  alliance  with  Persia. 

It  was  during  an  inroad  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Persia  Slaughter  of 
by  Argjasp,  a  Scythian  prince,  which  took  place  in  the  thirty-  the^SgL  ^° 
fifth  year  of  Darius,  that  the  celebrated  Archimagus  (Zoroaster) 
and  the  priests  of  his  religion,  about  eighty  in  number,  were 
slaughtered   in  the  principal  fire   temple  at  Balkh,  during  an 
assault  made  on  that  city. 

By  some  it  is  believed  that  the  founder  of  the  Magian  order 
lived  about  624  years  before  the  first  Egyptian  dynasty,  by 
others  it  is  thought  that  he  was  cotemporary  with  Xinus  -^  and 
Xanthus,  the  historian  of  Lydia,  places  him  600  years  before 
the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes.^  It  appears,  however,  that 
there  were  several  persons  who  bore  the  name  of  Zoroaster.  Four  prophets 
One  of  these  was  a  Chaldean  or  an  Assyrian ;  another  was  an  of  ZoroLle™^ 
inhabitant,  or  according  to  some,  a  king  of  Bactria,  who  was 
also  called  Oxyartes ;  a  third  was  a  Pamphylian,  and  there  was 
a  fourth,  who,  according  to  Pliny,  lived  a  little  before  the  time 
of  Xerxes. 

The  last  appears  to  synchronize  with  Zerdusht  or  Zerd-husht,  zerd-husht 
the  celebrated  religious  reformer  of  Persia,  whose  ministry  "vvas  ^^^^^^^  ^^® 
brief,   but  very  remarkable,   in  consequence  of  the  successful  ^^i'S'o°- 
efibrts  which  he   made   to  restore  the  ancient  religion.      His 
tenets  are  contained  in  the  celebrated  Zend-avesta,  and  its  com- 
pendium the  Sad-der.'* 

The  exalted  moral  precepts,  and  the  great  knowledge  of  the  its  precepts 
divine  attributes  therein  inculcated  by  this  sage,  have  by  some  dSiv'ed  frSn  ^ 
been  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  his  intercourse  with  ^^^  Hebrews. 
the  Hebrew  people  in  the  time  of  Daniel,  or  possibly  from  the 
prophet  himself,  with  whom  he  was  cotemporary  in  Susiana. 

The  reformer  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Urumiyah, 
and  to  have  commenced  his  ministry  at  Shi'z  ^  in  that  neigh- 

'  Herod.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxxi. 

*  Justinius,  lib.  I. 

*  Mliller's  Fragmenta  Historicum  GnECorum.  p.  44. 
*■  Hyde's  Hist.  Relig.  Vet.  Persar,  cap.  xxv.,  xxvi. 

'  Or  Canzaca,  the  Atropatenian  Ecbatana. — Royal  Geographical  Journal, 
vol.  X.,  p.  68. 


184  HELIGION  OF  THE  MAGI.  [CHAP.  VII. 

bourhood :  his  work  professes  to  be  the  result  of  his  prayers  and 

meditations  in  a  cave  near  that  place. 

His  reforma-        It  should  not,  howevcr,  be  forgotten,  that  this  Zoroaster  did 

Magfan  ^      not  tcach  anything  new,  but  merely  restored  what  had  been 

religion.         inculcatcd  somc  centuries  before  by  an  mdividual  of  the  same 

name.^ 

Sabaism  and   other  corruptions,   such   as  sacrifices   on   the 
highest  mountains  to  Jupiter,  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  &c.-  being 
prohibited,    the    doctrines    of   the    reformed    Magian    religion 
became  nearly  those  of  the  ancient  Persians.    The  good  and  evil 
principles  are  considered  as  being  permitted  by  the  will  of  God  ; 
The  doctrines  a  general  resurrection  and   day  of  retribution  were  likewise 
llm.^'^^^^'^  ^^  inculcated  by  Zoroaster,  who  added,  that  those  who  had  done 
well,  and  lived  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  God,  were  to  pass  into 
the  realm  of  light,  and  those  who  had  done  evil,  were  to  suffer 
everlasting  punishment  in  a  land  of  obscurity.     "  Endeavour, 
therefore,  O  man  "  (so  runs  the  precept),  "  to  do  all  the  good 
thou  canst,  without  fear  or  apprehension,  for  God  is  benign  and 
merciful,  and  will  reward  even  the  smallest  good  thou  dost."^ 
Account  given      A  passage  of  Cclsus,  preserved  by  Origen,*  appears  to  throw 
y  Ce  sus,       gome  light  on  the  account  given  by  Herodotus  of  the  Sabaism 
of  the  Persians.     Celsus  compares  the  path  of  the  soul  through 
the  firmament  and  planets,  to  a  ladder  which  leads  through  seven 
The  seven       gatcs  to  the  suu.     The  first  gate  is  said  to  be  of  lead,  which, 
fphe^res!         according  to  the  Persians,   expresses   the   slow  revolution   of 
Saturn ;    the  second    is   tin,   which   typifies    the    brightness   of 
Venus ;  the  third  gate  being  of  brass,  represents  the  supposed 
firmness  of  Jupiter ;  the  fourth  is  iron,  and  on  account  of  the 
general  usefulness  of  that  metal,  it  is  represented  by  Mercury ; 
the  fifth,  a  mixed  metal,  is  applied  to  Mars ;  the  sixth,  quick- 
silver, is  identified  with  the  Moon ;  the  seventh  gate  is  of  gold, 
the  emblem  of  the  Sun,  according  to  the  Persians.^ 

Clitarchus,  in  his  12th  book,  mentions  as  a  summary  of  the 

'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  85.  *  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cxxxi. 

*  Sad-der,  part  V.  ;  Hyde's  Hist.  Relig.  Vet.  Persar,  &c. 

*  Orij^,  Contra  Cels.,  lib.  IV.,  edit.  Spencer. 

*  See  the  French  translation,  vol.  I.,  p.  426,  and  vol.  II.,  pp.  889,  390,  of 
the  Zend-avesta,  for  a  similar  account. 


CHAP.  VII.]  TENETS  OF  ZOROASTER.  185 

religion  of  the  Magi,  that  they  offer  to  the  gods  sacrifices, 
prayers,  and  vows.  Nature  and  the  origin  of  the  gods  are 
objects  of  their  researches,  believing  that  fire,  air,  M'ater,  and 
earth,  are  divinities.  They  object  to  the  worship  of  statues,  and 
consider  it  most  perverse  to  believe  that  the  gods  are  male  and 
female.' 

The  worship  of  Venus  was  condemned  by  the  Magi,  who  The  Magi 
remained  firm  to  the  great  article  of  their  faith,  which  they  go±^ 
carefully  transmitted  to   their  posterity,^  that  "  there  is  one 
God :"  the  belief  in  magic  was  probably  introduced   a  little 
anterior  to  the  time  of  Zerd-husht  or  Zoroaster. 

The  explanation  of  the  sage  himself  regarding  the  use  of  fire,^ 
and  the  above-mentioned  assertion  in  the   firman  of  Cyrus,* 
serve  to  show  that  the  sun  and  fire  were  considered  but  as 
symbols  of  the  Deity,*  and  were  venerated  as  such.     In  order  The  sun  and 
to  protect  the  latter,  as  an  emblem  of  the  Divine  presence,  fstvniTofs^of^ 
temples  were  built  for  worship  instead  of  continuing  the  ancient  <^^  Deity, 
custom   of  burning  fires  on   the  tops  of  the  mountains.®      A 
liturgy  was  composed  by  Zoroaster,  and  tithes  were  set  apart 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  priesthood  ;'  but  fasting  and  celibacy 
were  condemned,  as  tending  to  a  neglect  of  the  best  gifts  of 
God ;  whilst  diligence  in  cultivation  was  considered  better  than 
repeating  ten  thousand  prayers.^ 

Here  we  are  almost  reminded  of  the  thousands  of  rams,  and  The  spiritual 
ten  thousand  rivers  of  oil  of  the  prophet  f  and  many  passages  in  iLng  preserved 
the   Zend-avesta  still   more   clearly   recognize   the    Almighty 
government  of  the  world,  as  well  as  that  spiritual  morality  so 
conspicuous  in  the  book  of  Job,^°  and  which  bears  at  the  same 
time  such  close  affinity  to  the  precepts  of  Noah. 

Other  traces  of  a  primaeval  religion  appear  to  have  been  in  I'ran. 
long  preserved  in  the  territory  of  Iran,  which  by  its  geogra- 

*  Apud  Diog.  Laert.  *  Hyde,  Hist.  Eelig.  Vet.  Persar.,  p.  90. 
'  See  above,  p.  171.  *  See  p.  170. 

*  Ibid.  •  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cxxxi. 
'  Sad-der,  art.  viii. 

'  Zend-avesta,  tome  I.,  p.  224,  and  Precis  des  Systemes  de  Zoroaster. 
^  Micah,  chap.  VI.,  v.  5,  8. 

'»  Job,  chap.  XX.,  v.  4,  9,  11,  and  27;  chap.  XXIII.,  v.  12,  14;  chap. 
XXIV.,  V.  1  ;  chap.  XXIX.,  v.  11-17;  chap.  XXXI.,  v.  4,  5,  6,  26,  39. 


186 


A  PURE  RELIGION  IN  PERSIA. 


FCHAP.  VII. 


Balaam. 


phical  position  connected  the  western  countries  with  those  of 

central  and   eastern  Asia,   and  became  at  the  same  time  the 

means  of  transmitting  through  the  Magi,  and  their  successors 

the  Brahmins,  a  remnant,  at  least,  of  such  a  revelation  of  a 

fiiture  state  as  had  been  imparted  to  mankind. 

Purity  of  The  iuscriptious  placed  by  Darius  Hystaspes  on  the  tablets 

SS  m"^'°'  ^^  Bisutiin,  and   those  of  his  successor   at  Persepolis,  clearly 

Persia  show  that  religiou  was  intimately  linked  with  the  state, ^  and  at 

the  same  time  they  confirm  the  statement  made  by  Sir  William 

Jones  and  others,  that  the  ancient  Persians  worshipped  with 

pious   fear,    love,    and    adoration,    one    all-wise,    omnipotent, 

eternal,  infinite,  and  omnipresent  God." 

and  in  Meso-        At  the  time  of  the  exodus  of  the  children  of  Israel,  the  same 

Jime™'f  ^°  ^^^  elevated  morality  appears  to  have  existed  among  some  of  the 

people  of  Mesopotamia.     Balaam,  the  Chaldean  seer,  tells  the 

messengers  from  Moab^  that  man  should  act  justly,  love  mercy, 

and  walk  humbly  with  his  God  ;*  adding,  towards  the  close  of 

his  conference,   that  a  star  shall  proceed  from  Jacob,   and  a 

sceptre  from  Israel.^ 

This  remarkable  prophecy  was  fulfilled  about  1544  years 
later,  when  the  Magi,  the  supposed  posterity  of  the  prophet 
himself,  followed  a  star  from  the  East,  till  it  brought  them  to 
the  manger  of  the  Messiah  in  the  city  of  David. 

The  death  of  Zoroaster,  and  the  evils  inflicted  on  the  country 
in  consequence,  were  soon  revenged  by  a  force  under  the  son  of 
Darius,  who  drove  the  Scythians  before  him  with  great 
slaughter.  And  the  principal  fire  temple  being  restored,  Darius 
continued  his  support  to  the  re-established  religion  by  assuming 
the  title  of  Archimagus  in  the  room  of  Zoroaster. 

At  this  time,  in  consequence  of  the  part  taken  by  the 
Athenians  in  the  rebellion  of  Aristagoras,  a  large  fleet  was 
despatched  with  a  numerous  army  under  the  command  of  Mar- 

'  Royal  Asiatic  Journal,  vol.  X.,  pp.  280,  286,  291,  310. 

*  SirWm.  Jones's  Works,  vol.  I.,  p.  87,  compared  witli  Hyde's  Hist.  Relig. 
Vet.  Persar,  cap.  xxiii.  and  xxxiii. ;  also  Euseb.,  Pi-sep.  Evangel.,  lib.  I., 
cap.  ult.,  p.  42. 

*  The  Elders  of  Moab  carried  the  rewards  of  divination  in  their  hand. 
Numb.,  chap.  XXII.,  v.  7. 

*  Micah,  chap.  VI.,  v.  8.  *  Numb.,  chap.  XXIV.,  v.  17. 


Darius 
assumes  the 
title  of 
Archimajrus 


Mardonius 

invades 

Greece. 


CHAP.  VII.]         DARIUS  PREPARES  TO  INVADE  GREECE.  187 

donius,  who  received  peremptory  orders  from  Darius  to  subdue 
Eretria,  Athens,  and  Macedonia.^  But  the  loss  of  300  vessels 
and  20,000  men  in  doubling  Cape  Athos,  together  with  an 
attack  of  the  Bryges,  compelled  this  commander  to  retreat  into 
Asia,  after  fulfilling  only  one  object,  which  was  the  reduction  of 
the  Macedonians.^  Far  from  being  discouraged  by  this  unfore- 
seen result,  Darius  renewed  his  preparations,  and  prepared 
vessels  on  a  greater  scale  than  those  before  sent :  at  the  same  Darius 
time  he  dispatched  heralds  to  Greece  to  demand  earth  and  and  TvateiT'^ 
water.  The  people  of  Egina  complied  M'ith  these  demands,  but 
war  was  the  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  the  Athenians.' 

Darius  seized  this  occasion  to  send  Datis  and  Artaphernes 
into  Cilicia,  where  they  embarked  300,000  men  in  vessels; 
and  having  burned  the  capitals  of  Naxos  and  Eretria,  they 
passed  on  to  the  coast  of  Attica,  and  occupied  the  plain  of 
Marathon  with  a  force  which  has  been  estimated  at  100,000 
men.'*  The  Athenian  army  was  advantageously  posted  on  the  Position  of  the 
hills  overlooking  this  circumscribed  space,  but  Miltiades,  who  forces,  and 
had  served  under  the  Persians,  and  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  their  troops,  as  well  as  their  tactics,  determined  to 
forego  this  advantage,  in  order  to  avoid  the  fierce,  and  almost 
irresistible  shock  of  an  Asiatic  host,  by  suddenly  becoming  the 
assailant.  Accordingly,  with  a  front  sufficiently  extended  to 
occupy  the  whole  width,  he  rushed  at  full  speed,  with  10,000 
Athenian  and  1,000  Plataean  warriors  to  attack  the  enemy. 
The  latter  were  most  disadvantageously  posted,  being  hampered 
by  their  circumscribed  position  between  the  sea,  a  marsh,  and 
the  hills  in  question,  and  exposed  at  the  same  time  to  the  long 
spears  of  the  Greeks.  Success,  therefore,  favoured  the  assail- o*f^r  defeat 
ants  on  both  flanks,  but  in  the  centre  they  were  broken  by  the  Persians. 
Persians,  who  advanced  for  some  distance  through  their  dis- 
ordered ranks.  Had  Datis  taken  advantage  of  this  circum- 
stance, the  city  of  Athens  would  soon  have  been  in  his 
possession,  but  the  Persians,  being  without  orders,  ceased  to 
advance,  and  the  Athenians,  having  routed  both  flanks,  wheeled 

*  Herod.,  lib.  YI.,  cap.  xliii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xlv, 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xcii. 

*  By  Cornelius  Isepos.     Herodotus  does  not  mention  the  number. 


1 88  RESULT  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  MARATHON.        [CHAP.  VII. 

round,  and,  by  attacking  the  rear  of  this  mass,  the  battle  was 
gained  :  the  name  of  Miltiades  was  thus  immortalized  by  a 
splendid  and  unexpected  victory. 

The  loss  of  the  Athenians  is  stated  to  have  been  only  192 
men  during  this  unprecedented  engagement,  which  terminated 
by  taking  seven  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  driving  the  dis- 
comfited Persians  into  their  ships,  after  losing  6,400  men.^ 

Datis  returns  Datis  made  a  bold  attempt  to  recover  his  lost  ground  by 
doubling  Cape  Sunium,  hoping  to  reach  the  city  of  Athens,  but 
being  frustrated  by  the  rapid  return  of  the  handful  of  brave  men 
from  Marathon,  he  sailed  back  to  Asia'  to  make  the  result 

Fresh  prepara-  kuowu  to  his  sovcrcigu.     Darius  feeling  irritated,  rather  than 

by  Darius,  discouragcd  by  this  fresh  disaster,  resolved  to  take  the  field  in 
person :  and,  accordingly,  he  sent  orders  to  the  different 
satrapies  of  his  empire  to  equip  vessels,  and  to  furnish  troops 
and  provisions  on  such  a  scale  as  would  overwhelm  his  enemies 
in  Greece.^ 

After  three  years  had  been  spent  in  making  preparations  and 
in  assembling  his  numerous  legions,   and  when  just  about  to 

A  rebellion  in  march,  Darius  rcccivcd  news  of  a  rebellion  in  Egypt :  this  he 

Egypt.  ' ,  .  .  . 

determined  to  suppress  at  the  same  time,  by  detaching  a  portion 

of  his  army  in  that  direction,  whilst  he  intended  to  proceed  with 

the  remainder  to  punish  the  Greeks.     A  lengthened  contest 

amongst  his  three  sons,  to  determine  which  should  be  named  the 

successor  to  the    throne,  was   scarcely  decided   in  favour  of 

Death  and      Xerxes,  whcu  a  short  illness  carried  off  Darius  in  the  thirty- 
character  of  '  .  •' 
Darius.          sixth  year  bf  his  reign. 

Although  remarkable  for  that  chivalrous  generosity  in  par- 
doning offences,  which  so  frequently  forms  part  of  the  character 
•  of  an  Asiatic  prince,  Darius  stained  the  brighter  portions  of  his 
life  by  occasional  acts  of  useless  cruelty,  such  as  the  wanton 
execution  of  the  three  sons  of  Oebazus,"*  and  that  of  his  Egyptian 
lieutenant,  Aryandes,  for  merely  coining  money  in  his  name.* 
This  monarch  had  the  glory,  not  only  of  extending  his  empire, 
but  also  of  consolidating  many  large  and  rich  provinces ;  as 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  cxv.,  cxvii.  *  Ibid,,  cap.  cxvi. 

'  Ibid.,  lib,  VII.,  cap.  i,  *  Ibid,,  lib,  IV,,  cap,  Ixxxiv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  clxvi. 


CHAP.  VII.]  GOVERNMENT  OF  DARIUS  HYSTASPES.  189 

those  of  Thrace,  Macedon,  the  Ionian  Isles,  and  the  wide- 
spreading  territory  bordering  upon  India. 

In  addition  to  the  detailed  arrangements  already  mentioned  Works 
for  the  management  of  the  vast  territory  extending  from  the  Darius. 
Indus  to  the  Nile,  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes  was  very 
remarkable  in  other  respects.     He  continued  the  canal  intended 
by  Nechus  to  open  a  communication  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red 
Sea,*  and  coined  money  of  the  purest  metals,  both  gold  and 
silver ;  of  the  former  was  the  well-known  Daric,  and  of  the 
latter  the  Aryandic  of  Egypt.^     But  in  thus  providing  for  their 
ordinary  wants,  Darius  did  not  fail  to  study  the  prosperity  of 
his  people,  by  the  equity  of  his  government^  on  one  hand,  and 
the  generosity  of  his  rewards  on  the  other ;  and  above  all,  by 
the   moderation   of  his  imposts.     He  was  accustomed  to  refer  His  modera- 
the  question   of  the  amount  of  such  taxes  to  the  opinions  of  and' ^*^"'^' 
others,*  taking  care   at  the  same  time  to  fix  the  demands  at  a  * 

lower  rate  than  had  been  pronounced  equitable  by  the  wise  men 
of  the  state ;  who  were,  we  are  informed,  consulted  by  him  on 
all  occasions  of  importance.^ 

The  enlightened  reign  of  this  monarch,  the  second  Ahasue- 
rus  of  Scripture,  or  rather  the  second  who  bore  what  appears  to 
have  been  a  title  rather  than  a  name,  was  likewise  distinguished 
by  other  circumstances,  which  had  an  influential  effect  upon  his 
dominions ;  amongst  these  were  the  fostering  care  so  success-  encourage- 
fully  given  to  astronomy  through  his  bro.ther  Jamasp^  (Gush-  science. 
tasp),  who  was  celebrated  for  his  acquaintance  with  the  fasci- 
nating science  of  astrology,  and  the  change  effected  by  the 
restoration  of  the  Magian  religion  to  its  primitive  purity.  The 
latter  object  was  brought  about  by  Zoroaster,  M'hose  tenets 
speedily  took  a  firm  root  in  the  empire,''  and  spread  to  the 
borders  of  Bactria. 

Whilst  this  monarch  and  his  immediate  predecessors,  Cyrus 
and  Cambyses,  were  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Persian  mo- 

'  Herod.,  lib,  IV.,  cap.  xxxix.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  clxvi. 

'  Ibid.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  Ixxxii.,  Ixxxiii.,  cxxxii.,  and  cxl. 

*  Plutarch,  Apothegm.,  p.  172.  *  Esther,  chap.  I.,  v.  13-15. 

•  Vol.  I.,  p.  89.  '  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  85. 


190  MARITIME  ENTERPRISES  OF  CARTHAGE.         [cHAP.  VII. 

Coiouies  of  narchy,  the  merchant  princes  of  Africa  were  extending  their 
Carthage.  possessions,  by  means  of  conquest,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
by  their  enterprising  fleets  elsewhere.  Mercenary  warriors, 
furnished  by  the  African  and  European  colonies  of  Carthage, 
secured  her  dominion  in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  &c. ;  while  numerous 
and  well-organized  fleets  were  employed  in  establishing  other 
agricultural  and  trading  settlements. 

Keverting  to  the  latter,  for  which  Tyre  and  Carthage  had 
been  so  remarkable,  two  maritime  enterprises  appear  to  have 
taken  place  about  this  period  which  are  deserving  of  notice, 
both  on  account  of  their  importance,  and  also  as  having  been 
probably  the  last  undertaken  previous  to  the  Punic  wars. 
Voyage  of  According  to  a  fragment  preserved  by  Ruftis  Festus  Avienes, 

Bru/sh islands.  Himilcon,  a  distinguished  citizen  of  Carthage,  conducted  a 
fleet  with  settlers  from  that  city,  and  having  passed  through  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  to  Gadira,  he  made  his  way  from  thence  to 
the  so-called  Holy  Island,  which  lies  expanded  on  the  sea,  and 
is  the  dwelling  of  the  Hibernian  race :  at  hand,  it  is  added, 
lies  the  Isle  of  Albion.' 
Hanno  Of  the   Other  undertaking,   commanded  by   the  celebrated 

^^esteiTcoatt   Hauuo,  a  fuller  account  has  been  preserved  by  an  inscription 
of  Africa,  and  ^^j^j^.}^  }^g  placed  ou  his  rctum,   in  the  Temple  of  Cronus,  at 
Carthage.     About  30,000  Libyo-Phoenician  men,  women,  and 
children,  were  conveyed   in  sixty  vessels,  of  fifty  oars  each,  to 
settlements  on  the  western  shores  of  Africa ;  these  successively 
extended  to  the  Island  of  Cerne,  the  situation  of  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  either  near  Mogador  or  Santa  Cruz ;  that  is, 
between  30F  to  31 F  south  latitude.     The  second  part  of  the 
reaches  the      expedition  appears  to  have  been  merely  a  voyage  of  discovery, 
Gambia  rivers,  which,  froui  a  passagc  in  Hcrodotus,  may  be  inferred  to  have 
reached  the   Gold  Coast,   at  the  mouths  of  the  Senegal  and 
Gambia.^ 

The  death  of  Darius   Hystaspes  had  the  efiect  of  showing 

'  Heeren's  Historical  Researches,  &c.,  Africa,  Appendix,  vol.  I.,  p. 
502,  504. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  cxcvi.,  compared  witli  Heeren's  Historical  Ee- 
searches,  Africa,  vol.  I.,  pp.  92,  175,  and  Appendix,  475,  &c. 


CHAP.  Vir.]        XERXES  PREPARES  TO  INVADES  GREECE.  191 

that  the  recollection  of  upright  conduct  may  survive  the  indi- 
vidual, particularlv  when  the  interests  of  a  nation  are  concerned  *,^ 
for  the  memory  of  Cyrus  being  reverenced  throughout  Persia, 
the   son    of  Darius,    by  the  daughter  of  that  monarch,   was  Accession  of 
naturally  preferred  to  his  brothers,  and  Xerxes  in  consequence  son^of  Cyrus." 
obtained  quiet  possession  of  the  empire  about  486  B.C. 

This  prince  commenced  a  reign  which,  although  comparatively 
short,  was  remarkable  for  great  events  ;  and  the  first  year  was 
employed  in  perfecting  the  preparations  for  war,  which  were  al- 
ready far  advanced.    In  the  course  of  the  following  year,  Xerxes 
completed  one  of  his  father's  objects,  which  was  the  recovery  of 
Egypt ;  and  leaving  his  brother  Achsemenes  governor  of  that 
country,^  he  returned  to  Susa.     The  same  year  was  made  still 
more  remarkable   by  the   birth,  at  Halicarnasfeus,^  of  the  cele-  Herodotus 
brated  historian  who  has  recorded  these  events  ;  and  from  his  earnassus.^  '' 
account   of  this  reign,  Xerxes  appears  to  have  been  willing  to 
forget  the  grievances  of  his  father  against  Greece.     The  flames  Xerxes  con- 
of  his  ambition  were  however  kindled  by  the  interested  advice  prg^arltions 
of  Mardonius,*  which  prevailed  against  the  better  judgment  of  ^f  i^is  father. 
Artabanes ;  and  those  mighty  preparations  were  commenced, 
which   put  in   motion  probably  the   greatest   armament    ever 
assembled  in  the  world,  on  any  occasion.     Every  nation  from 
Bactria   to   Carthage'  sent  its  quota  of  infantry  and  cavalry, 
furnished  with  flour  and  other  provisions  ;  additional  supplies 
being  placed  in  suitable  depots  for  the  intended  operations  by 
vessels  furnished  by  the  maritime  states  of  his  dominions.     To  He  places  a 
facilitate  the  movements  by  land,  a  bridge  was  ordered  to  be  HeuSpo^m, 
placed  across  the  Hellespont,  and  to  render  those  by  water  more 
secure  than  before,  Xerxes  employed  the  Persians,  Bubares  and 
Artaches,  to  cut  a  canal  through  Mount   Athos,   so  that  his  and  cuts  a 
galleys   might  pass  from   the  Gulf  of  Contessa  (Strymonicus  So^t  aS. 
Sinus),  to   that  of  Monte  Santo   (Singiticus  Sinus),  without 
risking  such  a  loss  as  was  experienced  by  Mardonius  in  doubling 
the   promontory.      Doubts  have  long   existed    regarding    this 
extensive  work,   which,    however,   is    not  only  mentioned  by 

'  See  Appendix  (B.)  to  this  volume.  *  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  vii. 

'  Aul.  GelL,  lib.  XV.,  cap.  xxiii.  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  v.,  vi. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxi.,  Ixxxvi- 


192 


MARCH  OF  XERXES  TO  EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VII. 


Xerxes  quits 
Susa,  and; 


expenences 
the  liberality 
of  Py  theus. 


The  bridge 
over  the 
Hellespont  is 
destroyed  by 
a  storm,  and 
replaced. 


Account  of  this 
extraordinary 
structure, 


several  authors/  but  what  appear  to  be  its  remains  may  still  be 
traced  in  parts  of  the  peninsula ;  moreover,  its  object,  and  the 
manner  of  its  construction,  are  so  particularly  detailed  by 
Herodotus,^  that  we  can  from  thence  scarcely  doubt  the  fact. 

These  and  other  preparations  being  completed,  Xerxes  put 
his  army  in  motion  towards  the  spring  of  the  year  481  B.C.,  by 
marching  from  Susa  to  Critales  in  Cappadocia,^  where  all  the 
levies  from  the  regions  lying  to  the  eastward  were  assembled : 
he  proceeded  from  thence  to  Lydia,  where  he  was  joined  by  the 
levies  from  Arabia  and  the  rest  of  the  territory  lying  to  the 
westward  :  here  the  boundless  wealth  and  liberality  of  Pytheus 
were  exercised  in  maintaining,  for  a  time,  the  whole  of  the  army.* 

This  vast  concentration  appears  to  have  been  conducted  with 
the  utmost  regularity,  owing  to  the  accuracy  of  the  combi- 
nations, and  the  care  taken  in  providing  supplies  throughout 
the  extensive  line  between  the  capital  of  Persia  and  that  of 
Lesser  Asia.  During  the  winter's  halt  at  Sardis,  heralds  were 
despatched  to  make  the  usual  demands  of  earth  and  water  from 
the  Grecian  states,^  whilst  workmen  were  employed  in  replacing 
the  floating-bridge  across  the  Hellespont,  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  a  storm  at  the  moment  when  it  was  almost  com- 
pleted.* Early  in  the  spring,  Xerxes  continued  his  march 
towards  Abydos,  where  he  found  not  only  a  prodigious  fleet 
assembled,^  according  to  his  orders,  to  facilitate  the  contemplated 
invasion  of  Europe,  but  the  means  were  likewise  prepared  for 
passing  thither  without  embarking  his  legions.  This  surprising 
bridge,  connecting  Asia  with  Europe,  is  described  as  being  double; 
one  portion  was  formed  by  means  of  360  fifty-oared  boats,  and 
the  other  of  314  triremes,  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  former: 
each  vessel  was  firmly  anchored  in  a  slanting  direction,  so  as 
best  to  resist  the  effects  of  the  current  on  one  side,  as  well  as 
the  strong  winds  to  which  it  was  exposed  on  the  other.^     Two 


*  Thucydides,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  cix. ;  Plato,  De  Leg.,  lib.  III. 
lib.  II.,  cap.  ii. 

*  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxi.,  xxii.,  xxiii. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxvi.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xxvii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xxxii.  "  Ibid.,  cap.  xxxiv. 
'  Ibid.,  cap.  xlv.  •  Ibid.,  cap.  xxxv. 


Diod.  Sic, 


CHAP.  VII.]  XERXES  ENUMERATES  HIS  FORCES.  193 

enormous  reed  cables,  and  two  others  of  hemp,  well  secured  at  and  method  of 
the  extremities,  were  passed  over  each  line  of  boats  from  side  tiou. 
to  side  of  the  Hellespont.     Across  these  cables,  trunks  of  trees 
were  laid  to   support  a  platform,  on  which  a  deep  covering  of 
earth   was  placed ;  while  barriers  at  the  sides,   to  protect  the 
horses  and  other  animals,^  completed  this  gigantic  undertaking. 
Although  one  part  of  the  bridge  afforded  a  passage  for  the 
troops,  whilst  the  baggage   and  the  numerous  camp  followers, 
which  always  accompany  an  Asiatic  army,  had  the  use  of  the 
other,   seven   days   and  nights  were  consumed  in  passing  into 
Thrace.       The    fleet  then    proceeded   westward   through    the  The  army 
Dardanelles  in  order  to  rendezvous  at  the  Sarpedian  promon-  D^rdanefies. 
tory,  whilst  the  army  proceeded  north-eastward  by  the  Cherso- 
nesus,   and  along  the  Gulf  of  Melas  to  the  plain  of  Doriscus. 
Here  Xerxes  halted,  and  the  fleet,   consisting  of  nearly  3000  Xerxes  nam- 
vessels,    being  drawn  up  on   the  beach,"  the    number   of  his  on  the  plain  of 
followers  was   ascertained  by   the  novel  proceeding  of  causing    *^"^'^^* 
the   whole   multitude  to  pass   in   succession  through   a  walled 
enclosure,  which  was  of  the   necessary  size  to  contain  exactly 
10,000  men.' 

The  graphic  details  given  by  Herodotus  are  admirably  adapted 
to  place  before  the  imagination  the  grandeur  of  the  spectacle 
exhibited   on   the   plain   of   Doriscus :    when,    mounted   on    a 
splendid  car,  the  monarch  visited  in  turn  the  contingents  fur- 
nished by  the  several  nations  within  his  dominions;*  and  subse- 
quently, from  a  throne  raised  on  a  Sidonial  vessel,  reviewed  his 
fleet,^  which  for  this  purpose  was  ranged  in  order  of  battle. 
On  land,  the  Persian  troops,  wearing  close-grained  felt  caps.  Armament 
wide  trousers,  many-coloured  tunics  with  sleeves,  steel  cuirasses,  m"ent^of't^e 
bucklers,   bows,    quivers,    and   poniards  in  the  girdle,  some  of  ^^^J'^j^'j"^' 
them  also  displaying  gold,  others  silver  pomegranates,*  led  the  Assyrians, 
M^ay.'^      The  Medes  followed,  similarly    equipped ;    then    the 
Assyrians,  and  next  the  Chaldeans,  both  wearing  linen  cuirasses 
and  brass  helmets  of  an  extraordinary  form ;  these  were  armed 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxxvi,  -  Ibid.,  cap.  lix. 

'  Ibid.,  cap.  Ix.  ■*  Ibid.,  cap.  c. 

*  Ibid.  "^  Ibid  ,  cap.  xli. 
''  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixi. 
VOL.  II.  O 


194    FORCES  OF  XERXES  AND  BATTLE  OF  THERMOPYL^.  [cHAP.  VII. 


Bactrians, 
Indians, 
I.ydians, 
Arabs,  &c. 


Numbers  of 
the  assembled 
host 


Xerxes 
advances  to 


the  pass  of 
Thermopylae. 


with  javelins,  poniards,  and  wooden  clubs  bristling  with  iron 
spikes.^  After  them  came  the  Bactrians,  the  Indians,  the 
Parthians,  the  Ethiopians,  the  Armenians,  the  Lydians,  and 
others ;  the  Arabs,  wearing  girdles  and  ample  dresses,^  being 
last,  that  their  camels  might  not  frighten  the  horses.^ 

The  numbers  were  found  to  be  1,700,000  infantry,*  and  with 
the  addition  of  cavalry,  marines,  &c.,  there  probably  was  an 
aggregate  of  upwards  of  two  millions  and  a  half  of  fighting  men  ; 
the  women,  eunuchs,  and  camp  followers,  being  estimated  at  an 
equal  number  •,^  but,  as  the  result  proved,  Xerxes  had  very  few 
soldiers,^  for  although  there  was  a  regular  gradation  of  command 
from  the  chief  of  10  up  to  the  commander  of  10,000,^  the 
invaders  of  Greece  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  tumultuous  assem- 
blage, which,  like  a  cloud  of  locusts,  covered  and  devastated  the 
country  as  they  advanced ;  and  the  forced  labour  of  the  inha- 
bitants for  several  months  scarcely  sufficed  to  grind  the  vast 
quantities  of  corn  which  had  been  collected  at  the  different 
places.- 

From  the  plains  of  Doriscus  this  multitude  advanced  towards 
the  river  Strymon  in  three  bodies  ;  one  of  these  kept  towards 
the  interior;  the  centre  was  led  by  Xerxes  himself,  who 
forced  the  people  to  accompany  him  onward ;  whilst  the  third, 
under  Mardonius,  followed  the  coast  line,  keeping  near  the 
fleet.^ 

The  land  forces  reached  the  entrance  of  the  celebrated  pass 
of  Thermopylae  without  meeting  any  interruption  ;  but  the  fleet 
was  less  fortunate  in  the  voyage  thither,  for  it  encountered  a 
storm  by  which  400  vessels  were  lost  on  the  coast  of  Magnesia.*" 

The  invading  army  found  4,000  Greeks,  including  300 
Spartans,  under  Leonidas,  occupying  that  strong  pass ;  the  fleet, 
in  which  consisted  the  principal  strength  of  the  defenders,  being 
stationed  on  the  neighbouring  coast  of  Eubcea.  Xerxes  made 
several  attempts  to  force  the  pass,  which  were  successively 
defeated,   and  he  found  his  whole  host  totally  inadequate  to 


'  Herod.,  lib.  VIL,  cap.  Ixiii. 

"  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxvii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  clxxxv.,  clxxxvi. 

'  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixxxi. 

'  Ibid.,  cap.  exxi. 


*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ixix. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  Ix. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  ccx. 
®  Ibid.,  cap.  cxix. 
'"  Ibid.,  cap.  cxc. 


CHAP.  VII.]       BATTLES  OF  ARTEMISIUM  AND  SALAMIS.  195 

that  object,  till  Epialtes  showed  a  path  by  which  the  hill  might 
be  gained,  and  the  pass  turned :  this  object  was  at  length 
effected  by  Xerxes,  after  having  suffered  the  loss  of  20,000 
men.^ 

At  the  moment  when  Leonidas  and  his  gallant  band  perished 
so  gloriously,   a  well-contested   action  was  fought  between  the 
two  fleets  near  Artemisium."  This  proved  to  be  a  drawn  battle ;  Battle  of 
but  the  Persian  flotilla  was  destined  once  more  to  suffer  from  ■^5*^™^^"°*- 
the  effects  of  a  violent  tempest,  which  immediately  succeeded 
the  fight,^  and  greatly  lessened  the  superiority  of  the  Persians 
over  the  Greeks  in  the  more  important  contest  then  at  hand.* 
Xerxes  being  at  this  juncture  in  possession  of  Thermopylae, 
sent  one  portion  of  his  troops  to  pillage  the  temple  of  Delphos,^  Xerxes 
whilst  he  proceeded  at  the  head  of  the  remainder  to  besiege  the  citadel  of 
citadel   of  Athens,  which   he   captured  and  burnt.''     The  city    ^  ^^^* 
itself  had  been  almost  entirely  abandoned  on  the  approach  of 
Xerxes,  it  being  resolved  to  make  the  principal  stand  on  board 
the  fleet'     All  possible  care  and  attention  had  been  bestowed 
on  the  latter  by  Themistocles  and  Aristides ;  who  had  advan- 
tageously placed   380  well-manned  vessels*  in  the  straits   of 
Salamis.     Here  the  shock  took  place,  and  a  glorious  victory  Naval  victory 
was  gained  over   the  remainder  of  the  Persian  fleet,   notwith- 
standing   the    encouragement   given    by   the    presence    of  the 
sovereign,  who  witnessed   the  bravery  and  self-devotion  of  the 
queen  of  Halicarnassus  (Artemisa)  and  the  other  combatants, 
from  a  commanding  spot  near  the  foot  of  Mount  ^galeos.^ 

The  loss  of  this  battle  immediately  caused  that  sort  of  de- 
spondency which  is  common  with  Asiatic  princes  when  a  reverse 
is  experienced ;  and  forgetting  that  he  was  still  at  the  head  of 
his  victorious  legions,  Xerxes  determined  to  make  a  retrograde  Result  of  the 
march  forthwith  to  the  Hellespont ;  whither  he  despatched  the  ^^"^^' 
remainder  of  his  shattered  fleet  in  order  to  secure  and  protect 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xxiv.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  xi. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xiii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  XXXV.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  lii.  and  liii. 
^  Ibid.,  cap.  xli. 

®  Ctesias  says  there  were  700  opposed  to  upwards  of  1,000. — See  Photius, 
History  of  Persia,  cap.  26. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  Ixxxix,  xc. 

o  2 


196 


RETREAT  OF  XERXES  AND  BATTLE  OF  PLAT.EA.  [CHAP.  VII. 


Retreat  of 
Xerxes,  and 


sufferings  of 
his  army. 


Mardonius 
killt^d  at  the 
battle  of 
Plataea. 


the  bridge.'  These  arrangements  having  been  made,  Xerxes 
retraced  his  steps  by  the  same  route  along  which  he  had  ad- 
vanced from  Thessaly,  M'here,  agreeably  to  his  previous  plans, 
the  self-confident  Mardonius  was  left  with  the  immortals,  the 
cuirassiers,  and  other  chosen  troops,  to  the  number  of  300,000  ; 
this  chief  having  undertaken  to  finish  the  war  satisfactorily.^ 
Xerxes  now  made  forced  marches  with  the  remainder  of  his 
troops,  and  reached  the  Hellespont  in  forty-five  days,  after 
having  suffered  a  severe  loss  from  plague,  dysentery,^  and 
scarcity  of  provisions ;  which,  owing  to  his  unexpected  march, 
could  not  be  provided  at  the  different  stations,  as  had  been  the 
case  when  advancing.  The  bridge  having  been  again  carried 
away  by  a  tempest,  the  remnant  of  the  army  crossed  the 
Hellespont  in  the  fleet,  and  accompanied  Xerxes  to  Sardis.'* 
During  the  terror-stricken  haste  of  the  king,  the  Athenians 
having  refused  to  submit,  the  operations  of  his  general  com- 
menced in  his  rear.  Mardonius  marched  through  Boeotia  into 
Attica  with  his  whole  army,  and  burnt  everything,  sacred  as 
well  as  profane,  that  had  escaped  the  fury  of  his  master  in  the 
preceding  year  ;^  particularly  at  Athens  and  its  vicinity.  He 
then  returned  into  Bosotia,  and  encamped  on  the  river  Asopus, 
whither  he  was  followed  by  Pausanius  and  Aristides,  \vith  all 
the  forces  they  could  muster. 

After  continued  manoeuvres  for  ten  days,  a  feigned  retreat  of 
the  Greeks  brought  about  a  glorious  battle  near  the  temple  of 
Ceres  at  Plataea,  in  which,  after  a  protracted  and  bloody 
contest,  Mardonius  was  killed  ;  and  the  greater  part  of  his  army, 
which,  including  the  auxiliaries,  amounted  to  about  350,000 
men,"  was  destroyed  by  the  Grecian  forces,  scarcely  mustering 
110,000." 

The  same  day  on  which  the  troops  of  Xerxes  were  destroyed 
in  Europe,  the  remainder  of  his  expeditionary  fleet  and  army 
experienced  a  similar  fate  in  Asia.  Leotychides,  who  was 
invited   by  the  lonians,  left  Sparta  with  a  fleet  for  the  purpose 


'  Herod.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  cvii. 
^  Ibid.,  cap.  cxv. 
*  Ibid.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xiii. 
''  Ibid.,  cap,  xxix. 


Ibid.,  cap.  c. 
Ibid.,  cap.  cxvii. 
Ibid.,  cap.  xxxi. 


CHAP.  VII.]  BATTLE  OF  MYCALE  ;  RETURN  OF  XERXES  TO  SUSA.     197 

of  liberating  the  Grecian  cities  in  Asia.     Being  unable  to  meet  The  Persian 

^  T-»        •  1  -1      ^^'-'^  ^^^  army 

and  cope  with  him  at  sea,  the  Persians  sought  protection  by 
beaching  and  entrenching  their  ships  near  the  promontory  of 
Mycale,  where  they  had  the  support  of  about  60,000  men,  who 
had  been  left  by  Xerxes,  under  the  command  of  Tigranes,  to 
defend  Ionia.*  Just  at  the  moment  when  the  Athenians  and 
Lacedcemonians  were  preparing  to  make  a  double  attack,  Leoty- 
chides  resorted  to  the  stratagem  of  causing  a  courier  to  spread 
amongst  the  Greeks,  a  report  of  the  destruction  of  the  Persians  destroyed 
by  their  countrymen  in  Boeotia.  Being  thus  encouraged,  and  ^^^^  Mycale. 
their  ordinary  rivalry  increased  to  the  utmost,  they  advanced 
to  the  attack,  and  at  length  carried  the  position  which,  after  the 
lonians  took  flight,  was  nobly  defended  by  the  Persians  till 
they  were  all  killed,  fighting  hand  to  hand  behind  the  entrench- 
ments.* 

The  immediate  result  of  this  victory  was  the  deliverance  of  Xerxes  retires 

to  SllSSL 

the  Ionian  cities  from  the  Persian  yoke  ;  for,  instead  of  endea- 
vouring to  regain  his  lost  ground,  Xerxes,  on  learning  the  fate 
of  his  forces  in  Europe,  after  giving  orders  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Greek  temples  in  Asia,  with  the  intention  of  substituting 
those  of  Persia,  sought  his  safety  by  proceeding  with  haste  from 
Sardis  to  Susa;  leaving  Phoenicia  and  the  other  maritime 
provinces  to  defend  themselves.  The  remnant  of  his  prodigious 
forces  either  remained  in  the  European  provinces  of  the  empire, 
or  returned  as  scattered  fugitives  to  different  parts  of  Asia.  In 
the  mean  time,  pursuing  their  successes,  the  Greeks  under 
Aristides  and  Cimon,  drove  the  Persians  from  Cyprus  as  well 
as  from  the  Hellespont  and  Propontis :  Byzantium  itself  was 
mastered  by  Pausanius  after  a  short  siege. 

On  reaching  his  capital,  Xerxes  abandoned  himself  to  a  life 
of  pleasure,  which  continued  till  he  was  murdered  at  the  insti-  His  murder, 
gation  of  Artabanes  one  of  his  officers. 

Thus  ingloriously  terminated,  about  470  b.c,  a  reign  of 
nearly  twenty-one  years,  which  in  the  commencement  was 
remarkable  for  excessive  vanity  and  ambition,  mixed  with 
cruelty  and  thoughtless  profusion  ,•  and  towards  its  close,  for 
degradation  and  despondency.  The  character  and  the  life  of 
Xerxes  present  the  most  opposite  extremes.    The  concentration 

'  Herod.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xcv.  '  Ibid.,  cap.  ci.,  cii. 


198 


ARTAXERXES  OR  AHASUERUS. 


[chap.  VII. 


Character  of  froiii  the  remotest  parts  of  his  dominions  of  a  large  fleet,  and  a 
vast  army,  with  the  abundant  supplies  provided  for  the  voyage 
of  the  one  and  the  marches  of  the  other  ;  the  formation  of  bridges 
and  the  excavation  of  a  canal  for  the  passage  of  the  fleet  through 
Mount  Athos,  all  undoubtedly  indicate  an  enlarged  mind ; 
while  his  Egyptian  campaign,  and  even  the  first  part  of  the 
expedition  to  Greece,  claim  for  him  the  title  of  warrior,  which 
his  name  was  intended  to  signify.  Besides  these  circumstances, 
the  conduct  of  this  prince,  in  bestowing  upon  Pytheus  heaps  of 
gold  in  return  for  his  splendid  hospitality  and  his  presents  to  his 
father  Darius,^  bespeaks  generosity.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
was  guilty  of  the  utmost  barbarity  in  putting  to  death  the  son  of 
that  citizen ;"  he  disgraced  himself  by  his  treatment  of  the  remains 
of  Leonidas ;  and  he  showed  his  despondency  and  cowardice  in 
quitting  the  army,  and  abandoning  his  projects  against  Greece, 
while  the  almost  unbounded  resources  of  the  empire  were  still 
at  his  command.  The  principal  events  of  this  monarch's  reign 
are  recorded  on  the  monuments  of  Persepolis.^ 

As  the  Medo-Persian  custom  of  naming  a  successor  had  not 
been  followed,  Artaxerxes,  third  son  of  Xerxes,  after  murdering 
Darius  his  eldest  brother,  usurped  the  throne ;  Hystaspes  the 
second  son  being  then  in  charge  of  the  distant  satrapy  of  Bactriana. 
Artaxerxes,  or  Ahasuerus,  who  is  also  called  JMacrochir  or 
Longimanus,  soon  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war  which  had  been 
fomented  at  home  by  Artabanes,  and  this  chief  was  put  to 
death  (b.c.  470).  The  prince  was  equally  successful  afterwards 
against  his  brother  in  Bactriana,  whom  he  defeated,  and  whose 
party  he  entirely  ruined.  Having  thus  secured  quiet  possession 
of  the  empire,  Longimanus  applied  himself  to  its  consolidation 
by  the  reformation  of  abuses  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other, 
the  removal  of  such  functionaries  as  were  likely  to  be  favourable 
to  the  two  factions  which  he  had  overcome.  He  commemorated 
the  establishnient  of  his  power  by  feastings  and  rejoicings,  which 
continued  at  Susa  for  180  days,*  and  concluded  by  a  great 
fofist  of  seven  days,  for  all  the  people  that  were  present  in 
Shushan :  in  the  same  way  Vashti  the  queen  entertained  the 
women  in  the  harem. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxvii.,  and  vol.  I.,  p.  277.         *  Ibid.  cap.  xxxix. 
*  See  Appendix  (C.)  to  this  volume.  *  Esther,  chap.  I.,  v.  4. 


Artaxerxes 
Longimanus 
usurps  the 
throne. 


Banquet  at 
Shushan. 


CHAP.  VII.]  THE  HEBREWS  FAVOURED.  199 

The  grand  banquet  took  place  in  the  garden  of  the  king's 
palace ;  the  court  opening  into  it  being  adorned  with  white, 
green,  and  blue  hangings,  fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and 
purple,  to  silver  rings  and  pillars  of  marble.^  On  the  last  day 
of  the  entertainment,  while  under  the  influence  of  wine,  the 
king,  wishing  to  display  the  attractions  of  his  royal  partner 
before  the  assembled  guests,  commanded  the  presence  of  the 
beautiful  Vashti :  but  as  this  would  have  been  a  violation  of  The  queen 

.  Vashti 

eastern  customs,  as  well  as  an  outrage  on  her  delicacy,  the  queen  divorced, 
refused  to   appear,^  and  a  divorce  was  the  consequence  of  the 
wounded  dignity  of  the  monarch. 

The  attractions  of  Esther  caused  her  to  be  chosen  to  succeed  Esther 
Vashti,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  her  influence  over  throne. 
Ahasuerus  produced  for  her  countrymen  a  favourable  change 
in  the  sentiments  of  the  prince,  who  liberally  supported  Esdras 
and  Nehemiah ;  not  only  in  the  commencement  of  their  labours, 
but  likewise  at  a  later  period,  when  the  decree  was  issued  for 
rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.^  The  former  received  from 
Ahasuerus,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign,  a  very  ample  com-  Ahasuerus 

1  •      *,  ,  ,       T  1  "J  permits  Esdra8 

mission,  empowering  nim  to  return  to  J  erusalem  accompanied  fo  return  to 

by  all  the  people  of  his  nation  who  were  so  disposed,   with  Jerusalem. 

liberty  to  restore  the  temple  of  the  Jews.     At  the  same  time, 

it  must  be  observed,   the  attention  of  the  king  was  directed  at 

home  to   the  maintenance   of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.     The 

early  part   of  his  reign    was   distinguished  by  the   hospitable 

reception   and  generous  friendship   bestowed  by  Artaxerxes  on 

his  enemy  Themistocles ;  whose  banishment  was  not,  however.  Friendly 

unconnected  with  events  which  soon  embroiled  Persia,  once  TheEtodes. 

more,  in  a  war  with  Greece. 

The  government  of  Artaxerxes  had  been  gradually  acquiring 
strength  since  his  accession ;  and  hoping  to  recover  some  of  the 
authority  of  his  predecessors  over  the  maritime  provinces,  the 
king  assembled,  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  a  fleet  and  an  army, 
which  were  to  be  reinforced  by  eighty  triremes  from  Phoenicia. 

'  The  courts  of  the  Persian  palaces  usually  open  into  a  spacious  garden, 
•which  would  only  require  a  splendid  tent  equipage,  such  as  that  of  the  late 
monarch,  with  its  extensive  enclosures  of  various-coloured  canvas,  to  complete 
the  preparations  for  the  guests. 

^  Esther,  chap.  I.,  v.  12. 

*  Esdras,  chap.  VIII.,  v.  21  ;  Neh.,  chap.  I.,  v.  2. 


200 


DEATH  OF  ARTAXERXES. 


[CH.^ 


AP.  VII. 


Forces  of 
Artaxerxes 
defeated  by 
Cimou. 


The  Greeks 
assist  the 
Egyptians. 


B.  C.  463. 


Artaxerxes 
makes  peace. 


Death  of 
Artaxerxes. 


Darius  Nothus 
reigns. 


Intelligence  of  these  preparations  determined  Cimon,  the 
distinguished  rival  of  Themistocles,  to  attack  the  Persians  before 
thev  could  be  joined  by  the  expected  squadron,  and  he  accord- 
ingly proceeded  with  a  fleet  and  a  body  of  land  forces  to  the 
river  Eurymedon  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  where  he  gained 
a  brilliant  double  victory  over  the  Persian  fleet  and  army  on 
the  same  day,  in  the  year  4/0  B.C. 

This  success  induced  the  Athenians  to  send  Charetimis  with 
their  victorious  forces  to  assist  the  revolt  of  the  Egyptians 
under  Inarus.  In  consequence  of  this  support,  that  prince 
maintained  his  ground  till  a  second  and  more  powerful  army 
was  sent  thither  by  Artaxerxes,  under  the  command  of  Mega- 
byzus,  who  succeeded  in  reducing  the  country  to  subjection  after 
a  protracted  war  of  six  years  ;  during  which  the  Athenians  lost 
two  fleets.  But  these  losses  were  amply  repaid  by  the  successful 
wars  carried  on  both  by  sea  and  land  by  the  illustrious  Cimon ; 
who  at  length  reduced  Artaxerxes  to  the  necessity  of  making 
peace  on  the  most  disadvantageous  terms.  The  Athenians  not 
only  secured  the  freedom  of  the  Grecian  cities  in  Asia,  but 
likewise  obtained  other  conditions  of  importance,  which  were 
peaceably  preserved  during  the  life  of  Artaxerxes.  This  prince 
died  suddenly,  at  a  time  when  he  was  about  to  arbitrate  between 
two  of  the  civil  powers  in  Greece,  on  the  subject  of  the  Pelopo- 
nesian  war.  Xerxes,  his  only  son  by  Esther  the  queen,  suc- 
ceeded him  ;  but  he  was  almost  immediately  afterwards  murdered 
at  the  instigation  of  his  illegitimate  brother,  Sogdianus,  who  in 
consequence  gained  the  throne  about  the  year  425  B.C.,  from 
which,  however,  he  was  deposed  two  years  later  by  Ochus. 

This  prince,  called  by  historians  Darius  Nothus  or  the 
Bastard,  being  the  illegitimate  son  of  Artaxerxes,  reigned  from 
423  to  404  B.C.,  without  any  other  remarkable  events  than  the 
successive  revolts  of  the  Egyptians,  Medes,  and  Lydians,  which 
were  soon  suppressed. 

A  short  time  before  his  death,  Darius  confided  to  his  younger 
son  Cyrus  the  government  of  the  western  part  of  Lesser  Asia  ; 
and  this  circumstance  led  to  an  important  chain  of  events  which 
endangered  the  safety  of  the  empire.^ 

'  See  Appendix  (D.)  to  this  volume. 


(     201     ) 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  REIGN  OF  ARTAXERXES,  SON  OF  DARIUS  NOTHUS  ;  INVASION 
OF  CYRUS,  AND  MARCH  OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND  GREEKS  FROM 
BABYLONIA.       FROM  404  TO  360  B.C. 

Nature  of  Eastern  Governments. — Cyrus  appointed  Satrap  of  Lesser  Asia. — 
Origin  of  his  Kebellion. — His  Government  and  Armaments. — Cyrus 
advances  tiirough  Asia  Minor. — His  Marcli  from  Myriandrus  to  the 
Rivers  Chains,  tlie  Daradax,  and  Euphrates. — Advance  from  Thapsacus 
to  the  River  Araxes  and  Towns  of  Corsote  and  Carmandse. — March  from 
the  Pilae  towards  Babylon. — Battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  Death  of  Cyrus. — 
Commencement  of  the  Retreat. — The  Greeks  reach  the  Median  AVall, 
and  cross  the  River  Tigris. — March  to  Opi.-',  Larissa,  Mespila,  and  .Jebel 
Judi. — Advance  through  Kurdistan  to  the  Rivers  Centrites  and  Teleboas. 
— Passage  of  the  Rivers  Euphrates,  Phasis,  and  Harpasus. — Advance  to 
Gymnias  and  Mount  Theches. — March  to  Trebizonde  and  Cerasunt. — ■ 
The  Mossynojci,  Chalybes,  and  Tibarenians. — City  of  Cotyora. — Voyage 
to  Harmene,  and  thence  along  the  Coast  of  Paphlagonia  to  Heraclea. — 
Separation  and  Defeat  of  the  Greeks. — The  Greeks  re-unite  and  Defeat 
the  Troops  of  Pharnabazus, — The  Greeks  join  Seuthes,  and  take  service 
under  the  Lacedaemonians. — Xenophon  resigns  the  Command. — State  of 
Greece  and  Asia  at  the  close  of  the  King's  Reign.— Character  and  Death 
of  Artaxerxes. 


The  events  connected  with  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
Nothus,  and  the  commencement  of  that  of  his  successor,  are  of 
the  greatest  interest  to  the  inquiring  mind,   on   account  of  the 
graphic   illustrations  which  they  furnish   of  the  principles  as 
well  as  of  the  practical  workings  of  eastern  monarchies.    These  Regenerative 
possess,  on  the  one   hand,   the  power  which  in   the    abstract  eastern 
belongs   to  despotism,  and,   on  the  other,  the  mild  and  rege- ^**^^'^"™^°*^' 
nerative  principles,  inseparable  from  the  patriarchal  system   on 
which  they  are  based.     It  is  true,  that  an  eastern  sovereign  is 
absolute,  and  frequently  tyrannical ;  but  whilst  the  fascinations 
of  unlimited  power  must  tend  to  foster  this  feeling,  he  cannot 
altogether  forget  that  he  should   be  the  father  of  his  people ; 


202  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  YOUNGER  CYRUS.      [CHAP.  VIII. 

B.  C.  408.  and  this,  as  a  redeeming  point,  appears  to  be  the  chief  cause 
that  those  monarchies  are  upheld,  and  even  restored,  under 
very  adverse  circumstances. 

Darius  Nothus      Darius  Nothus,  partly  to  lessen  his  cares  by  the  subdivision 

empire,  *  of  his  gigantic  empire,  but  chiefly  to  gratify  his  queen,  confided 
the  satrapy  of  Lesser  Asia  to  her  favourite  son  Cyrus.  This 
arrangement,  if  permanent,  would  still  have  left,  on  the  decease 
of  Darius,  the  extensive  empire  of  Eastern  Asia,  as  the  share 
of  the  elder  son.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  intention  of 
the  monarch,  whilst  the  object  of  Parysatis  was  to  enable  her 
younger  son  to  obtain  the  empire  of  Cyrus  the  Great;  to 
which,  by  the  laws  of  Persia,  he  was  entitled,  in  consequence 
of  having  been  born  after  his  father's  accession  to  the  throne. 
His  brother  came  into  the  world  previously  to  that  event. 

Cyrus  extends      The    territory   westward    of    the   river    Halys    comprised 

in  AsiaViuor.  Phoenicia,  Cilicia,  Caria,  and  other  maritime  dependencies, 
and  its  ruler  was  enabled  to  exercise  a  powerful  control  over 
the  Athenian,  the  Lacedaemonian,  and  other  Greek  States, 
which  had  then  recently  acquired  political  importance  ;  and 
great  as  was  the  power  thus  obtained  by  the  youthful  Cyrus,  it 
was  much  increased  by  his  generous  disposition,  and  the  ample 
funds  at  his  disposal.  He  strengthened  himself  by  his  alliances 
with  the  Greek  governors  in  Asia  Minor ;  and  by  subsidizing 
Lysander,  he  enabled  the  Lacedaemonians  to  overcome  the 
Athenians,  and  terminate  a  war  of  twenty-seven  years  duration. 

He  is  recalled  He  had  not,  howcvcr,  been  long  in  Lesser  Asia,  when  he 
^  ^  °  '  >yvas  summoned  to  his  father's  court,  nominally  on  account  of 
the  king's  illness,  but  in  reality,  either  because  he  had  put  to 
death  two  noble  Persians,  relatives  of  Darius,  for  some  want  of 
respect  shown  to  him  as  viceroy,  or  because  some  intimation 
had  transpired  of  those  designs,  which  he  afterwards  carried  out. 
The  prince  obeyed  the  summons  with  much  reluctance ;  and 
either  from  misgivings  concerning  the  reception  he  might 
experience,  or  merely  to  swell  the  pomp  of  his  journey,  he 
took  with  him  Tissaphernes,  and  300  heavy-armed  Greeks,^ 
with  other  portions  of  the  forces  he  was  levying,   and  pro- 

B.  c.  404r       ceeded  slowly  towards  Susa. 

'  Xenoph.,  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  i. 


CHAP.  VIII.]       PREPARATIONS  AND  PROJECT  OF  CYRUS.  ^03 

Parysatis  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  dying  monarch  to  her 
favourite  son,  but  her  entreaties  failed  to  accomplish  the  greater 
object  for  which  she  interceded,  and  instead  of  declaring  Cyrus 
his  successor,  Darius  merely  bequeathed  to  him  the  continua- 
tion of  his  present  satrapy,  under  his  elder  brother  Arsaces. 

On    ascending   the   throne,    this    prince   took   the   name  of  Artaxerxes 
Artaxerxes,  and  by  his  extraordinary  memory,  obtained   from  Darius.^ 
the  Greeks  that  of  Mnemon.^     AVhilst  being  inaugurated  at 
Pasargada,  he  was  informed  by  one  of  the  priests  of  Bellona, 
that  Cyrus  intended  to  murder  him  in  the  temple."     The  latter  cyrus  resumes 
was  in  consequence  seized,  and  sentenced  to  death,   but  the  ^e^t?^*^'^'^' 
entreaty  of  Parysatis  saved  his  life,  and  preserved  his  govern- 
ment, to  which  he  was  permitted  to  return. 

The  desire   of  revenge  being  now  added  to  ambition,  the 
young  prince  lost  no  time  in  making  extensive  preparations  for 
war ;  his  design  appeared  to  be  favoured  at  this  moment  by  a  B.C.  4oa. 
fresh  rebellion  in   Egypt,   and  by  the  disaffected  state  of  the 
greater  part  of  Lesser  Asia,  more  particularly  of  the  Grecian 
colonies,  over  which  Cyrus  had  great  influence.     Even  at  Susa 
itself  he  had  a  strong  party,  for  his  emissaries  did  not  fail  to  His  liberal 
prepare  the  people  for  the  intended  change,  by  telling  them  measures  ?o 
that  the  empire  required  a  liberal-minded  sovereign  such  as  ^w™"^  ^^ 
Cyrus,  who  loved  w?.r,  and  would  not  only  shower  his  favours 
upon  those  who  served  him,  but  support  and  augment  the  glory 
of  the  throne. 

Such  were  the  circumstances  under  which  the  armaments  of 
the  prince  were  commenced,  avowedly  against  Tissaphernes, 
and  the  revolted  cities  in  Caria,  Lydia,  Ionia,  &c.,  but  in 
reality  for  the  purpose  of  dethroning  his  brother.  The  du-  Projects  to 
plicity  of  Cyrus  appears  to  have  been  successful,  for  the  king  ting/^  ^^® 
sanctioned  his  request  to  be  allowed  to  add  Ionia  to  his 
government :  instead,  however,  of  adopting  decided  measures 
to  crush  the  rebellion,  Cyrus  encouraged  the  existing  dis- 
content, and  fomented  a  mutual  opposition  amongst  the  western 
provinces ;  especially  those  which  were  either  nominally  or 
really  subject  to  Tissaphernes. 

'  Xenoph.,  Helleii.,  lib.  I. 

^  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  251,  ed.  Langhorne. 


204      STRENGTH  OF  THE  ARMY  UNDER  CYRUS.    [CHAP.  VHI. 

^yrus  ingra-        This  satrap  being  unpopular,  the  lofty  character  and  profuse 
purthe™''^     generosity  of  Cyrus  carried  the  day,   and  nearly  the  whole  of 
SSlphemes.  ^^^6  citics  ccascd  to  acknowledge  the  orders  of  Tissaphernes, 
giving  homage  and  tribute  willingly  to  the  prince  ;  who  had, 
in  consequence,   almost  the  whole   territory  of  Ionia   at   his 
disposal. 
le  makes  Cyrus  is  Said  to  have  told  the  people  of  Persia,  that  he  was 

o'thepSrs!  better  versed  in  philosophy,  as  well  as  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Magi,  than  his  brother ;  that  he  could  drink  more  wine;  and 
that  he  possessed  a  greater  and  more  royal  heart  than  the 
king :  in  the  figurative  language  of  his  countrymen,  he  added, 
that  he  would  give  horses  to  the  foot  soldiers,  and  chariots  to 
the  horsemen  •,  also,  that  he  would  bestow  villages  instead  of 
farms,  and  cities  instead  of  villages  ;  and  that  he  would  pay 
by  measure,  instead  of  counting  out  the  money.' 
Revolts,  Revolts  similar  to  that  of  Cyrus  still  occasionally  take  place 

)f™Cyrus,  in  the  East,  where  the  satraps  or  pashas,  except  in  respect  of 
the  annual  tribute  which  they  pay,  may  be  considered  inde- 
pendent of  the  sovereign  at  Constantinople.  In  1831,  the 
pashas  of  Albania,  Baghdad,  and  Egypt,  from  some  dissatis- 
faction, took  arms  against  the  sultan.  The  two  first,  though 
very  powerful,  failed;  but  the  last,  proceeding  with  more 
caution,  entered  Syria,  under  the  pretence  of  punishing  the 
pasha  of  Acre.  The  sultan,  however,  hoping  the  latter  would 
successfully  resist,  lost  the  opportunity  of  giving  timely  assist- 
still  take  place  ance  *,  and  the  fall  of  that  fortress  led  to  the  temporary  loss  of 

Syria  and  a  part  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  Ephori         In  retum  for  the  assistance  formerly  given  to  them  by  Cyrus 

sendThdr'"''"  against  the  Athenians,   the  Ephori  of  Lacedsemon  sent  their 

**-'^*'  fleet  under   Samius  to  join   that  of  the  prince,^  whose  army 

consisted  of  70,000  Asiatics  chiefly    from   Persia,   and   about 

13,000  Greeks  under  Clearchus,   and  other  influential  chiefs  ; 

amongst  these  was   Proxenus,    a    distinguished  Theban,   who 

was  accompanied   by  Xenophon,^  the  celebrated  historian,    of 

the  campaign. 

'  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  254,  ed.  Langliorne. 
*  Xenopli.,  Hellen.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  i.  s.  1. 
^  Anab  ,  lib.  III.,  cap.  1.,  s.  4,  7. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  MARCH  FROM  SARDIS  TO  CEL.EN.E.  205 

Leaving  his  relatives  and  friends  in  charge  of  the  govern-  and  Cyrus 

/•  T       T       -r»i  •         T       •         o  r^  J    i.1      commences  his 

ments  ot  Lydia,  1  hrygia,  lonia,  &c.,  Cyrus  commenced  the  march  from 
inarch  from  Sardis  in  April,  and  displayed  admirable  judgment 
in  taking  the  more  circuitous  route  along  the  great  plains,  and 
through  the  principal  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  in  preference  to 
that  by  Avhich  Xerxes  advanced  through  Cappadocia  ;  since  it 
gave  him  the  support  of  his  fleet,  by  which  he  could  receive 
supplies  and  reinforcements  from  time  to  time,  besides  having 
a  fair  chance  of  concealing  for  a  longer  period  his  bold  design. 

Hoping  to  deceive  his  brother,  Cyrus  gave  out  that  he  was  Ostensibly 
going  to   punish  the  Pisidians,   but  his   real  object   being  no  Pisidiaus.'^ 
longer  doubtful,  Tissaphernes,  with  an  escort  of  500  horsemen, 
proceeded  to  Susa  ;  and  on  communicating  the  intelligence  in 
person,  the  king  commenced  his  defensive  preparations.^ 

The  direction  of  Cyrus'  march  appears  to  have  been  parallel  Cyrus'  march 

11-  1       1       T^T  1-1        to  Chouos. 

to  the  Cogamus,^  and  having  passed  the  Maeander  on  a  bridge 
of  seven  boats,  probably  above  the  junction  of  the  Lycus,  he 
advanced  to  the  well-peopled  town  of  Colossse,  the  site  of 
which,  near  Chonos,^  is  about  seventy-seven  geographical  miles 
from  Sardis :  and  the  thirty  parasangs  of  Xenophon  (taken  at 
2  •  6  miles  each)  give  seventy-eight  geographical  miles. 

After   a  halt  of  seven   days,  during-  which   the   army  was  Being  rein- 
joined  by   1,500  heavy-armed  veterans   and   targeteers,  under  advances  to 
Menon   of  Thessaly,    Cyrus    advanced    twenty    parasangs   to  Ceisenae. 
CelaenjE,    whose    site,   as    well   as    that   of    the  later  city  of 
Apamea  Cibotis,  appears  to  have  been  near  the  present  town  of 
Dinei'r,'*  and  about  forty-eight  geographical  miles  from  Chonos, 
or  fifty-two  geographical  miles,  if  estimated  at  2*6  miles  the 
parasang.     At  this  city,  which  was  no  less  magnificent  than  the 
former,  there  was  a  palace  of  the  king,  and  one  of  the  prince, 
both  situated  on  the  Mseander,  with  the  much-prized  Persian 
luxury  of  an  extensive  park  full  of  wild  beasts:^  here,  Cyrus 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii.  *  See  route  on  Index  Map. 

'  Afterwards  Chronas,  on  the  Lvcus. — W.  J.  Hamilton's  Researches,  &c., 
vol.  I.,  pp.  501-510;  Rennell's  Illustrations  of  the  March  of  the  Ten 
Thousand  Greeks,  p.  23,  London,  1826. 

*  Rennell,  pp.  22  and  24,  and  W.  J.  Hamilton,  vol.  I.,  pp.  497,  499,  505, 
and  vol.  II.,  p.  366. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii. 


206        CYRUS  ADVANCES  TO  THE  PLAIN  OF  CAYSTRUS.     [cHAP.  VIII. 


Halt  of  thirty 
days,  and 


its  seei'et 
Dbject. 


Advance  to 
Peitae,  and 


;hence  to 

[leramorum 

\gora. 


Cyrus  rounds 
I  portion  of 
.ha  Taurus, 


and  gains  the 
plain  of 
Caystrus. 


spent  thirty  days  by  a  halt,  which  is  the  more  unaccountable, 
as  the  army  had  remained  a  week  at  the  previous  station.  The 
energetic  character  of  the  prince  forbids  the  belief,  that  the 
temptations  of  the  chase  could  have  been  allowed  to  interfere 
with  his  ambitious  project;  and  as  the  reinforcements  from 
Greece  could  have  joined  more  easily  at  either  of  the  two 
halting-places  to  which  he  proceeded,  delay  on  this  account  vras 
unnecessary.  Reasons,  however,  may  be  found  in  the  deceptive 
policy  of  Cyrus  towards  his  brother,  and  in  his  desire  to  keep 
his  troops  in  ignorance  of  his  designs.  The  concentration  of 
his  army  and  the  halt  itself,  being  for  the  time  in  accordance 
with  the  supposed  purpose  of  extirpating  the  Pisidians. 

An  additional  force  of  Asiatics,  with  the  levies  brought  from 
Thrace  and  the  rest  of  Greece,  under  Clearchus,  having  been 
reviewed  in  the  park,  and  a  census  taken,  the  troops  in  two 
days  performed  a  march  of  ten  parasangs  to  Peltse,  a  well- 
inhabited  city ;  which,  being  the  last  on  the  road  to  Mysia, 
probably  was  a  little  way  westward  of  Ishekli,  or  Eumenia,^ 
and  about  twenty-five  geographical  miles  from  Dineir,  the 
distance  according  to  the  parasangs,  at  2  *  6  miles,  being  only 
twenty-six  geographical  miles.  After  halting  three  days  to 
celebrate  the  Lupercalian  sacrifice,  Cyrus  advanced  twelve 
parasangs  to  Ceramorum  Agora  (the  market  of  the  Cramians), 
whose  site,  according  to  the  back  distances  from  Koniyeh,  would 
be  a  little  east  of  'Ushak,  and  about  thirty-one  geographical 
miles  from  Ishekli,  the  parasangs  giving  but  3 1 '  2  geographical 
miles.  Having  by  these  two  almost  retrograde  marches^  ad- 
vanced sufficiently  far  to  the  N.N.W.  to  round  a  diflficult 
portion  of  the  Taurus,  he  resumed  the  easterly  direction,  and  in 
three  marches  or  thirty  parasangs,^  having  passed  through  the 
great  mountain  barrier,  probably  near  the  present  town  of 
Afiyiim  Kara-hisar,  he  reached  the  city  called  the  plain  of 
Caystrus ;''  the  position  of  which  may  have  been  about  Chai* 
Keui,  near  Eber  Gol,  and  seventy-four  geographical  miles  from 
'Ushak,  the  parasangs  giving  seventy-eight  geographical  miles. 

'  AV.  J.  Hamilton's  Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  &c.,  vol.  II.,  p.  203. 

*  See  Index  Map,  ^  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii. 

*  Or  a  city  on  the  Plain  of  Caj-strus.     Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  VALUE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  PARASANG.    '207 

The  difficulties  regarding  the  positions  of  this  and  the  two  The  ancient 
preceding  sites  have  been  removed  by  researches  recently  made  pared">uth"^" 
in  the  country  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Hamilton,  and  also  Mr.  AV^illiam 
Ainsworth,  during  the  Euphrates  Expedition/and  in  his  Travels 
in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks.^  The  former,  from 
a  mean  of  the  two  marches  eastward,  viz.,  from  Sardis  to 
Colossa?,  and  from  Iconiuin  to  Dana  (Tyana),  concludes  the 
value  of  the  parasang  to  be  about  2-455  geographical  miles.^ 

The  modern  farsang,  or  farsakh,   of  Persia,  varies  according  the  farsakh  of 
to  the   nature  of  the  ground,  from  three  and  a  half,   to  four    ^^^^^' 
English  miles  per  hour ;  and  being  almost  ahvays  calculated  for 
mules,    or  good  horses,  under  favourable  circumstances  it  fre- 
quently exceeds  four  miles.     The  ancient  parasang  appears  to 
have  been  fixed  at  thirty  stadia,^  which  at  202  "84  yards  would 
give  three   geographical  miles.      But  this  being  also   a  road 
measure,   it  no  doubt  varied  as  at  present,  and  was  regulated 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  country  ;   and  fortunately  we 
have  the  means  of  ascertaining  this  difference  wuth  considerable 
precision.     A  line,   drawn   along  the  map  so  as  to  touch  the  Distance  from 
river,  at  short  distances,  from  Thapsacus  to  the  river  Araxes,  is  ThapLcus 
about  one  hundred  and  five  miles,  which,  for  the  fifty  parasangs  ^^^^^^t^^' 
of  Xenophon,   give  2*10  geographical  miles  each.     By  the 
route  followed  from  Sardis  to  Thapsacus,  it  is  eight  hundred  and 
fifty-three  geographical  miles,  which  will  give  2 "  608  geogra- 
phical miles  for  each  of  the  three  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
parasangs.     Again,  from  Thapsacus  to  the  mounds  of  Miiham- 
med,   thirty-six  miles  from  Babylon,  w^here,   for  the   sake  of 
water,  the  route  constantly  follows,  and  almost  touches  the  river 
Euphrates,   it  is  four  hundred  and  twelve  geographical  miles,  and  thence  to 
thus  giving  1  "98  geographical  miles  for  each  of  the  two  hundred 
and  eight  parasangs,  or  2  •  294  geographical  miles  for  the  mean 
of  both.     This  scarcely  differs  from  the  result  obtained  by  the 
laborious  and  discriminating  geographer  Major  Rennell,  who, 
without   our  present  advantages,    estimated  the   parasang   at 
2*25  miles;    which,   in  fact,   approaches  an  average   of  the 

'  Parker,  London,  1844. 

*  W.  J.  Hamilton's  Researches,  &c.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  199,  200. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  vi. ;  lib.  V.,  cap.  liii. ;  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xlii. 


208  REVIEW  OF  THE  GREEKS  BY  QUEEN  EPYAXA.    [cHAP.  VIII. 

whole  march  of  Cyrus.  We  find  that  the  distance  from  Sardis 
to  Cunaxa,  or  the  mounds  of  Muhammed,  cannot  be  much  under 
or  over  1,265  geographical  miles,  making  2-364  geographical 
miles  for  each  of  the  five  hundred  and  thirty-five  parasangs 
given  by  Xenophon  between  those  places.^ 
Arerage  From  the  preceding    calculations,   it  appears    that   we   are 

parasang.  ^     Warranted  in  taking  the  average  value  of   the  parasang,    at 
2  •  608  geographical  miles  throughout  the  march  to  Thapsacus, 
and  at  1  *  98,  or  almost  two  miles  from  thence  to  Cunaxa  ;^  but 
subsequently,   it  is  less  than   two    geographical    miles.       The 
greater  speed  in  the  first  part  of  the  march,  was  the  natural 
consequence  of  moving  during  the  most  favourable  season  of 
the  year   (April  and  May),   with  the  additional  advantage   of 
roads.     The  want  of  the  latter  must  have  been  a  serious  im- 
pediment  to    the    carriages    during    the   next  fortnight ;    for, 
Difficulties      although  the  marches  were  pressing,  the  heavy-armed  men,  with 
Meso'oTamia°  their  wcapous,  would  have  been  greatly  retarded  by  the  almost 
and  Armenia,  insupportable  heat  of  the  summer  months :  in  the  subsequent 
retreat,  the  mountains,  the  rivers,  and  unknown  tracts,  as  well 
as  the  snow  on  the   ground,   must  have  caused    still    greater 
retardations. 
Epyaxa,  queen      But  to  return  to  the  march  itself.     During  a  halt  of  five  days 
v[ i^' c'^Tus     °^^  ^^^  plains  of  Caystrus,   Cyrus  received  Epyaxa,  the  queen 
of   Cilicia;    whose  mysterious  visit  and  opportune  supply  of 
treasure  enabled  him  to  appease  the  Greeks  by  giving  them 
three  months'  arrears  of  pay.     Accompanied  by  Epyaxa,  he 
advanced   ten    parasangs   to    Thymbriuni,    on   the  borders    of 
Lycaonia,  probably  at,  or  a  little  south-eastward  of  the  present 
town  of  Ak-Shehr,  and  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  miles  from 
Chai  Keui.     In  two  days  more  he  advanced  ten  parasangs  to 
Tyriacum,   a  populous  town,  probably  represented  by  I'lghiin, 
which  is  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  miles  from  Ak-Shehr  (the 
ten  parasangs  give  twenty-six  miles  in  each  case).     Here  he 
Review  of  his  remained  three  days,   and  delighted  his  guest   by  a  splendid 
Tyriacum.      display  of  his  Greek  forces,  uniformly  clothed,  and  armed  with 
brazen  helmets,  scarlet  tunics,  greaves,  and  burnished  shields, 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii.,  s.  6. 

*  The  country  hereabouts  is  called  Abu  Jada. 


CHAP.  VIII.]         CYRUS  GAINS  THE  PASS  OF  THE  TAURUS.  209 

at  the  same  time  astonishing  her,   by  causing  the  phalanx  to  The  phalanx 
charge   in  their  usual   manner,   shouting  aloud  to  terrify  the  ™^°°^"^''^- 
enemy  as  they  advanced,   running  with  their  long  spears  pro- 
tended.' 

Epyaxa  and  her  escort  accompanied  the  army,  moving,  and 
encamping  with  the  prince.  In  three  marches  of  twenty  para- 
sangs,  the  army  reached  Iconium,  a  distance,  bv  the  route  of 
Kadun  Khan  and  Ladik,^  of  forty-nine  or  fifty  geographical  miles. 
After  halting  five  days  at  that  place,  it  advanced  thirty  para- 
sangs  in  five  marches  along  the  plains  of  Lycaonia,  and  halted, 
probably  near  or  westward  of  the  now  small  town  of  Kara 
Biinar,  (Barathra,)  which  is  sixty  or  sixty-one  miles  from  Epyaxa  quits 
Koniyeh.  From  thence,  Epyaxa  returned  to  her  husband  Bamhra. 
Syenncsis,  the  king  of  Cilicia,  probably  crossing  the  Taurus  by 
Ivizil  Che'smeh,  'xVlan  Biizuk,  Mizetli,  Soli  (or  Pompeiopolis), 
and  onward  to  Tarsus,  It  may  be  inferred,  from  what  subse- 
quently passed  in  Cilicia,  that  the  object  of  this  remarkable  Supposed 
mission,  and  the  timely  supply  of  treasure,  was  to  induce  Cvrus  visf^.  ° 
to  take  another  route,  that  Syennesis  might  not  be  embroiled 
with  Artaxerxes,  by  permitting  the  march  through  his  territory  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that,  from  her  peculiar  intimacy  wdth 
the  prince,  the  queen  believed  she  had  been  successful.  Cvrus 
availed  himself  of  her  return,  to  send  a  body  of  Greeks  under 
Menon,  nominally  as  a  guard  of  honour,  but  in  reality  to  turn 
the  Cilician  gates,  the  only  pass  which  was  practicable  for  an 
army  through  this  part  of  the  Taurus ;  he  then  advanced 
twenty-five  parasangs  in  four  days  to  Dana,  now^  presumed  to 
be  Tyana,  "which  is  forty-nine  or  fifty  miles  from  Kara-biiiiar. 

Cyrus  had  been  informed  that  Syennesis  in  person,  with  a  Cyrus  turns 
powerful  body  of  troops,  occupied  the  heights  commanding  this  Tau?S^  "^  ^^^ 
almost  impregnable  passage ;'  but  during  a  halt  of  one  day  at 
the  entrance,  making  the  necessary  dispositions  to  force  his 
way,  the  videttes  brought  the  satisfactory  intelligence,  that  the 
heights  had  been  abandoned  by  the  Cilicians,  on  learning  that 
Menon  had  reached  his  destination,  and  turned  the  pass,  after 
plundering  Tarsus,   and    opening   a   communication  with    the 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii.  ^  See  Index  Map. 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  293,  354 
VOL.  II.  P 


210 


MARCH  FROM  TARSUS  ALONG  THE  COAST.       [cHAP.  VIII. 


and 


is  visited  by 
Syennesis. 


Lacedaemonian  galleys.  The  opportune  arrival  of  the  latter, 
added  to  the  belief  that  the  negotiation  of  Epyaxa  had  been 
successful,  seems  to  have  prevented  the  intended  resistance  of 
reachesTarsus,  Syennesis,  and  four  days'  march  through  one  of  the  longest 
and  most  difficult  passes  in  the  world,  ^  brought  Cyrus  to 
Tarsus ;  which  city  is  sixty-eight  or  seventy  geographical  miles, 
(called  twenty-five  parasangs),  from  the  farther  side  of  the  pass 
near  the  Kolu  Kushla.~ 

At  first,  Syennesis  refused  to  obey  the  mandate  of  Cyrus  to 
appear  at  Tarsus,  but  Epyaxa  induced  him  to  quit  his  fastness 
in  the  mountains,  and  the  Cilician  prince  made  his  peace  by 
presenting  large  sums  of  money  for  the  army :  he  received 
from  Cyrus,  in  return,  a  Persian  robe  of  honour,  a  golden  bit, 
and  other  royal  presents,  in  addition  to  a  guarantee  that  his 
territories  should  not  be  plundered. 

The  halt  of  twenty  days  at  Tarsus,  was  rendered  memorable 
by  a  circumstance  which  threatened  to  terminate  the  enterprise, 
at  the  moment  when  the  requisite  funds  had  been  so  unexpect- 
edly obtained.  The  Greeks,  chiefly  the  followers  of  Clearchus, 
perceiving  that  they  had  been  entrapped,  loudly  demanded  to 
return,  instead  of  proceeding  against  Artaxerxes ;  a  service  for 
which,  as  alleged,  they  had  not  been  engaged.^  After  lengthened 
discussions,  the  oratory  of  Clearchus  prevailed,  and  by  judiciously 
placing  before  the  turbulent  soldiery,  on  the  one  hand  the 
The  discontent  difficulties  and  dishouour  of  a  return,  contrasted  with  the  pros- 
is  appeased,  pect  of  glory  and  rewards  before  them  on  the  other,  he  induced 
them  to  advance.  The  object  now  avowed  by  Cyrus,  was  the 
punishment  of  his  enemy  Abrocamas,  the  satrap  of  Syria ;  who 
was,  he  said,  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  at  the 
distance  of  twelve  marches.'' 

An  additional  half-daric  being  promised  per  month,  Cyrus 
advanced  ten  parasangs,  in  two  marches,  and  crossed  the  river 
Sarus,  now  the  Saihiin,  where  it  was  three  plethra  wide.  Here 
the  direct  distance  is  seventeen  geographical  miles,  but  that  by 
the  road  is  rather  more  than  twenty-nine  miles  between  those 


Events  at 
Tarsus. 


Cyrus  ad- 
vances, and 
crosses  the 
rivers  SaVhiin 
and  Jaih^D, 


'  See  above,  vol.  T.,  pp.  293,  354,  and  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ii. 

*  See  No.  1  of  Euphrates'  Maps.         ^  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iii.,  s. 

*  Ibid.,  s.  20. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  CYRUS  REACHES  THE  GATES  OF  SYRIA.  211 

places.'     In  another  march  of  five  parasangs  (actually  seventeen 
to  nineteen  miles),  he  reached  the  Pyramus  or  Jaihan,  Mhich 
was  one  stadium   in  breadth  ;  and  fifteen  parasangs,  made  in 
two  marches  from  thence,  brought  him  to  Issus,  the  last  city  of 
Cilicia,"  which  is   thirty-three   to  thirty-four   miles   from   the 
town  of  Misis.     The  widths  given  by  Xenophon,  indicate  that  and  reaches 
the  passage  of  the   Sarus  was  effected  somewhere   about  the  ^^^'^' 
place  now  occupied   by  the  city  of  Adanah,  and  that  of  the 
Pyramus,  in  the   vicinity  of  the  present  town  of  Mallus  or 
Misis ;  and   neither  of  the   rivers  being  fordable,   it   may  be 
presumed   that  they  were,   as   in   the   case    of  the  Mseander, 
crossed  on  some  kind  of  temporary  bridge.^     Cyrus  found  his  where  he  finds 
fleet  anchored  near  the  city  of  Issus,   and  with  it  came  a  re-  rebforcer^'^^ 
inforcement   of  700  heavy-armed    men   under  Cheirisophus,  ^^'^ts. 
besides  400  others  who   had  quitted    Abrocamas,   that    they 
might  take  service  against  the  king,^  making  it  evident  that 
the  object  of  the  expedition  was  now  well  known  in  this  part  of 
the  country.     Keeping  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  one  The  amy  ad- 
march  of  five  parasangs  brought  Cyrus  to  the  gates  of  Cilicia  ^hecoas^t""^ 
and   Syria.     Here    a   rocky    spur,    covered   with    brushwood, 
descends  from  the  Amanus  into  the  sea,  leaving,  as  described 
by  Xenophon,  a  narrow  pass.     This  has   been  since   washed 
away  by  the  sea,  and  a  paved  road  has  been  substituted  for  it. 
The  latter  is  carried  over  the  spur  itself,  and  through  the  ruins 
of  a  marble  gateway  on  the  southern  declivity.     The  gateway, 
now   bears  the   European    name    of    Jonas'  pillars,   and   the 
Turkish  name  of  Sakal  Tiitan  (Beard  Catcher).     A  little  way 
northward  of  the  pillars,  on  a  hill  perhaps  nearly  300  feet  high, 
stands  the  castle   of  Merkez   (Centre),   which   commands  the 
pass.     Half  a  mile  beyond  the  castle   there  is  a  wall,  which  Nature  of  the 
terminates   at  the  sea  with   a  tower ;    a  little   farther   is  the  ^°'^*'7- 
Merkez-sui,  and  again,  beyond,   a  small  pile  of  ancient  ruins. 
There  are  also  other  ruins  higher  up  the  river  ;  and  at  the 
distance  of  two  miles  from  the  sea  are  traces  of  a  double  wall 
on   each  side,  where  the  stream   issues   from   the  mountains. 
The  Merkez-sui,  or  ancient  Kersus,  determines  the  sites  of  the 

'  See  Map  No.  1.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  ii.  ■*  Ibid.,  cap.  iv. 

p  2 


212 


PASS  OF  BEILAN. 


[chap.  YIII. 


pass  of  Syria 
and  Cilicia. 


so-called  gates  or  fortresses,  Avhich  were  erected  to  defend  the 
ground ;  the  one  being  in  Cilicia,  and  the  other  in  Syria,  the 
river  flowing  between  them.^ 

The  limited  width  of  the  pass  along  the  borders  of  the  sea, 
added  to  the  diflaculty  of  turning  it  by  keeping  along  the  lower 
part  of  the  Amanus,  gave  to  it  great  importance  and  strength, 
especially  when  approached  from  the  side  of  the  Issus.  Aware 
of  this  difficulty,  and  under  the  impression  that  it  would  be 
Cyrus  tarns,    strongly  occupied,   Cyrus  caused  his  fleet  to  land  his  heavy- 

d.iid  carries  tli6  *  i  •* 

armed  veterans  both  within  and  Avithout  the  Syrian  fortress,  to 
secure  a  passage  for  his  army ;  but  Abrocamas,  not  wishing 
to  oppose  a  prince  who  might  eventually  take  away  his  satrapy, 
had  already  retreated  at  the  head  of  a  force,  estimated  at 
300,000  men,  and  Cyrus,  without  opposition,  completed  the 
next  march,  which  was  to  the  commercial  city  of  Myriandrus. 
Each  of  these  marches  was  of  five  parasangs,  that  is  eleven  or 
twelve  miles. 

During  a  halt  of  seven  days  at  this  place,  Xenias  and  Pasion, 
two  men  of  some  importance,  stealthily  departed  by  sea,  but 
the  judicious  conduct  of  Cyrus  in  sending  their  effects,  as  well 
as  their  wives  and  children  after  them,  prevented  others  from 
following  an  example  which  might  have  been  fatal  to  his  under- 
taking; and  even  those  Greeks,  who  had  been  hitherto  back- 
ward, became  zealous  followers,  believing  that  so  magnanimous 
a  commander  would  not  fail  to  be  still  more  liberal  to  those  who 
were  faithful.^ 

The  important  pass  of  Be'ilan,  as  well  as  the  gates  of  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  having  been  abandoned  by  Abrocamas,  the  army  of 
Cyrus  made  twenty  parasangs,  in  four  marches,  to  the  river 
Chains.  Proceeding  through  the  pass  in  the  Beilan  chain, 
and  advancing  north-eastward,  keeping  quite  clear  of  the  lake 
of  Aga  Denghiz  and  the  surrounding  marshes,  it  is  about  sixty- 
one  geographical  miles  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Baluk-sii  or 
Bciluklii-su'*  (Fish  River),  and  about  sixty-eight  or  seventy 
miles  from  the  town  of  Beilan,  if  a  greater  sweep  be  made 
northward  along  the  slopes  of  the  hills.''     As  there  were  three 


Events  at 
Myriandrus 


March  to  the 
river  Chains, 
and 


Anabasis,  lib.  I 
See  Map  No.  1 . 


,  cap.  IV. 


Ibid. 

See  above,  vol. 


L,  p.  412. 


CHAP.  VIIT.]    MARCH  TO  THE  RIVERS  DARADAX  AND  EUPHRATES.     213 

rivers  to  cross,  namely,  the  Kara-sii,  the  Aswad,  and  the  'Afrin, 
four  days  would  certainly  be  required  for  this  part  of  the  march. 
In  advancing  first  in  an  easterly  direction  along  the  Baluk-sii, 
then  southward  by  the  banks  of  the  same  stream,  and  again 
eastward,  quitting  the  latter  when  opposite  to  the  fountain  of 
El  Bab,  near  the  source  of  the  stream  called  Dhahab  or  Dabb, 
it  is  about  sixty-one  miles  to  the  last,  the  presumed  Daradax :' 
and  if  the  windings  of  the  Kowe'ik  be  followed  in  the  earlier  from  thence  to 

the  riv€r 

part  of  the  march,  it  would  be  seventy  or  eighty  miles  ^  from  Daradax. 
the  higher  part  of  the  Chalib  or  Chains,  which,  as  in  the  time 
of  Xenophon,  still  abounds  in  fish.^  The  distance  (thirty  para- 
sangs)  given  by  Xenophon  between  the  rivers  Chains  and 
Daradax,  which  was  accomplished  in  five  marches,^  agrees  with 
the  nature  of  the  intervening  country;  for  whether  the  wind- 
ings of  the  upper  part  of  the  Koweik  were  followed,  or  the 
stream  forded  two  or  three  times  in  preference,  a  fifth  march 
would  be  requisite  as  already  mentioned.^ 

Having  wantonly  destroyed  the  palace  and  park  of  Belesis,  Palace  of 
the   late    governor   of  Syria,    Cyrus,   in  three   days'  pressing  stroyed. 
marches,''  following  and  constantly  touching  the  Euphrates  from 
Balis,  reached  the  river  Euphrates  at  Thapsacus,^  which,  as 
has  been  shown,®  is  about  sixty-four  or  sixty-six  miles  from  the 
Daradax. 

Here    Cyrus    fulfilled   his   promise,    by  plainly  telling  the  At  Thapsacus, 
Greeks,  through  their  commanders,  that  he  intended  to  proceed  known ThV*^^ 
to  Babylon  and  against  the  king.     At  first  the  soldiers  were  "^•''^'^f  °^ '^^^ 
angry,  and  for  some  days  it  was  doubtful  whether  they  could 
be  induced  to  proceed.     Abrocamas  had  destroyed  the  boats 
by  which  he  had  crossed,  but  the  river  happened  to  be  fbrdable 
that  year,^  and  Menon  having  persuaded  his  division  to  set 
the  example  by  fording,   the  water  coming  up  to  their  breasts, 
the  rest  of  the  contingents  speedily  followed.     The  whole  army 
being  then  put  in  motion  along  the  left  bank  of  the  great  river, 


'  See  above,  vol.  1.,  p.  41o. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv. 

'-  Vol.  I.,  p.  416. 

"  See  Maps  Nos.  1  and  3. 

»  Ibid.,  p.  416. 


-  Ibid.,  p.  412. 

*  Ibid. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv. 

"  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  417. 


214  -ADVANCE  FROM  THAPSACUS  TO  THE  PYLJ:.    [cHAP.  VIII. 


He  advances 
to  the  river 
Araxes, 


and  from 
thence  to 
Corsote. 


Distance  of 
the  Pylge  from 
Corsote. 


City  of  Car- 
mandse,  and 


disputes  of 
the  Greeks. 


they  advanced  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  five  geographical 
miles,  or  fifty  parasangs,  in  nine  days,  to  the  river  Araxes,^  and 
entered  the  desert  of  jMesopotamia,  after  making  the  necessary 
provision  for  the  coming  march. 

In  five  marches,  at  times  occupied  in  hunting  ostriches,  roe, 
deer,  wild  asses,  and  bustards,  they  accomplished  a  distance  of 
thirty-five  parasangs  to  the  river  Masca  and  the  town  of  Cor- 
sote ;  the  position  of  which  seems  to  correspond  with  the  ruins 
of  Al  Erzi,  whose  site  is  sixty-three  miles  from  the  river 
Araxes.' 

There  has  been  some  little  difficulty  about  the  termination 
of  the  succeeding  march  of  ninety  parasangs ;  but  as  it  appears, 
by  the  subsequent  movements,  that  the  Pylse  were  about  twenty- 
four  miles  short  of  the  Median  wall,  the  pass  in  question  may 
safely  be  placed  about  twenty-seven  miles  below  Hit,^  or  nearly 
opposite  to  the  village  of  Jarrah,  from  which,  by  the  map,  there 
are  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five,  or  one  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  geographical  miles  to  represent  the  ninety  para- 
sangs from  Corsote  to  the  Pylae,  which,  at  1'98  each,  give 
1/8 "2  geographical  miles. 

Some  time  during  the  previous  march  they  halted  opposite 
to  a  large  and  magnificent  city  called  Carmanda?,*  from  which 
panic,  palm-wine,  and  other  supplies  were  obtained;  crossing 
the  river  for  this  purpose  on  rafts  made  with  the  skins  of  their 
tents  stuffed  with  rushes.  It  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place 
that  the  serious  dispute  occurred  between  the  followers  of 
Clearchus  and  those  of  Menon,  which,  after  some  difficulty, 
Cyrus  settled  with  that  tact  and  knowledge  of  mankind  for 
which  he  was  so  remarkable. 

Not  long  after  the  army  had  marched  from  this  place,  that 
is,  probably,  during  the  first  day  from  the  Pylae,  the  dung  of 
the  horses,  and  other  traces  of  a  body  of  horsemen,  supposed 
to  be  about  2,000,  were  perceived,  who  had  probably  been  em- 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iv.,  v.  *  See  Map  No.  3. 

^  See  Maps  Nos.  5  and  7. 

*  As  there  is  no  otlier  site  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  tlie  position 
alliuled  to  may  have  been  near  Jibbah,  an  island,  opposite  to  which,  on  that 
bank,  there  are  some  ruins  at  fifty-eight  miles  from  'A'nah,  and  thirty  or 
thirtv-two  from  Hit. 


CHAP.  VIII.]       REVIEW,  AND  ESTIMATE  OF  THE  ARMIES.  215 

ployed  in  destroying  the  forage.  Under  pretence  of  preventing 
this  operation,  but  in  reality  to  communicate  with  Artaxerxes, 
Orontas,  a  Persian  nobleman,  vohmteered  to  pursue  them ;  but 
his  real  purpose  having  been  ascertained,  by  a  letter  prepared 
to  be  sent  to  Artaxerxes,  and  having  been  pardoned  on  two 
previous  occasions,  Cyrus  ordered  that  there  should  be  held  a 
court-martial  of  his  countrymen,  who  sentenced  him  to  death,  ^  Orontas 

-  .  sentenced  to 

and   he    was   not   seen  subsequently ;   but    whether   privately  death, 
executed  or  not,  did  not  then  appear. 

Having  in  three  days  advanced  twelve  parasangs  through  Cyrus  reviews 
Mesopotamia,  Cyrus  reviewed  his  forces,  and  put  them  in  nJfdn'ight!  ^ 
order  of  battle  at  midnight."  Expecting  to  engage  the  king  on 
the  following  day,  the  prince,  with  his  usual  tact,  addressed  his 
followers  in  the  most  animated  and,  to  soldiers,  the  most  encou- 
raging language.  They  were  told  that  the  satrapies  of  an 
empire,  which  extended  so  far  south  as  to  be  uninhabitable 
through  heat,  and  so  far  north,  that  the  people  perished  from 
cold,  would  soon  be  at  his  disposal,  and  that  he  would  adorn 
the  brows  of  the  generals  with  the  coronets  of  princes,  his  only 
apprehension  being,  lest  he  might  not  have  a  sufficient  number 
of  friends  to  fill  the  other  situations.^ 

The  census  taken,  showed  that  the  various  levies  raised  in 
the  maritime  and  Greek  states  amounted  to  10,400  heavy- 
armed  men,  and  2,400  targeteers,  with  nearly  20  scythed 
chariots,  in  addition  to  a  mixed  force  of  100,000  Asiatics.  The 
army  of  Artaxerxes,  according  to  some  deserters  from  it,  was 
reported  to  be  1,200,000  infantry,  6,000  horse,  and  200  armed 
chariots ;  large  bodies  of  this  force  being  commanded  by  Abro- 
camas,  Tissaphernes,  Gobryas,  and  Arbaces.  But  as  the  first 
was  not  present  with  his  contingent,  the  actual  number  was  only  Estimate  of 

,  the  contendin&r 

900,000  men,  and  150  armed  chariots,*  or  400,000  horse  and  foot,  armies. 
according  to  the  more  moderate  estimate  of  Diodorus  Siculus.^ 
The  position  of  the  king  was  admirably  suited  to  cover  the 
capital,  for,  in  addition  to  an  army,  which  according  to  the 
lesser   estimate    (allowing   three    followers   for    each   soldier) 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vi.  "^  See  Map  No.  7. 

^  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vii.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  viii. 

'  Lib.  XIV.,  cap.  ix. 


216  POSITION,  AND  RETREAT  OF  ARTAXERXES.     [CHAP.  VIII 

mustered  100,000  fighting  men,  and  which  would,  independently 

The  king's      of  the  chariots,  form  a  line  two  deep  extending  twelve  miles ; 

entrenched,     the  I'sa/  the   Nahr  Sersar,   and  other  canals,  were  so  many 

"*  successive  lines  of  defence,  the  whole  constituting  a  splendid 

position,  which,   being  in  a  plain,  was  suited  for  the  chariots 

as  well  as  for  the  cavalry. 

Not  satisfied  with  these  advantages,  and  the  additional  line 
of  the  Median  wall,  Artaxerxes  formed  an  entrenched  camp 
along  the  Euphrates,  in  the  rear  of  the  whole,  to  cover  his 
baggage,"  and  also  cut  a  wide  and  deep  ditch  as  an  advanced 
line  of  defence.  With  the  exception  of  a  passage  left  near  the 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  the  latter  work  appears  to  have  been 
carried  from  the  river  at  a  spot  a  few  miles  north-westward  of 
the  I'sa  canal,  till  it  joined  the  ISIedian  wall,  probably  about 
the  centre. 
abandon  their       ^^q  doubt  Artaxerxcs  intended  to  have  made  a  stand  for  his 

position  on  the  .  ,  ,.  ,.  nip  i  i- 

approach  of     empire  at  this  and  the  succeeding  lines  or  defence,  but  during 
t  e    ree  s.     ^^^  advaucc  of  three   parasangs  next  day,   in  order  of  battle, 
Cyrus  found  the  first  line  and  the  Median  wall  abandoned.     It 
is  evident  that  on  the  approach  of  the  prince  something  like  a 
panic  niduced  Artaxerxes   to  lose  sight  of  all  his  advantages, 
and  he  continued  in  full  retreat  towards  Babylon,  till  the  oppor- 
tune arrival  and  entreaties  of  Teribazus  inspired  him  with  fresh 
courage.^     The  flight  was  now  changed   into  an  advance,  and 
the    invaders   were    met    under   circumstances   which    proved 
favourable  to  an  extent  that  could  not  have  been  anticipated. 
Cyrus  passes    Previously  to  reaching  the  new  entrenchment,   Cyrus  had  ad- 
advances.  ^"   vanced  with  great  regularity,  but  on  finding  that  the  works  had 
been  abandoned,  and  that  the  royal  army  had  fled,  he  put  faith 
in  the  previous  prediction  of  the  soothsayer,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  promised  reward  of  3,000  darics  or   10   talents;  and  be- 
lieving that  the  empire  would  be   his  without  a  struggle,  the 
The  royal       luarch  became  exceedingly  careless.     About  noon,  on  the  third 
advYnclTin     ^^Y^  ^^^^  invadcrs  found   themselves  almost  in   presence  of  the 
order  of  battle.  Persian  army,  at  a  moment  when  they  were  in  great  confusion, 
some  having  their  armour,  and  even  their  arms,   carried   in 

>  See  Maps  Nos.  7  and  8.  *  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIV.,  cap.  ix. 

'  Plutarcli,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  255,  ed.  Langhorne. 


CHAP.  VIII.]     BATTLE  OF  CUNAXA,  AND  DEATH  OF  CYRUS.  217 

waggons,   or  on  suinpter  horses.^     The  situation  is  not  men 
tioned,  but  taking  the  moderate  estimate  of  about  fifteen  miles 
for  a   whole    day,   Cyrus  was  probably   near    the    mounds  of 
Miihammed,"   that  is   about  thirty-six  from  Babylon,   and  as 
many  from  the  Median  wall,  when  Petagyas,  a  Persian,  in 
whom  he  confided,  came  at  full  speed,  crying  out,  in  Greek  as 
well  as  Persian,   that  the  whole  of  the  king's  forces   were  at 
hand  in  order  of  battle.     Cyrus  hastened  to  arm,  and  his  chariot 
being  exchanged  for  his  horse,  he  issued  those  orders,  which 
probably  would  have   secured  complete  success,  if  Clearchus 
had  not  failed   in   his  duty  ^   at   this    critical   moment.     The  The  Greeks 
Greeks  under  this  general  occupied  the  right  of  the  prince's  prepare, 
army,  and  the  Asiatics  formed  the  rest  of  the  line,  which  neces- 
sarily was  greatly  outflanked  by  that  of  the  king.     KnoAving 
that,  agreeably  to  Persian  custom,  Artaxerxes  would  be  in  the 
centre  of  his  army,  Cyrus  determined  to  attack  this  point  with 
the  chariots  and  the  Greeks,  who  were  the  elite  of  his  force; 
but  these,    or    rather   their   commander,    although    professing 
obedience,  determined  not  to  lose  the  advantage  of  leaning  on 
the  river  with  his  right  flank,  and  Cyrus  proceeded  to  the  post 
of  danger  under  the  impression  that  his  orders  would  be  obeyed. 
The  battle  was  commenced  by  the  Greeks,  singing  the  psean,  and  be<;arae 
as  they  advanced  against  Tissaphernes,  who  commanded  the  ^  ^  ^""^^  ^^' 
enemy's  left  wing.     On  seeing  this,   the  Persian  infantry  fled, 
and  not  being  supported  by  the  cavalry,   the  drivers  of  the 
chariots  having  also  fled,  the  expectation  of  breaking  through 
the  Greek  phalanx  with  these  machines  was  at  an  end,  and 
the  left  wing  being  thrown  into  disorder  by  the  Greeks  almost 
without  loss,^  some  already  complimented  the  prince  on  being 
king. 

But  Cvrus  perceiving  that  there  was  still  much  to  do  advanced 
impetuously  to  charge  the  centre  which  still  remained  firm ; 
when,  though  without  the  expected  support  of  the  Greeks,  he 

.     '  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  256,  ed.   Langhorne,  compared 
with  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vii. 

*  See  Map  No.  8. 

*  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes.  vol.  VI.,  p.  2-57,  ed.  Langhorne,  compared 
with  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii. 


218 


CONTEMPLATED  RETREAT  OF  THE  GREEKS.    [cHAP.  VIII. 


Cyrus  is  killed 
■whilst  making 
an  impetuous 
charge. 


Clearchns 
causes  the 
loss  of  the 
battle. 


The  Greeks 
retire  to  the 
camp  of 
Aria;us. 


routed  the  guard  of  6,000,  which  preceded  the  king,  and  killed 
their  commander.  At  this  moment,  when  the  king  thought 
all  was  lost,  C}tus  rushed  heedlessly  forward,  and  just  as  he 
had  reached  and  wounded  his  brother  in  the  midst  of  his  g-uards, 
a  dart  brought  him  to  the  ground  at  his  feet,  and  he  perished 
covered  with  wounds.^  The  success  of  Artaxerxes  was  how- 
ever limited  to  this  event,  and  to  some  trifling  advantages  over 
the  left  of  Cyrus,  which  enabled  him  to  plunder  the  tents,  &c., 
for,  on  the  other  flank,  Clearchus  was  quite  successful."  It  is 
therefore  evident,  that  if  Clearchus  had  obeyed  the  orders  of 
Cyrus,  the  Greeks  would  have  broken  the  centre  as  easily  as 
they  forced  the  left  of  Artaxerxes'  army. 

Being  for  some  time  ignorant  of  the  death  of  their  chief  they 
thought  the-  victory  had  been  completely  won,  and  such  was 
their  impression  till  the  following  day,  when  they  received  a 
message  from  Ariaeus,  that  he  would  wait  for  them  a  short 
time  in  his  former  encampment  previously  to  returning  to 
Ionia. 

The  Greeks  immediately  sent  to  offer  the  crown  to  Ariseus, 
as  the  fruit  of  the  victory,  which  they  believed  they  had 
achieved ;  but,  before  they  received  his  answer,^  a  message  was 
delivered  from  the  king,  commanding  them  to  lay  down  their 
arms.  To  this,  notwithstanding  his  extremely  precarious  situa- 
tion, Clearchus  replied  with  much  dignity,  that  it  was  not  usual 
for  conquerors  to  deliver  up  their  arms.^ 

After  nightfall,  40  horse  and  300  Thracian  foot,  under 
Miltocvthes,  deserted  to  Artaxerxes ;  and  about  midnight,  the 
remainder  of  the  Greeks,  under  Clearchus,  reached  the  camp 
of  Ariseus,^  which  was  probably  a  short  distance  in  the  rear, 
and  not  far  from  the  river,  as  the  baggage  had  been  directed  to 
follow  the  stream.®  A  consultation  immediately  followed,  and 
the  Persian  chief  gave  the  benefit  of  his  local  experience,  by 
pointing  out  for  their  retreat  a  route  preferable  to  that  by 
which  they  had  advanced,  on  account  of  its  affording  a  better 
prospect  of  obtaining  provisions  and  protection  from  the  cavalry 


'  Anabasis,  lib.  I.,  cap.  viii. 
^  Ibid.,  lib.  11.,  cap.  ii. 
*  See  Map  No.  7. 


*  Ibid.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  x. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  i. 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  FIRST  MARCH  AND  NEGOTIATION  OF  THE  GREEKS.    219 

of  their   pursuers.     These  observations  had  due  weight  with  The  Greeks 
the  Greeks,  and  it  was  determined  to  commence  that  retreat ;  their  way 
the  accomphshment  of  which  coristitutes  an  event  unrivalled  in  ^^^"leward. 
military  history,    and  first  demonstrated  the  weakness  of  the 
Persian  monarchy.     Previously  to  setting  out  there  was  made, 
under  the  oaths  of  the    leading  Greek  and   Persian  officers, 
who  dipped  their  swords  and  spears  in  the  mingled  blood  of 
a  bull,  a  wolf,  and  a  ram,'  a  compact,  in  which  the  barbarians 
engaged  faithfully  to  conduct  the  Greeks  on  their  homeward 
route.     The  troops  were  then  put  in  motion,  it  being  intended, 
agreeably  to  the  recommendation  of  Ariseus,   to  substitute  for 
the  exhausted  line  near  the  Euphrates,  one  through  the  villages 
along  the  Tigris.     The  Greeks  were  to  make  very  long  marches  The  line  of 
through  Mesopotamia,   and  thus  get  well  in  advance,  in  order  chosen  for 
that  the   king  might  be  unable  to  attack  them  with  a  large  a^^mpt!"^ 
force ;  a  small  one  they  had  no  reason  to  fear.~ 

Accordingly,  in  the  presence  of  overwhelming  numbers,  the 
daring  attempt  to  force  a  passage  northwards,  through  pro- 
vinces and  territories  more  or  less  subject  to  the  king,  was 
commenced.  The  first  march  ^  proved  so  far  inauspicious  that  The  retreat 
the  Greeks  went  to  rest  supperless,  in  consequence  of  finding 
the  villages,  which  they  reached  that  night,  without  supplies, 
having  been  recently  occupied  by  the  enemy,  whose  cavalry 
was  at  hand,  and  even  in  their  front.'' 

In  taking  a  northerly  direction  from  the  presumed  position  Obstractions 
of  the  camp,  it  would  be  necessary  to  cross  the  Nahr  Malka  ;  second  march, 
and  on  account  of  this  obstruction,  as  well  as  the  presence  of 
an  enemy,  the  distance  made  would  scarcely  exceed  ten  miles. 
Fatigued  by  the  march,  and  without  sustenance,  a  slight  cir- 
cumstance M^as  sufficient  to  cause  a  tumult  and  almost  a  panic 
among  the  Greeks.  The  panic  was  however  speedily  calmed 
by  the  ingenuity  of  Clearchus,  and  at  day-break  he  marched 
with  the  intention  of  becoming  the  assailant.  This  bold  ma- 
noeuvre led  to  a  negotiation  with  the  king  on  equal  terms,  and 
guides  were  in  consequence  appointed  to  conduct  the  Greeks 
across  the  Nahr  Sersar,  and  its  affluents,  which  intersect  this 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii.  -  Ibid.,  sec.  o. 

*  See  Map  No.  7.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii. 


220  RETREAT  TOWARDS  SITACE  AND  OPIS.        [cHAP.  YIII. 

part  of  the  country.     These  cuts  appear  to  have  been  filled 
with  water,  but  the  difficulties  were  overcome  by  cutting  down 
the  palm  trees  to  make  bridges,  in  which  operation  Clearchus 
set  the  example,  and  the  army  reached  the  intended  halting- 
place  in  some  villages  probably  not  more  than  ten  miles  from 
the  preceding  station.     These  were  abundantly  supplied  with 
The  Greek      coHi,   vincgar,   and  wine  made  from   dates.^     After  spending 
^ffihe°°^     about  twenty-three  days  in  negotiations,  having  made  engage- 
Persians  fail,   ments   to    be    faithfully   conducted   homeward,    and   obtained 
supplies,  the  Greeks,  the  troops   of  Ariseus,  and  those  of  the 
king  under  Tissaphernes,  commenced  what  seemed  a  peaceable 
march,  although  certain  circumstances  attending  it  gave  rise 
to  suspicion,    and   some   precautions  were  adopted  in  conse- 
They  continue  queucc  by  the  Greeks.     In  three  days,  probably  taking,  as  in 
the'Medlan  ^  the  preceding  march,  a  westerly  direction,  in  order  to  round 
^'*'^-  the  marshes  and  inundations  near  'Akar  Kiif,"  the  armies  came 

up  to,  and  departed  from,  the  Median  wall  into  the  interior.^ 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii.  *  See  Map  No.  7. 

^  The  translation  of  this  passage  of  Xenophon,  afitcor-o  Trpog  to  Mrj^lag 
reTxpQ,  K-at  TrapfjX^oy  avrov  eiau),  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  iv.,  lias  been  much 
discussed  and  variously  rendered.  In  Allpress's  Xenophon,  p.  80,  the 
army  is  made  to  arrive  at  and  pass  along  within  tiie  Median  wall,  which  ■ 
translation  is  also  given  in  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon,  by  Charles  Antlier, 
LL.D.,  William  Tegg  and  Co.,  Cheapside;  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Butcher, 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College.  Dublin  ;  as  well  as  by  Schneider,  who,  in  a  note 
on  this  passage,  condemns  Halbkardt  for  translating  it :  "  Kamen  sie  zur 
Medischen  Mauer,  und  setzten  nun  jetiseit  derselben  ihren  Marsch  fort." 
Viger,  in  his  Greek  Idioms,  also  quotes  an  instance  from  Xenoplion,  where 
the  verb  occurring  in  the  passage  in  question  joined  with  a  substantive  in  the 
genitive  case,  signifies  "departure  from"  or  deflection;  and  Donnegan's 
Greek  Lexicon  gives  cWw  as  an  adverb,  with  the  signification  of  "  in  the 
interior,"  ''  inside,"  or  w  ithin,  which  renderings  of  the  passage  are  in  con- 
formity with  the  relative  geograpliical  positions  of  tlie  Median  wall  and 
Sitace.  On  the  other  hand,  Hutchinson,  in  his  edition  of  Xenophon,  p.  139, 
and  Mitford,  History  of  Greece,  vol.  IV.,  p.  189,  state  that  the  Greeks  came 
up  to  and  pa.ssed  through  the  Median  wall ;  and  this  interpretation  has  been 
followed 'by  Bishop  Thirl  wall,  in  his  History  of  Greece,  vol.  IV.,  p.  335,  ed. 
London,  1847,  since  he  conceives,  in  accordance  with  Passow,  in  his  Greek 
Lexicon,  that  when  joined  witli  a  verb  of  motion  £t<7w  must  bear  tlie  sig- 
nification of  to  the  inside,  not  on  the  inside.  The  Bishop  of  St.  David's 
considers  that  Schneider's  condemnation  of  Halbkardt  arises  solely  from  the 
gual  difficulty  of  reconciling  his  translation  with  the  geographical  position 


CHAP.  VIII.]  POSITION  OF  SIT  ACE.  221 

This  wall,  whose  remains  are  described  by  Xenophon,'  was  of 
bricks,  and  once  100  feet  high  and  20  feet  thick :  it  is  still  to 
be  traced,  with  its  towers  and  ditch,  running  south-westward 
from  the  Tigris,  nearly  opposite  Kadisiyeh,  to  the  Euphrates, 
near  Feliijah,  a  distance  of  forty-two  or  forty-three  miles." 

In  two  marches  of  eight  parasangs,  apparently  in  an  easterly 
direction,  and  crossing  two  canals  coming  from  the  Tigris,  they 
encamped  near  a  handsome  park,  close  to  the  once  magnificent 
city  of  Sitace,  which  was  situated  about  fifteen  stadia  from  the 
river  Tigris.     The   next  morning  they  crossed  the  river  on  a  Thence  they 
bridge  of  thirty-seven  boats,   without  being  molested  by  the  Ti^gris,  and 
enemy  ;   and  making  twenty  parasangs  in  four  marches,    they  ^"^-^^^^  *° 
reached  the  river  Physcus,  where  stood  a  large  and  populous 
city  named  Opis.'^ 

In  taking  the  distance  backward  at  the  average  rate  of  the 
march  through  Asia  Minor,  or  2608  geographical  miles  per 
parasang  along  the  Upper  Tigris  (at  the  favourable  season  of  the 
year),  from  the  known  point  of  the  river  Zab,  there  would  be  130 
geographical  miles  for  the  fifty  parasangs  to  Opis,  which  places 
that  city  a  little  above  Kai'm/  and  close  to  the  head  of  the 
Nahrawan,  instead  of  being,  as  before  supposed,  some  miles 
lower  down  near  the  river  'Adhim.^  Twenty  parasangs  or  Position  of 
fifty-two  geographical  miles  from  the  latter  along  the  ancient  ^jace'^'^ 
bed  of  the  Tigris,  would  place  Sitace  about  ten  miles  north- 
west of  Baghdad,  near  Sheri'at  el  Beidha,  the  presumed  site  of 
the  Sitace  of  Xenophon.''  The  circuit  made  to  the  Median 
wall  in  going  thither  can  be  partly  accounted  for,  by  the 
necessity  of  avoiding  the  marshes  and  inundations,  which  at  this 
season,  the  period  of  floods,  would  have  intervened  in  a  direct 
line  from  the  first  halting-place. 

of  Sitace,  but  that  the  philological  difficulty  thus  raised  by  Schneider,  is 
quite  as  great  as  the  geograpliical  difficulty  of  the  other.  The  same  opinion 
appears  to  be  held  by  other  Grecian  scholars  :  the  Right  Kev.  Dr.  Wilson, 
Lord  Bishop  of  Cork  and  Cloyne,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  MacDonnell,  Senior 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  among  the  number. 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  iv. 

*  See  above,  vol.  L,  29,  30,  118,  also  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  IX., 
pp.  446,  472,  and  473,  and  vol.  XL,  p.  130. 

^  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  iv.  *  See  Map  No.  6. 

^  See  above,  vol.  L,  p.  30.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  IT.,  cap.  iv. 


222  TREACHERY  TOWARDS  THE  GREEKS.  [cHAP.  VIII. 

The  Greeks         Keeping  parallel  to  the  river  Tigris  in  advancing  from  Opis, 

ret°reatT  pass'  six  marches  brought  the  Greeks  to  some  villages  belonging  to 

Ae^iesser  Zab,  ^y^^  queen-mother,   Parysatis  ;    which,   at  2-608   geographical 

miles  for  each  of  the  thirty  parasangs,   or   78-24  geographical 

miles,  would  place  the  villages  in  question  about  three  miles 

beyond  the  Lesser  Zab. 

Continuing  the  march  through  the  Median  desert,  the  army 
halt  opposite  halted  on  the  evening  of  the  first  day  opposite  to  Caense, 
^^"^'  which    at   15-648    geographical   miles   for  the    six   parasangs, 

would  place  this  large  and  opulent  city  on  the  right  bank,  at  the 
ruins  of  U'r  of  the  Persians,  which  are  three  or  four  miles  below 
Sherkat,   or  To-prak  Kal'ah-si.     In  four  more   days   making 
twenty-four  parasangs,  it  halted  on  the  river  Zab  ;  where  the 
enemy  was  prepared  to  oppose  their  passage.^     Here  a  nego- 
tiation was  most  imprudently  entered   into  with  Tissaphernes, 
who,  having  by  these  means  got  Clearchus,  Menon,   Proxenus, 
Agias,  and  others,   into  his  power,  carried  them   to  the  king, 
Clearchus  and  by  whose  Order  they  were  beheaded.^     After  the  calamity  of 
hl^S^^"       losing   their  principal  leaders  by  this  treachery,  the  manage- 
ment of  the  retreat  devolved  upon  Cheirisophus  and  Xenophon, 
but  more  particularly  on   the  latter,  owing  to  his  talents  and 
courage.       Having,   by  an    animating   address,    prepared   the 
Greeks  for  difficulties  and  dangers,   the  carriages  were  burnt, 
and  the  baggage  being  reduced  as  a  necessary  preliminary,  the 
army  passed  the  river  Zabatus,   probably  in  boats,  and  then 
advanced  in  order  of  battle  with  the  remainder  of  the  baggage 
in  the  centre  ;  but  they  were  so  much  harassed  by  the  Persian 
horse  under  Mithridates,  that  the  Greeks  scarcely  advanced 
three  miles   during    that   day.       Ever    fertile    in   expedients, 
Xenophon       Xcnophou  immediately   organized    200    Ehodian,    or    other 
Greeks^^^'^    slingers,  and   fifty    cavalry    clad    in   buff  coats   and   corslets; 
and  the  whole  being  mounted  on  the  baggage  horses,  not  only 
repulsed   Mithridates  on    the  following  day,  but  subsequently 
to  the  ruins  of  covered  the  march  to  the  large  uninhabited  city  called  Larissa, 
Lanssa,  and    ^j^-^|^  ^^le  army  reached  in  the  evening.^     The  remains  of  a 
vast  pyramid,  and  extensive  walls,  go  far  to  show  that  Ashur 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  II.,  cap.  iv.  '■^  Ibid.,  cap.  vi.,  sec.  16. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  iv. 


some 


CHAP.  VIII.]       THE  GREEKS  REACH  LARISSA,  MESPILA,  ETC.  223 

or  Nimrild  represents  the  place  in  question  ;  and,  as  already 
observed,  its  situation  between  Nineveh  and  Calah,  justifies  the 
supposition  of  Bochart,  that  this  was  the  llesen,  or  Al  llesen  of 
the  Scriptures.'  The  succeeding  march  of  six  parasangs,  to  the 
Median  city  of  Messila  or  Mespila,  makes  the  latter  agree  with  onward  to 
the  site  of  Nineveh,  which  is  about  sixteen  miles  from  the  Kiueveh!"^ 
preceding  ruins  at  the  nearest  point. 

The  difficulties  of  the  Greeks  were  now  increased,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  a  very  large  army,  consisting  of  the  troops  of 
Aria^us,  those  of  Orontas,  and  some  under  a  natural  brother  of 
the  king,  in  addition  to  a  portion  of  the  royal  army  under 
Tissaphernes.  On  the  following  day,  the  Persians,  with  this 
prodigious  force,  menaced  both  flanks  as  well  as  the  rear  of  the 
retreating  army,  but  failed  in  making  any  serious  impression ; 
and  having  completed  the  march  of  four  parasangs,  the  Greeks 
encamped  in  some  villages  abounding  in  corn.  The  distance  Halt  at : 
of  about  ten  miles  and  a  half  would  bring  them  to  the  small  ^^"^^'^®" 
Chaldean  town  of  Tel  Keif,  ^  a  site  of  much  interest.^ 

On  the  following  day  the  disadvantages  of  marching  in  a  From  thence  ' 
square,  without  being  covered,  having  become  manifest,   par- advan'crto^ 
ticularly  when  passing  a  defile  or  bridge,  six  companies  of  one  ^°^'^  villages. 
hundred  men  each,  in  subdivisions  of  fifty  and  twenty-five  men, 
were  formed  into  a  moveable  column,  which  not  only  protected 
the  rear,  but  was  always  ready  to  act  on  emergencies  when  any 
detached  duties  were  required.* 

Having  failed  to  make  an  impression,   another   and  more  Difficulties 
promising  project  was  adopted  by  the  Persians,  who,  by  making  °,';g^5^j°°t3„g^s 
a  rapid  march,  succeeded  in  placing  themselves  in  advance  ofoft'ie  enemy. 
the  Greeks.     In  proceeding  steadily  over  the  plain  at  some 
distance  from  the  Tigris,  the  latter  were  cheered  on  the  fourth 
day  with  the   sight  of  a  triple  range  of  hills,   beyond  which, 
there  was  a  palace  with  many  villages  around  it,  and  these 
were  their  intended  halting-place.     The  Greeks  had  reached 
the  first  eminence,  and  were  descending  to   gain  the  second, 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  21,  22.  ^  See  Index  Map. 

^  TV.  F.  Ainsworth's  Travels  in  tlie  Track  of  the  Ten  Tliousand  Greeks, 
p.  141. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  IT  I.,  cap.  iv. 


224 


ADVANCE  FROM  ZAKHU  IXTO  KURDISTAN.      [CHAP.  VIII. 


The  Greeks 
arrive  at 
Zdkhu. 


They  are 

closely 

pressed. 


The  Greeks 
force  their 
•way  to 


some  -villages 
on  the  Tigris. 


when  a  shower  of  darts,  stones,  &c.,  announced  that  it  was  in 
possession  of  the  Persians ;  but  after  a  stout  resistance  they 
succeeded  in  forcing  this,  as  well  as  the  subsequent  position, 
and  with  some  loss  finally  reached  a  village  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain.  Here  they  found  an  abundance  of  provisions,  par- 
ticularly wheaten  flour  and  wine,  with  barley  for  the  horses  ;  and 
during  a  halt  of  three  days,  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
care  of  the  wounded  by  establishing  a  medical  department  con- 
sisting of  eight  surgeons  for  this  purpose.^ 

The  four  preceding  marches  of  six  parasangs  each,  or  from 
forty-eight  to  fifty  miles,  as  well  as  the  distance  from  Tel 
Keif,  and  the  nature  of  the  Jebel  'Abyadh,  or  Cha  Spi,  of  the 
Kurds,  make  the  position  of  Zakhu,"  or  Zakkd,  on  the  Khabiir, 
answer  the  description  of  this  halting-place  of  Xenophon.^ 

During  the  succeeding  day's  march  over  the  level  country 
beyond  Zakhii,  the  Greeks  were  so  much  pressed  by  Tissa- 
phernes,  that  it  became  necessary  to  halt  at  the  first  village. 
A  skirmish  succeeded,  in  which  the  Persians  were  worsted  and 
forced  to  retire.  The  latter  encamped,  as  they  Avere  accustomed 
to  do,  at  the  distance  of  sixty  stadia,  as  a  security  from  night 
attacks,  which  cause  so  much  alarm  to  the  Persians,  owing  to 
the  manner  of  picqueting  their  horses.  On  perceiving  that  the 
Persians  were  clear  off,  the  Greeks  decamped,  and  in  two 
marches,  probably  passing  over  the  plain  of  Zakhu  in  the  line 
of  the  present  Chaldean  village  of  Tel  Robbin,  without  seeing 
the  enemv,  they  gained  the  winding  mountain  valleys  of  Kur- 
distan. A  superior  knowledge  of  the  country,  and  the  greater 
speed  of  their  horses,  had  however  been  turned  to  account  by 
the  Persians  in  the  meantime,  and  the  Greeks,  to  their  astonish- 
ment, found  the  enemy  in  possession  of  the  heights  (probably 
near  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Rahabi)  over  which  they  neces- 
sarily must  pass,  whilst  the  troops  of  Ariaius  and  Tissaphernes 
pressed  upon  their  rear.'*  The  skill  and  courage  of  Xenophon, 
however,  soon  triumphed  over  this  difficulty,  for  by  making  a 


'  Anabasis,  lib.  III.,  cap.  iv.  *  See  Index  Map. 

^  Anabasis ;  and  Ainsworth's  Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand 
Greeks,  p.  144. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  III.,  cap.  iv. 


CHAP.  VIII.]         CRITICAL  POSITION  OF  THE  GREEKS.  225 

flank  movement  at  the  head  of  a  select  body  of  troops, 
the  defenders  were  turned,  and  the  pass  being  forced,  the 
Greeks  proceeded  in  their  march  and  encamped  at  one  of  the 
well-stored  villages  in  the  plain  near  the  Tigris  ;  now,  doubt- 
less, the  tract  round  Jezireh-ibn-'Omar.^ 

The  lofty  barriers  of  Jebel  Jiidi  being  in  front,  as  well  as  on 
one  flank,  and  an  almost  impassable  river  on  the  other,  or 
western  side,  the  pass  leading  to  the  plain  being  moreover 
occupied  by  a  numerous  army,  an  individual,  whose  name  well  Proposed 
deserved  to  have  been  recorded,  offered  to  extricate  the  ten  river.^^  ° 
thousand  from  their  perilous  position  by  enabling  them  to  pass 
the  river ;  the  project  was  to  form  for  the  troops  a  bridge  con- 
sisting of  10,000  inflated  skins  of  sheep,  goats,  and  other 
animals,  covered  with  hurdles  and  turf" 

This  ingenious  contrivance  was  however  declined,  from  an  The  Greeks 
opinion  that  the  troops  might  be  attacked  during  the  passage,  ^untry,  and 
and  the  Greeks  made  a  retrograde,  or  rather  a  flank  movement, 
penetrating,  or  more  properly  exploring,  a  valley  running  in  an 
easterly  direction  into  the  mountains  ;  probably  along  the  vale 
of  Mar  Yuhannah,  now  the  seat  of  a  Chaldean  bishop.^  In 
the  villages  of  this  valley,  the  Greeks  not  only  obtained  supplies, 
but  also  intelligence  almost  of  equal  importance,  since  it  enabled 
them  to  decide  on  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  their 
hazardous  enterprise. 

Besides  the  route  westward  to  Lydia,  Ionia,  &c.,  and  that  determine  to 
which  they  had  partly  followed  from  Babylonia,  also  a  third  une^of  march, 
going  eastward  to  Susa  and  the  Persian  Ecbatana,  they  learnt 
from  some  prisoners  that  there  was  a  fourth  leading  northward 
over  the  Carduchian  mountains,  by  which  the  march  might  be 
continued  without  either  crossing  the  Tigris,  or  being  so  much 
exposed  as  before  to  the  enemy's  cavalry. 

Having  decided  on  scaling  the  mountains  to  follow  the  last 
route,  a  rapid  night-march  not  only  carried  the  Greeks  some 

'  Ainsworth's  Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks,  p.  148. 

*  An  account  of  such  bridges  will  be  found  in  the  Chapter  on  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 

^  Travels  in   the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  by  "W.  F.  Ainsworth. 
Parker,  1844. 

VOL.  II.  Q 


226  OPPOSITION  OF  THE  KURDS.  [cHAP.  VIII. 

distance  from  their  pursuers,  but  enabled  them  to  master  one 
of  the  most  defensible  passes  in  the  country,  before  the  Kurds 
were  prepared  to  offer  anything  like  serious  opposition.  In 
this  remarkable  opening-,  no  doubt  that  which  passes  by  the 
They  regain  castlcs,  and  through  the  flourishing  gardens  of  the  village  of 
e  igris,an  p^'j-^j]^  (Phoenica),^  the  Greeks  found  the  houses,  as  in  the 
present  day,  well  supplied  with  copper  utensils," 

The  Greeks  having  dismissed  the  slaves  lately  taken,  and 
reduced  the  baggage  and  horses  to  the  utmost,  quitted  the  river 
for  a  time,  when,  proceeding  by  the  ravine  of  Zawiijah  and  over 
the  highlands  of  Finduk,  they  regained  the  great  stream  at  a 
difficult  pass,  probably  the  present  Chelek,  where  there  is  a 
after  a  harass-  rapid  and  a  ferry.     With   much  difficulty  and  some  loss,  the 
reach  the  river  Greeks  gained  this  pass,  partly  by  detaching  a  force  to  turn  it, 
Centrites.        ^.^^  partly  by  a  direct  attack ;  and  after  being  exposed  for  a 
time  to  similar  warfare,  they  reached  the  river  Centrites  or 
Buhtan-chai,   which  falls   into   the   Tigris   above   the   ancient 
Armenian  village  of  Til.^     The  march  from  the  vale  of  Mar 
Yuhannah  occupied  seven  days  of  harassing  warfare,  and  it  was 
Formidable     SO  judiciously  couductcd,  that  the  Kurds  only  had  time  to  occupy 
the  Kurds.      the  passcs  in  small  numbers  :  here,  however,  they  rolled  down 
fragments  of  rocks  on  the  Greeks  whilst  passing  the  more  diffi- 
cult roads  and  narrow  defiles/     The  latter  were  often  very 
steep  and  commanded  by  precipices ;  from  which,  with  much 
difficulty,  the  mountaineers  were  driven,  either  by  a  direct 
attack,  or  by  being  turned,  in  the  manner  now  practised. 
Fresh  difficui-       The  proooscd  quict  halt  of  the  Greeks  in  an  abundant  plain 

ties  of  the  .  . 

Greeks.  was  cut  short  by  their  unexpectedly  finding  a  body  of  horse  and 
foot,  who  proved  to  be  Armenian,  Mygdonian,*  and  Chaldean 
mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  the  Persians,  advantageously  posted 
to  dispute  the  passage  of  the  Centrites. 

In  addition  to  this  difficulty,  the  Greeks  found   that  it  was 

'  Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  &c.,  p.  loo  ;  and  Anabasis, 
lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. 

^  Ibid.  '  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  18. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  ii. 

*  Possibly  from  the  valley  of  Belicha.  There  are  it  appears  two  Chaldean 
districts,  those  of  Milan  and  Batan,  in  that  neighbourhood.  Ainsworth's 
Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Tliousand,  p,  168. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  THE  GREEKS  APPROACH  THE  CENTRITES.  227 

almost  impracticable  to  cross,  owing  to  the  water  being  up  to 
the  breast,  with  a  rocky  bottom  and  a  rapid  current ;  and  they 
were  the  more  discouraged,  on  turning  round,  and  perceiving 
that  the  Carduchians  occupied  the  encampment  which  they  had 
just  quitted.' 

Chance,  however,  made  known  to  the  Greeks  a  crossing- Passage  of  the 
place  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  sought  or  thought  of, 
and  owing  to  the  masterly  disposition  of  Xenophon,  they  passed 
without  serious  loss,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  in  front,  and 
the  annoyance  to  the  rear  from  the  Carduchians  and  Persians, 
who  suffered  some  loss,  the  latter  especially,  from  Xenophon's 
cavalry." 

Leaving  the  Persian  forces  and  undisciplined  Kurds  behind, 
the  Greeks,  without  serious  opposition  from  the  mercenaries, 
advanced  five  parasangs  through  the  hills  and  gentle  acclivities 
of  this  part  of  Armenia,  to  a  village  with  the  palace  of  the 
satrap,  and  many  elegant  houses,  each  having  a  turret  at  the 
top.     At  this  place,  which  seems  to  be  represented  by  the  town 
of  Se'rt,  they  found  provisions  in  abundance,  although  it  was.  The  Greeks 
like  the  preceding  part  of  the  country,   deserted.^      -^^"^i"©  Sce^of  the 
refreshed  themselves  here,  two  days'  march  of  ten  parasangs,  satrap, 
brought  them  above  the  springs  of  the  (eastern)   Tigris,  and 
in  ten  additional  parasangs,   they  reached  the  banks  of  the  and  advance  to 

m   1    1  the  river 

river  ieleboas.  Teieboas. 

It  is  considered  to  be  a  journey  of  thirty-eight  hours  from 
Se'rt  to  Mush  by  the  shortest  route  ;"*  but  as  the  Greeks  ap- 
proached the  source  of  the  Tigris,  theirs  must  have  been  rather 
longer.  About  twenty  hours  would  be  consumed  in  their 
march  to  the  high  ground  in  question  ^^  and  about  twenty  hours 
more,  in  reaching  the  supposed  Teieboas  or  Kara-sil,  at  the 
village  of  Arisban,  near  Mush.*'  As  the  trunk  of  the  Murad-sii, 
into  which  the  latter  falls,  is  not  usually  fordable  in  this  part  of 
its  course,  it  became  necessary  for  the  Greeks  to  proceed  higher 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  ii.  *  Ibid.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  iv. 

*  Lieut.-Col.  Shiel's  Journey  from  Tabriz  through  Kurdistan,  vol.  VIII., 
p.  77,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

'  Near  Bitlis,  which  is  above  fifty  miles  from  Se'rt.     Ibid. 

*  See  Index  Map. 

Q  2 


228  MARCH  FROM  THE  TELEBOAS.  [CHAP.  VIII. 

up,  that  is,  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  between  this  stream  and 
A  compact  the  slopes  of  Nimriid  and  Sapan  Taghs  :  this  was  facilitated  in 
Teriba^us,  is  consequencc  of  a  compact  proposed  by  Teribazus,  that  the 
march  through  Armenia  should  not  be  molested,  and  that  the 
Greeks  should  be  permitted  to  take  provisions,  provided  they 
abstained  from  useless  devastation.^ 

Agreeably  to  an  arrangement  which  was  highly  advantageous 
to  those,  who,  in  the  month  of  December,  were  to  encounter 
the  severe  cold  and  deep  snow  of  this  elevated  country  without 
tents  or  the  means  of  carrying  provisions,  the  Greeks  recom- 
menced their  march ;  and  in  three  days,  follov/ed  and  watched  by 
the  Persians  at  the  distance  of  ten  stadia,  they  advanced  fifteen 
parasangs  over  a  plain,  when  they  arrived  at  another  palace 
surrounded  by  many  beautiful  villages  full  of  provisions.^ 

Whilst  sheltering  themselves  in  these  villages  from  a  deep 
fall  of  snow,  some  suspicion  about  the  hostile  intentions  of  the 
Persians,  which  appears  to  have  been  the  consequence  of  their 
broken  by  the  owu  excesscs,  induced  the  Greeks  to  make  an  attack ;  and  in 
Greeks,  ^j^jg^  ^-^^  ^g^-^^^  ^]^g  silver-postcd  bed,  and  some  of  the  domestics 

of  Teribazus  were  taken.  After  breaking  the  compact  by  this 
act  of  hostility,  the  Greeks  hastened  onward,  and  having  passed 
a  difficult  defile  without  experiencing  any  molestation,  in  three 
marches  through  snow,  without  perceiving  habitations,  they 
reached  and  forded  the  Euphrates  or  Murad  Chai,  at  no  great 
distance,  according  to  report,  from  its  springs,  the  water  only 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  body.^ 
Great  difficui-  Having  accomplished  the  passage,  the  Greeks  marched 
by  the  snow,  fifteen  parasaugs  from  thence  in  three  days,  over  a  plain  covered 
to  the  depth  of  six  feet  with  snow,  from  which,  and  from  a  bleak 
northerly  wind,  the  soldiers  suffered  exceedingly,  especially  in 
the  third  and  fourth  marches ;  some  of  the  men  experiencing 
that  craving  species  of  hunger  called  Bulimy.''  The  last  day 
at  night-fall,  Cheirisophus  found  himself  at  a  village  only  one 
parasang  from  that  which  was  occupied  by  the  satrap  himself; 
and  here  many  of  the  Greeks  who  could  not  obtain  cover 
perished  from   cold.      Being   ignorant   of  the   advantages   of 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  iv.  *  Ibid. 

'  Ibid.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  v.  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  ARMENIAN  VILLAGES.  229 

lessening  the  rigour  of  an  Armenian  winter,  by  clearing 
away  the  snow  at  their  bivouac,  they  suffered  in  the  most 
deplorable  manner,'  and  many  more  must  have  perished,  had  it 
not  been  for  Xenophon,  who,  by  his  authority  and  encouraging  Encouraging 
example,  checked  the  Persians,  and  subsequently  succeeded  in  xenopbon. 
joining  his  coadjutor  Cheirisophus.^  As  at  present,  the  Ar- 
menian villages  generally  consisted  of  subterraneous  apart- 
ments, which  being  entered  either  by  a  sloping  descent,  or  by 
means  of  a  ladder  from  an  aperture  resembling  the  mouth  of  a 
well,  they  were  found  to  contain  horses,  cows,  goats,  sheep,  and  A.rmenian 
fowls,  in  addition  to  one  or  two  families,  who  resorted  to  this  descnbed.  *^' 
protection  from  the  severity  of  the  winter,  with  an  ample  stock 
of  provisions  and  fodder,^  Under  the  faith  of  their  confident 
assertion  that  they  were  the  king's  troops,  the  Greeks  remained 
eight  days  in  these  villages,  enjoying  an  abundance  of  fowls, 
lamb,  kid,  pork,  and  veal,  with  plenty  of  wheaten  bread,  and 
barley-wine  (beer),  which  the  people  drank  out  of  jars  by 
means  of  reeds  ;*  they  proceeded  three  days  through  a  deserted 
country,  and  in  seven  other  marches,  performed  without  a 
guide,  ^  they  found  themselves  on  the  river  Phasis,  where  it  is  a 
plethron  wide. 

Agreeably  to  the  intention  of  fording  the  great  rivers  towards  The  Greeks 
their  sources,^  the  Greeks  v/ould  necessarily  proceed  from  the  march  rea'ch'^^ 
Teleboas  in  a  north-eastern  direction  through  a  very  mountain- 
ous tract,  till  they  could  cross  the  Murad  Chai :"  this  could  not 
have  been  the  case  before  they  reached  39°  10'  north  latitude, 
or  somewhere  about  seventy  miles  from  the  Kara-sii,  which, 
under  existing  circumstances,  would  require  the  seven  marches 
given  by  Xenophon. 

From  hence,  in  a  north-western  direction  to  a  point  where  the  upper  part 
the  river  Aras  or  Phasis  "^  of  Xenophon  is  generally  fordable,  oJ  ArL^^^''^ 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIV.  cap.  x.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  v. 

^  Ibid,  *  Ibid.,  cap.  vi. 

*  After  conducting  the  army  for  three  days,  the  bailiff  left  it  on  account 
of  the  ill  usage  he  experienced  from  Cheirisophus.     Anab.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vi. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i.  "^  See  Index  Map. 

®  Supposed  to  be  from  the  plain  or  district  of  Pasiani  or  Piisin,  which  is 
traversed  by  the  Aras  in  this  part  of  its  course.  See  D'Anville's  Anc.  Geog., 
vol.  I.,  p.  361,  London,  1810,  and  Mr.  Brant's  Map,  vol.  VI.,  of  Royal 
Geographical  Journal,  and  vol.  X.,  pp.  341-430. 


230 


MARCH  CONTINUED  THROUGH  ARMENIA.         [CHAP.  VIII. 


Increasing 
difficulties  of 
the  retreat. 


The  Greeks 
force  their 
■way  through 
the  country  of 
the  Taochians. 


Cattle,  &c. 
contained  in 
entrenchments 


namely,  at  the  junction  of  the  Hasan  Kareh-su  and  the  Bin-gol- 
sii,  near  Kopri  Keui,  it  cannot  be  less  than  from  seventy  to 
eighty  miles ;  since  the  shorter  distance  from  the  latter  point 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  Murad-sii,  near  l^ara  Kilisa,  is  sixty- 
six  miles.^ 

It  has  just  been  seen,  that  the  distance  in  question  occupied 
thirteen  marches,  or,  including  four  days  not  particularly 
mentioned,  about  sixty-nine  parasangs.  But  as  it  is  to  be 
observed,  that  these  were  intended  to  be  road  distances  answer- 
ing to  one  hour,  it  may  fairly  be  presumed,  that  an  army  could 
not  accomplish  much  more  than  about  one  mile  in  each,  es- 
pecially through  snow  so  deep  that  the  whole  of  the  specified 
time  must  have  been  consumed  between  the  rivers  Euphrates 
and  Araxes ;  even  the  pressing  marches  through  Mesopotamia 
were  less  than  two  miles  per  hour.  We  are  told,  that  it  even 
became  necessary  to  tie  bags  stuffed  with  hay  to  the  horses' 
feet  to  prevent  their  sinking.^ 

On  the  second  day  after  crossing  the  latter  river,  the  Greeks 
discovered  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  countries,  namely 
the  Chalybeans,  the  Taochians,   and  the  Phasians,  assembled 
to  dispute  their  passage,   and   occupying  strong  ground  pro- 
bably between  the  territories  of  the  two  last. 

Here,  as  when  difficulties  of  the  same  kind  previously  oc- 
curred, the  eminences  were  gained  by  an  attack  made  in  the 
flank  by  volunteers;  and  the  disheartened  defenders  having 
fled  with  loss,  the  Greeks  got  possession  of  some  well-stored 
villages  in  advance. 

During  the  succeeding  five  marches  of  thirty  parasangs, 
made  through  the  territory  of  the  Taochians,^  provisions  were 
scarce,  it  being  the  custom  of  the  country  people  to  place  their 

'  Mr.  Brant's  Journey,  vol.  X.,  p.  424  to  430  of  Royal  Geographical 
Journey. 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vi. 

^  Presumed  to  be  part  of  the  mountainous  tract  stretching  northward  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  Araxes.  Traces  of  the  name  are  supposed  to  be  found 
in  the  Taok  of  the  Turks,  and  Tuchi  or  Taoutchie  of  the  Georgian  dis- 
tricts.— Aper^u  des  Possessions  Russes  au-dela  du  Caucase,  sous  le  Rapport 
Statistique,  Ethnographique,  Topographique  et  Financier.  St.  Petersburg, 
1836.  4  tomes  en  8vo.,  avec  une  carte.  M.S.  traduit  par  M.  le  Capitaine 
Stoltzman. 


k. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  ADVANCE  TO  THE  RIVER  HARPASUS.  2.31 

supplies  in  secret  fastnesses,  probably  wattled  enclosures  such 
as  those  still  in  use  in  the  little  Kabarda  and  district  of 
Tuchi.^  One  of  these  entrenchments,  containing  a  number  of 
oxen,  asses,  and  sheep,  was,  however,  taken  after  a  prolonged 
resistance  ;  during  which,  the  women  chose  to  perish  rather 
than  fall  into  the  power  of  the  Greeks. 

The   latter    now   proceeded    a    distance   of  fifty  parasangs  The  Greeks 
through  the  territory  of  tlie  Chalybeans  to  the  river  Harpasus,  Sf  hos'tn? ' 
which  they  accomplished  in  seven  marches  ;  ^  notwithstanding  Chalybeans. 
the   difficulties   caused  by  the  most   warlike,    and  the   most 
troublesome   people    hitherto    encountered.     The    system    of 
hostilities  pursued,  chiefly   consisted   in  constantly  harassing 
the  rear ;  but  when  pressed  in  turn,  they  retreated  to  fast- 
nesses in  which  their  provisions  were   secured  :    so  that  the 
Greeks  would  have  been  starved  by  their  systematic  and  per- 
severing opposition,  had  it  not  been  for  the  supply  of  cattle 
taken  from  the  Taochians. 

The  difficulties   experienced    by  Rennell,    Ainsworth,   and 
other  commentators  in  following  this  part  of  the  retreat  of  the 
ten  thousand,  will  be  greatly  lessened,  if  it  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  the  daily  marches,  through  the  deep  snow  in  January,^ 
the  army  being  also  harassed  by  the  Chalybeans,  must  have 
been  very  short.     From  the   supposed  crossing-place  on  the  Difficulties  of 
Aras,  keeping  a  little  way  northward  of  the  direct  line,  it  is  JtroS*^^ 
about  1 10  miles  to  the  Tchdriik-sii  (Jorak)  or  Acampsis,  near  Armenia. 
Kara  Aghatch,  which  would  coincide  with  the  fourteen  marches 
given  by  Xenophon,'*  as  does  also  the  position  of  the  river  in 
question,  with  the  Harpasus ;  the  last  seven  marches  being,  as 
we  are  informed,  through  the  country  of  the  Chalybeans,  the 
Chaldeans  of  Strabo.^ 

This    probably    was   the   southern    part   of  the    district   of 
Tchildir ;  for  the  Chaldeans,  as  a  separate  people,  occupied  a  The  Greeks 
tract  next  to  the  Colchiaiis,  which  was,  however,  afterwards  m^rch'through 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  154-159.  -  See  Index  Map. 

^  The  writer  found  it  very  deep  in  this  part  of  Armenia,  both  in  De- 
cember, 1831,  and  in  January,  1832. 
*  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vii. 
Lib.  XIT.,  p,  549. 


232    COUNTRIES  BETWEEN  THE  HARP  ASUS  AND  GYMNIAS.  [CHAP.  VIII. 

extended  to  Pontus,  and  formed  a  considerable  kingdom  mider 
Mithridates.^ 

Quitting  the   river  Harpasus,^   twenty  parasangs,    made   in 

four  marches,  brought  the  Greeks  to  a  halting-place  at  some 

villages,  possibly  near  the  present  town  of  Baibiirt,  in  which 

they  remained  three  days  to  obtain  provisions.     From  hence, 

the  country  of  apparently  proceeding  towards  the  western  pass  through  the 

the  Scythians,  gj.g^|.  northern  chain,  they  made  twenty  parasangs  in  three 

additional  marches,   to    the    rich    and  well-inhabited  city   of 

Gvmnias.^     Possibly  this  place  may  now  be  represented  by 

the  small  town  of  Gemeri  on  the  Kara-su,  an  affluent  of  the 

river  Frat ;  in  which  case  the  distance  thither  being  about  60 

miles,  would  occupy  seven  or  eight  marches  along  the  slopes  of 

the  Paryadres,  a  branch  of  the  Taurus,*  or,  as  is  stated,  through 

reach  the  city  the  country  of  the  Scythinians.     This  appears  to  be  the  only 

ofGymnias.    ^^.^^^  ^f  ^j^g^^.  ephemeral  power,  which  commenced  with  the 

Sacae  or  Scythians,^  on  the  banks  of  the  Araxes  ;  from  whence 

the  people  extended  their  name  and  authority  over  Imiretia, 

Colchis,    Georgia,    the    Caucasus,    Media,    Persia,    and    even 

Palestine;   according   to   Herodotus^   the  same  people  ruled 

Asia  during  twenty-eight  years. 

The  sea  On  leaving  Gymnias,  the  guide  furnished  by  the  satrap  of 

from  Mo^iiit    *^^  district,  delighted  the  Greeks  by  saying  that  he  would 

Theches.         forfeit   his   head   if  he  did  not  show  them    the   sea    in  five 

marches ;  and  accordingly  on  the  fifth  day,  on  ascending  the 

holv  mountain  of  Theches,  the  Greeks  gave  a  tremendous  shout 

of  surprise  and  delight  on  finding  his  promise  realized.     The 

mountain  alluded  to   may  be  the  present  Gaiir  Tagh  ;"   and 

from  thence  to  Tarabuziin,  although  the  direct  distance  is  not 

great,  the  journey  occupied  five  days  with  good  horses.     This 

'  Compare  Stephanus  de  Urbibus,  pp.  101,  749,  with  Adelung's  Mitliri- 
dates,  vol.  I.,  p.  315,  and  Athenaous,  vol.  VI.,  p.  13,  according  to  Kicholas 
of  Damas.  et  Orell,  p.  136,  and  above,  pp.  36,  55. 

*  See  Index  Map.  ^  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vii. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  286,  287. 

^  Compare  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxvi,,  with  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cv., 
and  Ouseley's  Oriental  Collections,  vol.  II.,  p.  143. 

*  Lib.  I.,  cap.  evi. 

'  From  the  summit  of  this  mountain  the  writer  saw  the  sea  in  1831. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  SCYTHINIA  AND  MOUNT  THECHES.  233 

was  owing  to  the  necessity  of  passing  along  what  in  reality  is  Distance  from 
more  a  winding  chasm  than  a  mountain  valley  in  the  ordinary  Tarlbuzun.^^ 
acceptation   of  the   word ;    and    it   is   scarcely   necessary    to 
observe  that  the  marches  through  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan 
and  Armenia  often  must  have  presented  difficulties  and  caused 
delays  susceptible  of  the  same  kind  of  explanation. 

Gaiir  Tagh  is  not,  however,  the  only  mountain  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  from  which  the  Euxine  may  be  seen,  for  the 
guide  informed  the  author  that  it  is  also  visible  from  three 
other  peaks,  namely,  the  Zigani  mountain,  two  hours  N.W.  Theseais 
of  Godol ;  again,  with  a  more  extensive  view,  from  Fililein,  three  other 
two  hours  on  the  other  side  of  Godol  towards  Giimish  Khanah ;  fr'omVaragui 
and,  lastly,  at  the  higher  peak  of  KaragiiV  three  hours  south- 
ward of  the  latter. 

The  name  of  the  first,  "  Infidel  Mountain,"  and  its  position 
with  respect  to  Tarabuziin,  claim  for  it  the  honour  of  repre- 
senting the  holy  Theches ;  the  localities  also  appear  to  corre- 
spond to  the  description.     Xenophon  tells  us  that  on  the  first 
day  they  came  to  a  river  separating  the  Macronians  from  the 
Scythinians  ;    and   on   this,   which  disembogued   into  another  The  Greeks 
river,  the  Macronians  were  drawn  up  to  dispute  the  passage,  by  theXmS^^- 
A  negotiation,  followed  by  a  treaty,  produced  however  friend-  J^^^ns, 
ship  with  that  people.^ 

Eleven  or  twelve  miles  N.N.W.  of  Gaiir  Tagh  (visible 
from  thence)  is  the  village  of  Damajula,  which  is  situated  near 
the  meeting  of  four  valleys  and  two  rivers.  One  of  the  latter 
coming  from  the  N.W.  has  remarkably  steep  banks  rising 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  with  hills  above,  of  difficult  ascent  on 
the  eastern  side,  and  a  chain  of  more  accessible  shoulders  on 
the  opposite ;  both  are  covered  with  firs,  and  silver  poplars 
of  small  size.  This  valley  would  have  been  met  during  the 
first  day's  march  from  Gaiir  Tagh,  and  troops  posted  on  the 
opposite  sides  would  be  within  speaking  distance,  although  they 
must  have  been  completely  separated  by  the  difficult  nature 
of  the  ravine.  Peace  being  concluded,  the  Greeks  were  con-  enter  into  a 
ducted  by  this  people  during  the  succeeding  three  marches  ^'^^^^^' 
through  the  remainder  of  their  territory ;  no  doubt  follow- 
'  See  above,  vol.  T.,  p.  287.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  viii. 


234  DEFEAT  OF  THE  COLCHIANS.  [CHAP.  VIII. 

ing  the  valleys  of  Damoulee  and  Godol,  till  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  latter,  and  about  thirty-one  miles  from  Damajula, 
they  entered  that  of  Giimish  Khanah,  a  little  northward  of  the 
town  of  this  name. 
TheCoichians  The  great  and  deep  valley  in  question  runs  northward  from 
to^oppose""^  thence  along  the  foot  of  the  Colchian  mountains  for  about 
twelve  miles,  when  an  abutment  of  the  latter,  called  Karakaban, 
crosses  it  near  Zigaui,  at  an  elevation  of  about  5300  feet,  and 
the  pass  thus  formed  was  occupied  in  force  by  the  Colchians.^ 

Being  in  a  state  of  hostility  with  the  latter,  the  Macronians 
returned  to  their  own  country,  a  distance  of  about  forty-three 
miles,  which  would  correspond  with  the  three  marches  made 
in  a  more  favourable  season  (February),  than  the  preceding 
part  of  the  march.     It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  stronger  barrier 
or  a  more  formidable  position  than  that  M'hich  here  presented 
itself,  to  exercise  the  talent,  and  display  the  unshaken  intre- 
the  Greeks      pidity   of  the   Grecian  chief.     Owing   to    the  nature  of  the 
igaua.    gj.Q^jj^^  ^g  ^y^Yi  as  the  numbers  by  which  it  was  occupied,  the 
Greeks,   even  could  they  have    passed    the  latter  unbroken, 
would  have  been  outflanked  had  they  attacked  in  line.     But 
Xenophon,  without  hesitation,  turned  this  circumstance  to  his 
own    advantage,    by    a   masterpiece    of    tactics    hitherto    un- 
equalled. 
By  means  of  a      The  Greeks  were  formed  in  eleven  columns,  three  of  which, 
attack°the       ^ach   Consisting  of  600   targeteers  and  archers,  occupied  the 
pass  IS  earned,  £^j-i],g    ^^^   centre;    thesc    ascended    the    hill    at   such    dis- 
tances from  one  another  that  Xenophon  not  only  outstretched 
the  flanks  of  the  Colchians,  but  was  also  prepared  to  attack 
them  in  rear,   if,   contrary  to  expectation,  they  had  stood  the 
shock  and  maintained  their  ground.     At  first  the  Colchians 
advanced,  but  before  they  closed  with  the  Greek  columns,  they 
opened  right  and  left,  and  eventually  fled  in  disorder,  abandon- 
ing the  well-stored  villages  in  their  rear.^ 

After  three  days'  halt,  sufiering  from  the  quantity  and  nature 
of  the  honey,  which,  from  the  abundance  of  the  Azalea  pon- 
tica,  the  Rhododendron  ponticum,  and  the  hellebore  in  this 
fine  country,  affects  the  brain  for  a  time,  the  Greeks,  in  two 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  viii.  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  VIII.]        MARCH  FROM  TREBIZOND  TO  CERASUS.  235 

marches  of  seven  parasangs,  reached  the  villages  near  Tara- 
buzun  (Trebizond).  Here  they  halted  for  a  space  of  thirty 
days,  doing  sacrifice,  celebrating  gymnic  games, ^  and  occupied 
with  the  double  object  of  endeavouring  to  provide  shipping 
through  the  Greek  admiral  in  the  Euxine  (Anaxibius),  and  in 
foraging  or  rather  plundering  the  rich  valleys  in  the  vicinity, 
in  order  to  lay  in  a  supply  of  provisions  for  their  march,  in 
case  of  failing  to  collect  vessels  ;  for,  agreeably  to  the  Grecian  and  the  Greeks 
law,  without  an  express  compact,  men  were  bound  to  no  reci-  buzun.' 
procal  duties."  In  one  of  these  excursions,  the  Drilloe  de- 
fended their  capital  with  such  determined  valour,  that  the 
Greeks  were  repulsed,  and  it  required  all  the  talent  and 
presence  of  mind  of  Xenophon,  who  was  summoned  to  their 
assistance,  to  extricate  the  troops  from  their  critical  situation  : 
this  he  effected  by  interposing  a  barrier  of  burning  houses 
between  his  troops  and  the  enemy .^ 

When  the  supplies  furnished  by  the  surrounding  country 
were  nearly  exhausted,  and  only  a  portion  of  the  necessary 
shipping  was  obtained,  the  Greeks  embarked  their  women  and  The  woinen 
children,  with  the  sick  and  the  aged,  under  the  two  oldest  are  sent  by  sea! 
generals,  Philesius  and  Sophsenetus,  while  the  remainder  pro-  ^^ 
ceeded  by  land ;  and  in  three  marches  they  reached  the  Greek 
city  Cerasus,  now  Kerasunt.  The  site  of  the  ancient  city  is 
presumed  to  have  been  on  the  Kerasiin  Dereh-sii,*  about  eight 
miles  from  Cape  Yoros,  and  from  Trebizond  not  quite  forty 
miles.  And  considering  the  difficulties  of  the  country,  it  is 
not  likely  that  a  greater  distance  could  have  been  accomplished 
in  three  days.  Here  they  halted  ten  days,  still  mustering 
8,000  men,^  and  with  the  exception  of  one-tenth,  which  they 
dedicated  to  Apollo  and  the  Ephesian  Diana,  every  man 
received  his  share  of  the  prize-money  produced  from  the  sale 
of  the  slaves ;  who  appear  to  have  been  taken  on  every  occa- 
sion that  offered  itself  throughout  the  march. 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Mitford's  Greece,  chap.  XV.,  sec.  iv. 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iii. 

^  W.  J.  Hamilton's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  I.,  p.  250. 

^  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iii. 


236       ADVANCE  THROUGH  THE  MOSCHIAN  TERRITORY.    [cHAP.  VHI. 

the  Greeks  Thos6  who  had  come  thus  far  in  vessels,  continued  their 

mrrcMnto  the  voyage  along  the  coast,  whilst  the  remainder  marched  to  the 
iiosch?  °^^^^  borders  of  the  MossyncEci  or  Moschi,  whose  territory  was  mari- 
time, and  appears  to  have  stretched  from  a  little  distance  west- 
ward of  Tarabuziin,  to  the  district  of  Pharnacia,  or  upwards 
of  seventy  miles  along  the  coast.  These  are  described  as  a 
savage  people,  living  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pontus,  subsisting 
on  the  flesh  of  wild  animals  and  the  fruit  of  the  oak,  and  in- 
habiting trees  and  turrets,  from  which  they  take  their  name  of 
Mossync3.^ 

Having  made  an  alliance  with  one  tribe  or  section  of  this 
people,  who  came  by  sea  to  join  them,  the  Greeks  entered  the 
territory,  and  marched  against  the  others,  which  had  given 
them  umbrage.      This  last,   then  occupied   a  fort  or   citadel 
within  what  was  considered  the  metropolis,  which  appears  to 
have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kerasunt.     This  fortifi- 
cation had  been  the  cause  of  the  present  war,  for  being  strong, 
the  district  which  happened  to  possess  it  for  the  time  being 
was  considered  to  be  supreme,  and  it  was  seized  by  one  of  the 
belligerents,  contrary  to  a  stipulation,  that  it  should  be  common 
to  both. 
The  Greeks         The  MossynoBci,  making  their  usual  dancing  gestures,  ad- 
suffer  a  defeat,  y^jj^jg^j  ^q  i\^q  attack  of  their  countrymen,  who  were  supported 
by  a  portion  of  the  Greeks,  both  were  however  repulsed  with 
considerable  loss,  and  pursued  till  they  were  covered  by  the 
main  body  of  the  latter.     Next  morning,  after  an  eloquent 
exhortation  to  recover  the  disgrace  of  having  for  the  first  time 
shown  their  backs  to  an  enemy,  Xenophon  moved  to  the  attack 
in  columns,   having  his  allies  on  the  left,   and  the  intervals 
occupied  by  the  light-armed  troops,  in  order  to  prevent  those 
of  the  enemy  from  getting  between,  and  pelting  the  Greeks 
afterwards      with  stoncs.     After  a  determined  defence,  the  place  was  taken, 
sn-onphoid^of  and  the  king   and   his  attendants  allowed  themselves  to  be 
the  Moschi.     ]^^j.^^  rathcr  than  abandon  the  wooden  tower  which  served  as 
his  palace.     The  Greeks  now  sacked  the  remainder  of  the 
city,  and  having  delivered  it  over  to  their  new  allies,  in  eight 
days  they  completed  their  march  through  the  rest  of  the  Mos- 
'  Strabo,  lib.  XII.,  p.  547. 


CHAP.  VIII.]       VOYAGE  FROM  COTYORA  TO  HERACLEA.  237 

synoecian  territory,^  and  traversed  that  of  the  Chalybes.  The 
latter  were  subjects  of  the  former,  and  far  from  being  nu- 
merous, they  lived  by  the  manufacture  of  iron,^  and  were 
mixed  with  the  Tibarenians.^  It  was  with  some  reluctance 
that  the  Greeks  consented  to  march  through  the  territory  of 
the  latter ;  they  did  so,  however,  keeping  near  the  coast  till 
they  reached  Cotyora,  now  probably  Ordou,  and  originally  a  Cotyora  and 
Sinopian  colony.  The  distance  to  this  city  from  the  field  of  cunTxa. 
battle  near  Babylon  is  estimated  by  Xenophon  at  six  hundred 
and  twenty  parasangs,^  which,  at  the  presumed  average  of  1  •  9 
mile  per  parasang,  would  be  but  1175 '8  miles,  and  this  was 
performed  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  marches.  This  gives 
9  •  79  miles  each  day,  which,  considering  the  difficulties  of  the 
season  and  the  encumbrances  of  buff-coats,  shields,  and  some 
baggage,  would  scarcely  be,  if  at  all,  exceeded. 

Here  this  distinguished  band  met  an  unkind  reception,  for,  inhospitaiity 
instead  of  exercising   hospitality,  the  Cotyorians  refused   to  °;ais!   °'^°' 
receive  the  sick  into  the  town,  or  even  to  provide  a  market 
without   the  walls.     The  Greeks,    however,    remained   there  occupations  of 
forty-five  days,  which  were  employed  in  making  processions,  ^^  Greeks. 
in  celebrating  the  gymnic  games  according  to  the  manner  of 
their  respective  states,  and  in  supplying  themselves  with  pro- 
visions, which  was  done  partly  at  the  expense  of  the  Cotyo- 
rians, and  partly  by  plundering  the  neighbouring  Paphlago- 
nians :  this  gave  great  umbrage,  and  the  Sinopians  would  have 
retaliated  had  it  not  been  for  the  firmness  displayed  by  Xeno- 
phon.    Afler   discussing   the  question    of  forming   a  Greek 
settlement  on  the  Euxine,  as  well  as  the  relative  advantages  of 
a  homeward  voyage  by  sea,  and  a  march  thither  by  land,  the 
former  course  was  adopted  ;  and  the  Cotyorians  having  pro- 
vided the   necessary  shipping  to  get  rid  of  their  uninvited  The  Greeks 
guests,  a  fair  wind  carried  the  Greeks  rapidly  along  the  coast  cotjor™ 
of  Paphlagonia,  when,  passing  in  succession  the  rivers  Ther- 
medon  (Thermeh-sii),  Iris  (Yechil  Irmak),  and  Halys  (Kizil 
Irmak),  they  landed  at  Harmene  or  Armene,  a  port  five  miles  land  at 

Harmene,  and 
'  See  Index  Map. 

*  Xen.,  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  v. ;  Apollon.  Rhodius,  11.,  v.  375. 

*  Bochart,  in  Phaleg.,  p.  207.  *  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  v. 


238  DISCORD  AND  SEPARATION  OF  THE  GREEKS.    [cHAP.  VIII. 

from  the  flourishing  city  of  Sinope,  once  a  Milesian  settlement.^ 
Here  they  halted  five  days,  and  Xenophon  having  declined  the 
honour,  after  consulting  the  gods  by  sacrifice,  Cheirisophus  was 
elected  sole  commander/  the  army  preferring  this  to  continuing 
as  heretofore  under  an  oligarchy  of  military  chiefs,  who  were 
not  considered  so  likely  as  a  single  general  to  enable  the  soldiers 
to  acquire  booty  as  they  approached  Greece.  Next  day,  the 
wind  being  fair,  the  Greeks  proceeded  along  the  remainder  of 
the  coast  of  Paphlagonia,  and,  continuing  to  follow  that  of 
again  at  Bithyuia,  the  army  disembarked  near  Heraclea  at  the  close 
of  the  second  day's  sail.  By  a  strange  mistake,  Xenophon 
mentions  the  rivers  Thermedon  and  Halys,^  as  having  been 
passed  in  this,  instead  of  in  the  preceding  voyage  from  Cotyora 
to  Harmene.* 

At  Heraclea  discord  not  only  caused  Cheirisophus  to  lose  the 
chief  command,  but  led,  for  a  time,  to  the  army  being  divided 
into  three  separate  bodies.^     The  Arcadians  and  the  Achseans, 
mustering  about  4,500  heavy  armed  men,   proceeded  by  sea 
under  ten  generals  or  chiefs,  and  disembarked  at  Calpse  on  the 
coast  of  Asiatic  Thrace,  confidently  expecting,  by  preceding 
their  comrades,  to  obtain  much  booty.     The  heavy-armed  men 
and  the  Thracian  targeteers,  who  amounted  to  about  2, 1 00  men, 
Separation  of  Under  Chcirisoplius,  marched  along  the  coast  to  Thrace ;  and 
into^hree^     the  third,  under  Xenophon,  consisting  of  1,700  heavy  armed 
corps.  yf[i]^  3Q0  targeteers  and  40  horsemen,  landed  on  the  confines 

of  Thrace,  and  marched  towards  Calpse,®  in  a  direct  line.     In 
the  latter  part  of  this  march  through  the  heart  of  the  country, 
the  commander,  by  means  of  his  cavalry,  learnt  that  the  Ar- 
cadians had  at  first  been  successful,  by  taking  numerous  slaves 
and  a  quantity  of  cattle,    but   afterwards   the  Thracians  had 
Perilous  sitiia-  nearly  destroyed  the  detachment  under  Hegesander,  annihilated 
body'ofthe     another  under  Smicres,  and  surrounded  the  hill  occupied  by 
Arcadians.      ^^^  remainder  of  the  Arcadians.'' 

In  a  moment,  the  ingratitude  and  wrongs  experienced  from 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  v.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  i. 

8  Ibid.  "  See  Coast  of  the  Black-Sea,  Index  Map. 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  V.,  cap.  ii.  "  Ibid.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iv, 

'  Ibid.,  cap.  iii. 


CHAP.  VIII.]        GALLANTRY  AND  GENEROSITY  OF  XENOPHON.         239 

his  countrymen  were  forgotten  by  Xenophon,  and  after  making 
a  feeling  appeal  to  them,  he  put  his  troops  in  motion,  hoping 
not  only  to  extricate  the  Arcadians,  but  likewise  by  concen- 
tration to  reorganize  the  army  once  more.  "  Let  us  there- 
fore press  on,"  said  Xenophon,  "  resolved  either  to  die  on  the 
field,  or  save  our  countrymen."  The  Greeks  did  not  fail  to  Courage  and 
respond  to  this  generous  feeling,  and  the  able  generalship  of  xjiophon. 
Xenophon  accomplished  the  object  without  even  the  necessity 
of  fighting  a  battle.^ 

The  sudden  extinction  of  the  numerous  fires  lighted  by 
Xenophon's  troops,  induced  the  Thracians,  as  well  as  the  Ar- 
cadian Greeks,  to  decamp,  the  former  supposing  that  a  night  junction 
attack  was  intended ;  this  belief  gave  time  for  a  junction  with  consequence 
the  latter  to  be  effected  next  day  near  Port  Calpae,  now  Kiepe' 
or  Ke'fken  'Adasi.-  This  place  is  on  a  neck  of  land  about 
seventy  miles  eastward  of  Byzantium ;  and  here  Xenophon 
also  found  the  forces  which  had  marched  under  Cheirisophus, 
but  the  general  himself  was  just  dead  of  fever. 

The  late  discord  produced  a  salutary  lesson;   and  having 
buried  the  dead,  including  Cheirisophus,  the  Greeks  resolved  The  Greeks 
to  continue  the  march  under  the  same  generals,  and  subject  to  separTteTn  *° 
the  regulations  which  previously  existed.    Having  also  decreed  f^^^^re. 
that  the  man,  who  might  again  propose  to  divide  the  army, 
should  suffer  death,  preparations  were  made  for  a  movement, 
beginning,  as  usual,  with  sacrifices.^ 

For  some  days,  the  omens  continued  unpropitious,  when  the 
soldiers  becoming  suspicious  of  Xenophon,  and  very  impatient, 
about  2,000  of  them  proceeded  to  collect  provisions  under 
Neon,  an  Asinsean,  the  successor  of  Cheirisophus :  being 
attacked,  whilst  dispersed  in  the  villages,  by  a  body  of  horse 
under  Pharnabazus,  they  were  driven  to  an  adjoining  hill,  after 
the  loss  of  500  men,  the  greatest  calamity  hitherto  expe- 
rienced.* From  this  perilous  situation  they  were  relieved  by 
a  select  body  of  troops  under  Xenophon;  who,  in  order  to 
prevent  alarm  or  despondency,  took  the  precaution  of  securing  The  Greeks 
the  position  of  the  Greeks  by  running  a  fosse  and  a  strong  curedEr 

*  Anabasis,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iii.  ^  Index  Map. 

"  Anabasis,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iv.  ■*  Ibid. 


240 


DEFEAT  OF  THE  PERSIANS  AND  BITHYNIANS.      [CHAP.  VIII. 


position, 
assume  the 
offensive. 


Xenophon 
makes  a  com- 
bined and 


successfnl 
attack  on  the 
enemy. 


The  Greeks 
advance  from 
Calpse 


palisade  from  side  to  side  of  the  neck  of  land  which  joins  the 
promontory  to  the  continent.  The  baggage  being  thus  pro- 
tected, and  a  vessel  having  arrived  most  opportunely  from 
Heraclea  with  corn,  wine,  and  live  cattle,^  the  moral  courage 
of  the  Greeks  was  in  some  measure  restored,  and  Xenophon 
assumed  the  ofiensive.  He  found  the  enemy's  forces  regularly 
disposed  in  line  under  Pharnabazus,  Spithridates,  and  Kathines, 
and  formidable  from  the  numbers  both  of  the  Persian  horse 
and  Bithynian  foot." 

The  main  body  of  the  Greeks  advanced  to  the  attack  in  line, 
having  in  reserve  three  divisions,  of  about  200  men  each, 
supporting  the  flanks  and  centre,  keeping  at  the  distance  of 
about  one  hundred  paces  from  the  principal  line. 

The  troops  in  this  line,  owing  to  some  difficulties  in  crossing 
a  wide  valley,  hastily  concluded  that  the  movement  was  im- 
possible, and  halted  in  consequence.  Xenophon,  as  usual, 
hastened  to  the  post  of  danger,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  intended  attack ;  this  was  successful  after  repeated  charges 
had  been  made,  and  the  Greeks  returned  to  their  encampment, 
having  gained  a  complete  victory.^ 

The  immediate  result  of  the  action  was  the  retreat  of  the 
Persian  forces,  so  that  the  army  obtained  the  command  of  the 
surrounding  country  and  its  supplies.  It  may  here  be  observed, 
that  when  the  whole  body  made  an  excursion,  the  booty  became 
common  property ;  but  at  other  times  parties  of  soldiers,  with 
their  slaves,  made  marauding  excursions  on  their  private 
account,  on  which  occasions,  agreeably  to  a  general  vote  of  the 
array,  the  acquisition  of  each  individual  was  considered  to  be 
his  own  '^*  arrangements  which  naturally  gave  rise  to  constant 
disputes.  The  country  people  now  furnished  certain  supplies 
in  order  to  save  their  farms  and  villages,  and  as  the  Greek 
cities  also  sent  provisions,  the  camp  abounded  in  every- 
thing necessary.^  Owing  to  an  opinion  that  Port  Calpae 
was  to  be  a  permanent  colony,  the  hopes  of  a  profitable 
trade  brought  merchants  there,  and  deputations  arrived  from 


'  Anabasis,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  v. 
"  Ibid.,  cap.  V. 
'  Ibid. 


*  Ibid.,  cap.  vi. 
■*  Ibid.,  cap.  vi. 


CHAP.  Viri]    THE  GREEKS  TAKE  SERVICE  UNDER  SEUTHES.  24  1 

some  of  the   Bithynian   tribes    to   solicit   alliances   with   the 
Greeks. 

The  next  halt  was  at  Chrysopolis,  a  city  situated  almost  at  toChrysopoiis, 
the  western  entrance  of  the  Bosphorus,  which  place  the  Greeks  gy^a^tl^m^ 
reached  in  six  days,  having  taken  a  vast  quantity  of  slaves  and 
cattle  during  the  march.  From  hence  Anaxibius,  the  admiral 
at  Byzantium,  at  the  instigation  of  Pharnabazus,  who  hoped  to 
save  the  rest  of  his  satrapy  from  being  plundered,  induced  the 
Greek  generals  and  captains  to  visit  that  city,  promising  to  take 
the  Greeks  into  regular  pay  if  they  passed  over  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  took  place  accordingly ;  but  finding  themselves 
deceived  and  sent  out  of  Byzantium  on  a  false  pretence,  the 
soldiers  re-entered,  and  would  have  seized  and  retained  the  city, 
if  Xenophon  had  not  managed  to  induce  them  to  proceed  to 
some  villages  in  the  vicinity,  whither  he  followed,  after  being 
almost  expelled  from  the  city  which  he  had  just  saved.  After- 
wards, agreeably  to  a  treaty  concluded  at  a  great  banquet,  and 
on  the  faith  of  large  promises,  the  Greeks  marched  to  assist 
Seuthes,  son  of  Maesades,  in  recovering  his  patrimony  as  one  They  serve  in 
of  the  independent  kings  of  Thrace.^  '^^'^''''  ^"'^ 

A  joint  night  march  was  then  made,  and,  agreeably  to  the 
practice  of  the  Greeks,  the  heavy  troops  of  both  forces  were  put 
in  advance,  as  the  surest  means  of  regulating  the  rest  of  the  line. 
The  result  of  the  first  attack  was  the  capture  of  many  slaves  and 
cattle.  Another  trifling  affair  brought  about  a  peace ;  but 
Seuthes  failed  in  the  promised  payments. 

During  an  expedition  which  followed  into  Upper  Thrace,  the  then  under  the 
Laceda3monians,  who  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Pharna-  nians. 
bazus,  offered  pay  to  the  Greeks  if  they  would  serve  against 
Tissaphernes.  This  they  accepted,  and  having  received  some 
cattle  from  Seuthes  in  lieu  of  the  payment  due  from  him, 
Xenophon  led  the  Greeks  across  the  Dardanelles  to  Lamp- 
sacus  f  from  whence  they  proceeded  through  Troas,  then 
crossed  Mount  Ida  to  Antandrus.  Subsequently  the  army 
marched  to  the  plain  of  Thebe,  thence  through  Adramyttium, 
by  Certonium,  Aterne,  and  the  plains  of  Caicus,  to  Tergamus,  a 
city  of  Mysia.     In  a  second  excursion  made  in  this  neighbour- 

'  Anabasis,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  iii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  viii. 

VOL.  II.  R 


242  FORMATION  OF  THE  GREEK  ARMY.  [cHAP,  VIII. 

After  a  snc-     hood,  the  first  having  failed  owing  to  the  height  of  the  walls  and 
Tcainstthe^    Strength  of  the  castle,  Xenophon  captured  the  wife,  children, 
Persians,        ^^^^  ^l^^  chief  part  of  the  riches  of  the  Persian  chief  Asidates, 
with  which  booty  he   returned  to  Pergamus ;  and   soon  after- 
wards Thimbron,  the   admiral,  arrived  with  proposals  to  enter 
the  Lacedaemonian  service.     Having,  in  addition  to  their  pay, 
the  prospect  of  continuing  the  same  freebooting  warfare  in  a 
more  promising  field,   the  offer  was  accepted,  and  Xenophon 
Xenophon       delivered  over  the  troops  whom  he  had  so  long  and  so  ably 
fomniand!  ^^^  conductcd,  and  with  whom  he  had  braved  so  many  dangers. 
The  military        The  Celebrated  formation  of  the  Greeks  consisted  in  a  portion 
oFthe  Grfc'eL.  of  bowmcu  and  horsemen  being  added  to  the  light  or  middle- 
armed  and  heavy-armed  infantry  •,  the  latter,  embodied  in  the 
dense  order  of  the  phalanx,  being  the  chief  dependence.     The 
soldier  found  his  own  arms  according  to  his  means,  and  in  a 
great  measure  after  his  own  taste  ;  but  his  discipline  was  regu- 
lated bv  the  institutions  of  the  state  to  "which  he  belonged.     An 
individual   not  provided  with  armour,   and  unacquainted  with 
the  discipline  of  the  heavy  armed,  was  put  among  the  more 
Heavy  and      ignoblc   or  liglit-amied  troops;  in  which  he  had  less  pay,  no 
troops!'^™^      allowance  for  a  servant,  and,  above  all,   his   name  was  not  en- 
rolled amongst  those  who  fell  in  battle.^ 

But  the  force  thus  organized  laboured  under  the  disadvantage 
of  being  employed  only  in  an  annual  tour  of  service ;  and,  owing 
to  the  jarring  interests  of  the  different  states,  their  contingents 
carried  with  them  the  still  more  serious  evil  of  discord,  which, 
although  smothered  for  a  time  in  the  midst  of  dangers  and 
when  exposed  to  incessant  exertions,  was  at  other  times  ready 
to  break  out  and  compromise  the  safety,  if  not  the  very  exist- 
ence, of  the  army.  On  the  other  hand,  the  narrative  of  the 
events  in  question  exemplifies  the  principle  that  strength  is 
gained  by  combination ;  it  shows  also  what  may  be  effected  by 
troops  acting  under  the  salutary  restraint  of  discipline.  Xeno- 
Advantagcsof  phon  has  proved  to  the  world  not  only  that  dense  bodies  are 
a  euse  mass,  ^^^^  suited  to  forcc  their  way  through  an  enemy,  but  that  they 
can  retreat  with  comparative  safety,  even  in  the  presence  of  a 
greatly  superior  force.     In  such   a  movement,  more  particu- 

'  Mitford's  Ilistorj'  of  Greece,  chap.  XXIV.,  sec.  iii. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  TACTICS  OF  THE  GREEKS.  243 

larly  through  a  mountainous  country,  the  line  is  shorter  than 
that  of  the  pursuing  force,  which  of  necessity  covers  more 
ground,  so  that,  when  halted  to  repel  an  attack,  the  former  at 
once  becomes  superior  on  the  ground  which  it  occupies.  There- 
fore, although  an  enemy  may  overtake,  he  dare  not  attack  with  in  attack  and 


when  retreat- 


a  small  force  -  and  whilst  he  is  concentrating  sufficient  strength  ^^ 
to  operate  with  advantage,  the  retreating  columns  will  have 
gained  a  considerable  distance.  It  was  simply  on  this  prin- 
ciple, skilfully  carried  out,  that  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  were 
enabled  to  continue  their  march,  alternately  forcing  the  passes, 
occupied  by  hostile  Kurds,  Chalybeans,  &c.,  and  with  in- 
domitable valour  showing  an  irresistible  front  to  their  pursuers. 

The  Anabasis,  therefore,  has   been   in  a  great  measure  the  A  knowledge 
guide  of  commanders  in  subsequent  times  ;  and  it  has  done  acquired  from 
more   to  advance  military  tactics   than  any  other  portion  Qf  ^  ^  ^"^^^asis. 
ancient  or  modern  history.     Even  before  the  events  in  question 
could  be  recorded,  a  decided   improvement   in  the  art  of  war 
took  place  throughout  Greece ;  and  this  continued  to  increase 
till   it  caused  the  overthrow  of  the  ponderous  empire  wielded 
in   Asia  by   the    Persian    monarchs.       The    invasion   of  the 
younger  Cyrus  first  made  the  real  state  of  this  vast  territory 
known,  and  those  who  had  so  successfully  braved  the  power  of 
the  great  king  were  ready  to  do  so  again. 

When  the  Greek  troops  took  service  for  this  purpose  under  Mildness  of 
the  Lacedaemonians,  the  different  provinces  of  Persia  continued,  government. 
as  in  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  to  preserve   their  institu- 
tions, and  were  governed  by  their  own  laws.     Then,  as  now,  if 
the    satrap  sent  his  tribute  to  the  great   king  at  the   stated 
time,  he  was  in  other  respects  almost  unfettered,  for  the  Persian 
laws  were  both  few  and  simple,   and  the  treatment  of  the  con- 
quered was  mild  and  liberal.'     But  frequently,  as  it  is  in  modern  Some  of  the 
times  also,  several  inferior  governments  were  placed  under  a  ^^c'lujJd 
pow^erful  satrap.     The  Pontic  and  Hellespontic  provinces,  for  j"j^"^'  ^^'^°' 
instance,  were  governed  by  Pharnabazus,  whose  territories  bore 
indifferently  the    name    of  the    Bithynian,    or    Hellespontine 
satrapy.     The  seat  of  the  government  was  at  Dascylium,   a 
rich  city,  in  which  there  was  a  sumptuous  palace,  having  parks 
'  Heron.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xlii. 

R  2 


244 


THE  PERSIAN  GOVERNMENT. 


[chap.  VIII. 


Eastern 
governments 
based  on 
feudalism. 


Pharnabazus 
and  Tissa- 
phenies 
combine 


to  expel  tbe 
Greeks  from 
Asia. 


and  open  chases,  with  fish  and  game  of  every  kind.^  Some  of 
the  satrapies  included  kingdoms,  as  that  of  Tissaphernes,  under 
whom  were  Lydia,  Caria,  Ionia,  and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  tract 
westward  of  the  river  Halys. 

Except  that  the  power  of  the  chiefs  was  derived  from  the 
sovereign  instead  of  being  hereditary,  the  working  details  of 
the  Asiatic  districts  were  based  on  feudalism  ;  and  as  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  latter  in  a  great  measure  depended  on  the  fidelity 
of  the  chiefs  who  were  raised  to  the  government  of  provinces, 
the  actual  power  of  the  king  over  his  distant  dominions  was 
imperfect;  the  empire,  as  a  whole,  not  only  being  unwieldy 
from  its  extent,  but  weak,  owing  to  the  intrigues,  jealousies,  and 
contending  interests  of  the  satraps.  These  rulers  were  easily 
moved  to  take  arms  one  against  another,  or  failing  an  open 
rupture,  they  were  ready  to  invade  the  territory  of  a  rival,  or 
to  provide  another  state  with  the  funds  for  this  purpose  ;  some- 
times, even,  they  made  war  upon  their  sovereign  himself.  As 
an  elucidation  of  this  state  of  things,  it  may  here  be  mentioned, 
that  when  the  Lacedaemonians  determined  to  make  war  on  the 
Persians  in  Asia,  Dercyllidas,  the  successor  of  Thimbron,  suc- 
cessfully invaded  the  satrapy  of  Pharnabazus,  and  secured  the 
independence  of  the  Ionian  and  ^^olian  colonies  '^  having  for 
this  purpose  at  least,  the  tacit  assistance  of  Tissaphernes,  who 
gladly  contributed  funds  in  order  to  keep  the  Greeks  at  a 
distance  from  his  own  districts. 

But  the  advantageous  position,  which,  with  a  small  force, 
enabled  Dercyllidas  to  attack  one  great  satrapy,  and  keep  the 
other  in  check,  was  lost  by  the  ill-advised  orders  issued  by  the 
Ephori  of  Lacedsemon,  to  carry  the  war  into  Caria  ;  for,  being 
thus  released  from  the  presence  of  the  Greeks,  Pharnabazus 
made  a  proposal  to  Tissaphernes  to  unite  their  forces,  in  order 
to  expel  them  from  Asia. 

With  this  view,  the  two  satraps  proceeded  into  Caria,  and 
by  a  treaty  subsequently  made  near  the  Marauder,  Dercyllidas, 
M'ith  his  forces,  agreed  to  quit  the  continent ;  the  Asian  Greeks 
were  to  be  considered  free ;'  and   as  the  Greek  cities  already 

'  Xen.,  Hel.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  ii. 

»  Ibid. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  STATE  OF  THE  ASIAN  SATRAPIES.  245 

enjoyed  their  own  institutions,  each  party  gained  the  leading 
object  almost  without  a  sacrifice. 

Ere  this  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Persian  king,  a  report  that  Agesiiaus  pro- 
he  was  making  preparations  induced  the  Lacedaemonians  to  send  EphLus!' ""^ 
a  fierce  under  Agesiiaus  to  Ephesus.     The  events  which  followed, 
though  not  strongly  marked,  are  well   calculated  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  Persian  government  in  Lesser  Asia,  and  were,  in 
the  sequel,  of  vast  importance   to  that  empire.     The  nominal 
object  of  the  armament  being  the  independency  of  the  Greek 
cities,  Tissaphernes   professed  his  willingness   to  accede  ;  but  covert  pre- 
during  a  truce  to  obtain  the  king's  sanction  for  that  object,  he  Thsaphemes. 
collected  an  army,  and  then  announced  to  Agesiiaus  that  if  his 
forces  were  not  immediately  withdrawn  from  Asia,   he   must 
expect  the  vengeance  of  the  great  king.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Grecian  commander  assembled  the 
Ionian,  ^^olian,  and  Hellespontine  forces,  and  feigning  an 
attack  on  Caria,  he  unexpectedly  fell  upon  and  plundered  the 
satrapy  of  Pharnabazus  ;  but  on  the  repulse  of  his  cavalry  by 
an  inferior  body  of  horse  near  Dascylium,  he  retreated  to  the 
coast,  where,  having  organized  a  fresh  army,  he  defeated  Tissa- 
phernes and  took  the  Persian  camp  on  the  river  Pactolus." 

Defeat  seldom  finds  excuse  or  even  palliation  in  any  country,  Tissaphernes 
still  less  in  the  east,  and  the   renewed   influence  of  Parysatis  ^^  superceded. 
over  the  king   being  thrown  into  the  scale,^  Artaxerxes  com- 
missioned Tithraustes  to  supersede  and  behead  Tissaphernes. 

More  influenced  by  his  personal  interests  than  the  desire  to  Tithraustes  ■ 
wipe  away  the  late  disgrace,  the  new  satrap  told  Agesiiaus  that  ^^^^^^  ^ 

,  ^  •'  II-  1  ••  separate  peace. 

his  predecessor  had  justly  suffered  for  his  misconduct,  adding 
that  the  king  consented  to  the  freedom  of  the  Asian  Greek 
cities  on  the  payment  of  the  ancient  tribute  for  the  land ;  and 
he  proposed  that  the  European  army  should  be  withdrawn."* 
In  furtherance  of  this  object  he  advanced  about  6,000/.,  or 
30  talents,  to  defray  the  expense  of  the  march,  and  gave  a  hint 
that  Pharnabazus  might  still  be  considered  an  enemy  of  the 

'  Xen.,  Hel.,  cap.  iv. ;  Plutarch,  in  Agesiiaus. 

*  Xen.,  Hel.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  iv. 

^  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  YI.,  p    273. 

*  Xen.,  Hell.,  lib.  Ill ,  cap.  iv. 


246 


CONTESTS  OF  THE  GREEKS  IN  ASIA.  [cHAP.  VIII. 


Agesilaus  con- 
tinues the 
campaign. 


The  Greeks 
invade,  and 
then  abandon 
Bithynia. 


The  Persians 
are  victorious 
at  sea. 


The  Persians 
defeated  near 
Coronea. 


Proposals  of 
the  LacedsE- 
monians  to 
Artaxerxes. 


Greeks.  Accordingly,  Agesilaus  proceeded  northward,  when 
some  towns  voluntarily  surrendered  and  others  were  taken  by 
assault.  Being  reinforced  by  1,000  Paphlagonian  horse  and 
2,000  targeteers,  he  plundered  Bithynia  and  took  its  attractive 
capital.^ 

At  times,  however,  the  Persian  cavalry  maintained  its  supe- 
riority, and  700  Greeks  were  routed  by  400  under  Pharna- 
bazus.  In  return,  the  camp  of  the  latter  was  surprised ;  ^  but 
afterwards  a  personal  conference  led  to  a  better  understanding, 
and  believing  that  he  had  gained  his  object  of  detaching  Pharna- 
bazus  from  his  allegiance,  Agesilaus  led  his  army  out  of 
Bithynia. 

Whilst  Agesilaus,  encouraged  by  his  successes,  was  making 
preparations  for  the  dismemberment  of  the  Persian  empire,  a 
fresh  combination  of  Athens,  Bceotia,  Corinth,  Argos,  &c. 
against  the  Lacedaemonians,  obliged  the  latter  to  recall  their 
forces.  Pharnabazus  seized  this  opportunity,  and  assisted  by 
a  Phoenician  fleet,  he  completely  defeated  that  of  the  Lacedae- 
monians near  Cnidus.  The  misfortune  was  partially  redeemed 
almost  immediately  by  the  battle  gained  by  Agesilaus  over  the 
confederates  in  the  vale  of  Coronea;^  and  this  appears  to  have 
been  the  last  victory  either  won  or  shared  by  the  Grecian  troops 
which  had  accompanied  Cyrus. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  Cnidus,  aided  by  a  profuse  libe- 
rality on  the  part  of  the  Persian  satrap  was  fatal  to  the  Lace- 
daemonians ;  and  the  power  of  Athens  being  in  a  great  degree 
restored  by  the  money  and  fleet  of  Pharnabazus,  the  Lacedae- 
monians despatched  Antalcidas  to  Susa,  hoping,  in  conjunction 
with  Boeotia,  Corinth,  kc,  to  renew  their  alliance  with  Arta- 
xerxes,  through  Teribazus,  the  satrap  of  Lydia. 

The  terms  proposed,  namely,  to  acknowledge  the  king's 
sovereignty  over  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia,  the  islands,  as  well 
as  the  Greek  cities  in  Europe  being  at  the  same  time  indepen- 
dent were  acceptable  to  the  satrap;  but  tbe  latter  portion  being 
opposed  by  one  of  the  parties,  the  negotiation  failed  as  regarded 
peace.  Teribazus,  however,  was  so  far  gained,  that  forgetting 
the  late  hostility  of  the  Lacedaemonians  to  his  sovereign,  he 

[  Xen.,  Ilel.,  lib.  IV  ,  cap.  i.  *  Ibid.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  iii. 


CHAP.  VIII.J    TROUBLES  IN  GREECE  :    ARTAXERXEs'  RESCRIPT.        247 

secretly  furnished  money  to  equip  their  fleet,'  and  hostilities 
were  renewed  by  sea  and  land  without  any  very  decided  result. 

In  this  state  of  things,  the  LacedsBmonians  despatched  An- 
talcidas  once  more,  as  ambassador  to  Teribazus,  who  had  re- 
sumed his  command  in  Lesser  Asia.  This  satrap  was  not 
only  found  to  be  favourable,  but  provided  with  the  necessary 
authority  from  Susa. 

Teribazus  immediately  appointed  a  congress  to  be  held,  and  Rescript  of 
the  ministers  of  the  belligerent  republics  having  in  consequence, 
assembled,  he  produced  a  rescript  under  the  royal  signet  to  the 
following  effect : — "  Artaxerxes,  the  king,  holds  it  just,  that  all 
cities  on  the  continent  of  Asia  should  belong  to  his  dominion ; 
also  the  islands  of  Clazomense  and  Cyprus ;  and  that  all  other 
Grecian  cities,  small  and  great,  should  be  independent ;  Lem- 
nos,  Imbrus,  and  Scirus  to  remain,  as  before,  und  r  Athens :" 
to  which  was  added,  "  the  king  will  join  in  w^ar  with  those  who 
accepted,  against  those  who  refused  these  terms."" 

Although  as  an  assemblage  of  disciplined  military  commu-  Disimion  cf 
nities  they  were  irresistible  whilst  united,  that  never-failing 
source  of  discord,  separate  independence,  made  it  far  otherwise, 
and  all  acceded  to  the  rescript  of  the  Persian  king  as  a  mediator, 
that  he  might  terminate  the  destructive  quarrels,  assassinations, 
and  massacres,  existing  among  themselves. 

Momentary  tranquillity  in  Greece  enabled   the  king  to  send  B.  c.  382. 
300,000  men,  under  Teribazus  and   his  son-in-law  Orontas,  to  Artaxerxes 
Cyprus,  where  Evagoras,  who  had  carried  war  into  Phoenicia,  ^nt'o  Cypr^? 
taken  Tyre,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Acoris,   the  ruler  of 
Egypt,^  was  in   open  rebellion.      Unable  to  resist,   Evagoras 
determined   to  become   an  obedient  satrap  ;    and  by  a  timely 
submission,   he  not  only  preserved  the  original  government  of 
Salamis,  but  Cyprus  was  made  a  separate  dependency  of  the 
empire,  a  feudal  vassalage;  or,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  treaty,  Evagoras  is 
"  it  was  made  subject  to  Artaxerxes,  as  one  king  is  to  another  :"*  ins  post. 
so  that  Evagoras  was  rewarded  rather  than  punished. 

'  Xen.,  Hel..  lib.  IV.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Mitford's  Greece,  chap.  XXV.,  sec.  vii.,  compared  with  Diod.  Sic, 
lib.  XIV..  chap,  xxvii. 

'  Diod.  8ic.,  lib.  XV.,  cap.  v.  *  Ibid. 


248  CADUSIAN  WAR  :    AND  STATE  OF  GREECE.        [cHAP.  VIII. 

Teribazus  being  recalled  at  the  instigation  of  Orontas,  who 
succeeded  to  the  satrapy  of  Lydia  with  the  general  direction  of 
public  affairs  in  that  quarter,  the  former  accompanied  Arta- 
xerxes  with  300,000  foot  and  20,000  horse,  to  punish  the 
revolted  Cadusians.^  A  warlike  people  and  a  sterile  country 
reduced  the  troops  to  the  greatest  extremity,  from  which,  how- 
ever, the  ingenuity  of  Teribazus  delivered  them.  He  made  a 
treaty  by  which  the  two  sovereigns  of  that  country  were  brought 
Teribazus  is  Separately  to  submit  to  the  king:  and  as  a  reward  for  this 
eminent  service,  he  was  restored  to  his  former  government  and 
honours.^ 
B.  c  376.  The  recovery  of  their   citadel  by  the  Thebans  led  to  those 

contests  in  Greece  which  preceded  the  battle  of  Leuctra;  but 
The  Thebans  the  war  Seeming  endless,  ambassadors  were  sent  with  Pelopidas 
p^rsk.  °        from   Thebes,   Argos,  and   the  other  states,  to  solicit  the  de- 
cision of  Persia.     Pelopidas  returned  from  Susa,  accompanied 
B.C.  367.       by  a  person  of  rank,  bearing  another  rescript;  in  which  man- 
reTcript  of       date,  as  if  still  all-powerful  in  regulating  the  affairs  of  Greece, 
Artaxerxes.     ^j^g  j^jjjg  pronouuced  that  Messenia  should  be  independent  of 
Lacedsemon,  that   the  Athenians  should  lay  up  their  fleet,  and 
that  war  should  be  made  on  the  state  which  refused  to  comply. 
It  was  also  provided  that  if  any  Greek  city  denied  its  contingent 
for  the  latter  purpose,  it  should  be  attacked  forthwith  ;  all  who 
complied  being  considered  as  the  friends,  and  those  who  refused 
as  the  enemies  of  the  king.''     A  congress  was  held  at  Thebes  ; 
but  as  unity  only  prevailed  in  time  of  danger  from  without,  a 
civil  war  almost  immediately  followed. 
Temporary  The   doubtful  battle  of  Mantiuea,    and  the  death  of  Epa- 

minondas,   led  to   another  temporary  peace;  from  which,  how- 
ever, the  Lacedaemonians  were  excluded.'' 
Agesiiaus  Agcsilaus  was  about  to  proceed  against  Messenia,  when  a  wider 

undeVradhos.  ^^^^  offered  itself  to  his  ambition  ;  and  in  his  eightieth  year, 
forgetting  his  dignity  and  reputation,  he  quitted  the  throne  of 

'  A  people  near  the  south-western  extremity  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  also 
called  Geles. — Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvi.  ;  Strabo,  lib.  XL,  p.  507. 

*  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XV.,  cap.  v.,  and  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  ed.  Lang- 
home,  vol.  VI.,  pp.  274,  275. 

^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIV.,  cap.  xxvii.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  XY.,  cap.  xxi. 


CHAP.  VIII.]    NECTANABIS  USURPS  THE  THRONE  OF  EGYPT.  249 

Sparta,  hoping  to  receive  the  command  of  the  forces  of  Egypt 
then  in  rebellion.  On  his  arrival,  Tachos  the  satrap,  being 
disappointed  in  the  personal  appearance  of  the  mighty  king  of 
Sparta,  when  he  beheld  a  diminutive  and  aged  man,  reserved 
for  himself  the  chief  command  of  the  forces  by  sea  and  land, 
with  which  he  proceeded  against  the  Phoenicians,  confiding  to 
Agesilaus  only  the  mercenaries.' 

On  the  departure  of  Tachos,  his  cousin  Nectanabis  attempted  Xectanabis 
to  seize  the  government  of  Egypt,  and  both  having  applied  to  throiu;! 
the  Lacedaemonians,  Agesilaus  was  enabled,  with  the  sanction 
of  that  people,  to  place  Nectanabis  on  the  throne.  Tachos, 
being  expelled,  fled  to  his  master  Artaxerxes,  who  not  only 
pardoned  his  rebellion,  but  conferred  on  him  the  command  of 
the  Egyptian  army." 

The  conspiracy  of  the  self-appointed  satrap  of  Egypt  was 
very  formidable  to  the  king,  who  was  at  the  same  time  em- 
barrassed by  the  rebellion  of  Orontas,  satrap  of  Mysia ;  Arior- 
bazus,  satrap  of  Phrygia  ;  Autophrades  of  Lydia  ;  Datames  of 
Cappadocia,  and  i\Iausolus  of  Caria ;  and  besides  these,  he  was 
at  war  with  the  Lycians,  Pisidians,  Pamphylians,  Cilicians, 
Syrians,  Phoenicians,  and  all  the  Asian  Greeks.^ 

Orontas  was  appointed  general  of  the  Asiatic  confederacy ; 
but  either  being  insincere  at  first,  or  subsequently  a  traitor,  he 
betrayed  their  purpose,  and  the  whole  fell  to  the  ground  at  the 
very  moment  when  the  long-cherished  object  of  Agesilaus,  the 
dismemberment  of  the  empire,  seemed  about  to  be  realized. 
He  died  whilst  on  his  return  to  Greece,  in  his  eighty-fourth  Death  of 
year.*     Lesser  Asia  having  returned  to  its  allegiance,  the  king  1,^^^'  ^"^' 

J  .      ,         .    .  .      ^  ^  B.  C.  360. 

made  another  attempt  to  recover  his  dominions  m  Egypt,  but 
did  not  live  to  see  it  completed. 

Hoping  to  put  an  end  to  the  intrigues  and  contentions  of  his  Artaxerxes 
three   sons,   Artaxerxes  declared  Darius,    the   eldest,   his  sue- successor. 
cessor,  and  allowed  him  to  assume  the  title  of  king ;  but  not 
being  satisfied  with  his  position,  the  prince  formed  a  conspiracy, 
in  which  Teribazus  joined.     Both  were  put  to  death,  however, 

'  Plutarch,  in  Agesilaus,  vol.  IV.,  pp.  212,  213,  ed.  Langhorue. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XV.,  cap.  x.xii.  '  Ibid. 

*  Plutarch,  in  Agesilaus,  vol.  IV. ,  p.  21o,  ed   Laiighortie. 


250  DEATH  AND  CHARACTER  OF  ARTAXERXES.       [cHAP.  VIH. 

and  Ochus,  having  got  rid   of  his  other  brother  Ariaspes,  suc- 
B.  c.  360  or    ceeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Artaxerxes,  then  in  his 

359. 

ninety-fourth  year  and  the  sixty-second  of  his  reign.^ 
Precept  given       His  father,    Darius  Nothus,  had  left  him,  together  with  his 
Ncthus/        immense  empire,   the   valuable    precept:  "Act  justly  in    all 
things  towards  God  and  towards   man ;"  and,  addressing  him 
on  his  death-bed,  added   that  he,   himself,  had   governed  suc- 
cessfully, because  he  had  ever  done,  to  the  best  of  his  know- 
ledge, what   religion    and  justice   required,   without  swerving 
from  either." 
Artaxerxes'  Being  of  a  mild  and  affable  disposition,  with  moderate  desires, 

racter!^  ^  it  appears  that,  in  the  outset  of  his  reign  especially,  Artaxerxes 
followed  his  father's  last  instructions  so  faithfully,  that  he  secured 
the  affection  of  his  subjects.  But  on  the  other  hand,  he  caused 
the  person  to  be  put  to  death  who  robbed  him  of  the  glory  (for 
such  he  chose  to  consider  it)  of  having  killed  his  brother  f  and 
and  later  con-  he  Sanctioned,  if  he  did  not  originate, ,  the  treachery  by  which 
the  Greek  generals  perished.  Later  in  life,  the  queen-mother 
prevailed  upon  him  to  put  Tissaphernes  to  death,  and  committed 
other  atrocities  in  his  name ;  and  on  mere  suspicion  he  put 
many  of  his  grandees  to  death  after  his  expedition  against  the 
Cadusians.  The  inmates  of  his  harem  are  said  to  have  num- 
bered 360  ;''  and  finally  he  outraged  the  laws  even  of  Persia,  by 
marrying  two  of  his  own  daughters,  Atossa  and  Amestris. 

*  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  282,  ed.  Langhorne. 

*  Athenaeus,  lib.  VII. :  Dipnosophist.     Justin,  lib.  V.,  cap.  viii.  and  xi. 
'  Plutarch,  in  Artaxerxes,  vol.  VI.,  p.  263,  ed.  Langhorne. 

*  Ibid. 


(    251     ) 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  MARCHES  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  ALEXANDER  THE 
GREAT  TO  HIS  ENTRANCE  INTO  BABYLON. 

Resources  of  Macedonia,  and  lier  Constitution. — Philip's  Accession  and 
Wars. — Battle  of  Cliseronea. — Assassination  of  the  King  and  succession 
of  Alexander. — Appointed  Leader  of  the  Greek  Confederacy. — Civil  and 
Military  state  of  Macedonia. — Alexander's  Campaigns  on  the  Danube 
and  against  the  Illyrians. — Preparations  and  Invasion  of  Asia. — Situation 
of  Persia  under  Darius  Codomanus. —  Government  and  weakness  of  the 
Satrapies  when  invaded.— Alexander  crosses  the  Hellespont,  trusting  to 
success  for  his  resources. — Battle  of  the  Granicus. — Advance  to  Sardis 
and  Ephesus  into  Caria. — Winter  there. — The  Married  Soldiers  visit 
Greece. — Telmessus  and  other  cities  of  Lycia  taken. — Alexander  passes 
Mount  Climax,  and  marches  to  Celjense  and  Gordium.  —  Asia  Minor 
submits. — Cilicia,  Campestris,  and  rugged  Cilicia  invaded. — Approach  of 
Darius. — Battle  of  the  Issus. — Visit  to  the  Captives. — Darius'  Baggage, 
«S:c.  taken  at  Damascus. — Invasion  of  Phoenicia. — Capture  of  Tyre  and 
Gaza. — Subjection  of  Egypt. — Visit  to  the  Oasis  of  Ammon. — Settlement 
of  the  Government  of  Egypt. — March  to  Thapsacus  and  through  Meso- 
potamia.— Passage  of  the  Tigris. — Preparations  of  Darius. — Battle  of 
Arbela. — March  to  Babylon  and  Restoration  of  the  celebrated  Temple. 

The  campaigns  which  have   been   followed  in  the  preceding  The  invasion 
chapter,   more  particularly  the  retreat  of  Xenophon   and  his  She  youiljr 
followers,   no    doubt  led    in   some    degree,    to    the  still   more  ^^^"^ 
eventful   period   of  history    now   about  to   be  noticed;   from 
which  not   only  very  great  geographical  knowledge  but  ex- 
tensive commercial  benefits  were  derived.     The  campaigns  of 
the  army  raised  by  Cyrus  demonstrated  what  might  have  been 
the  power  of  the  Grecian  republics,  had  they  been  united  as 
well  as  free  ;  but  owing  to  the  weakness  caused  by  the  divisions 
arising  from  an  excess  of  liberty,  the  Grecians  became  subject  led  to  the 
to,  or  rather  merged  in,  the  bordering  and  comparatively  new  of  Akx^ndlJ. 
kingdom  of  Macedonia ;   whose   prince,  profiting  by  the  geo- 
graphical knowledge  acquired  during  the  expedition  to  Baby- 


252  ADVANTAGEOUS  SITUATION  OF  MACEDONIA.     [cHAP.  IX. 

Ionia,  and  the  experience  then  gained  in  the  art  of  war, 
executed  those  mighty  achievements  which  led  to  the  conquest 
ofthe  Old  World. 

Great  battles    and    extensive   conquests   have   belonged   to 
every  period  of  the  vrorld,  and  extraordinary  campaigns,  such  as 
that  of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  may  have  taken  place  from 
time  to  time  ;  but  the  brilliant  victories,  the  unparalleled  sieges 
and  vast  conquests,  above  all  the  wonderful  marches  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  will,  in  all  probability,   stand  alone  for  ever ; 
more    particularly   when    considered    in    connexion   with    the 
limited  means  at  his  command. 
Geographical       Situated  bctwecu  Thrace,  Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  Macedonia 
position  an      ^^  -^^  south-castcrly  prolongation  forms  a  peninsula  terminating 
with  three  capes,  namely,  the  Nymphseum  promontory,  now 
Mount  Athos,   the  Ampela?  promontory,  now  Cape  Drepano, 
and  that  of  Canasteerum,  now  Cape  Pailhuri ;   but  although  it 
has  a  rugged  mountain  barrier  on  the  remaining  sides,  namely, 
advantages  of  qh  the  uorth-east,  on  the  north,  the  west,  and  the  south,  the  cul- 

Macedonia.  .  ,  ,  •  •  •         ^  ^  i-  n    i       -r> 

tivatable  territory  is  more  extensive  than  that  oi  any  oi  the  Ke- 
publican  states,  ^loreover,  it  possesses  a  better  soil,  and  is,  on 
account  of  the  facilities  of  communication,  more  valuable,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  stronger ;  for,  owing  to  its  being  less  broken 
and  separated,  its  defenders  can  be  more  readily  united  than 
those  of  Greece. 
Herpatri-  In  addition  to  these  advantages,  Macedonia  derived  others 

tution.  of  greater  importance  from  her  ancient  patriarchal  constitution, 

in  the  maintenance  and  defence  of  which  the  community  at 
large  had  the  greatest  interest ;  and,  as  will  presently  be  seen, 
it  was  at  the  same  time  the  source  of  great  strength  in  offen- 
sive as  well  as  defensive  warfare. 

Enjoying  the  actual  freedom  of  a  limited  monarchy,  rather 
than  that  which  existed  nominally  in  the  democratic  states  of 
Greece,  the  people  of  Macedonia  were  greatly  attached  to  the 
constitution,  and  to  their  sovereign.  The  king,  it  is  true,  was 
nominally  supreme,  being  both  the  commander  of  the  army 
and  the  administrator  of  justice  ;  but  this  double  authority  was 
regulated  by  certain  principles  and  established  laws. 
Limitedpower      In  the  latter  capacity,   for  instance,  he  onlv  condemned  or 

of  the  king.  l  ./  ' 


CHAP.  IX.]  SOCIAL  STATE  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  253 

acquitted  in  concurrence  with  the  assembled  representatives ; 
and  in  the  former,  high  treason  and  other  grave  matters  were 
determined  by  him  in  a  council  of  the  whole  army. 

The  princes  of  Macedonia,  three  brothers,  were  originally  Common 
from  Argos  ;  ^  the  speech,  the  manners,  and  the  religion  of  the  Macedonians 
Macedonians  were  also  those  of  the  Greeks;^  their  common  ^''^  ^'■^'^'^"^• 
origin  goirig  back   to  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  Danaus  from 
Egypt.     It  would  appear  that  the  Pelasgians  occupied  Argos, 
Epirus,  Macedonia,  and  the  whole  of  Greece,^  at  the  period  in 
question ;    the  name   of  that   people    having  been  previously 
applied  to  the  whole   territory/     Instead  of  having  fortified 
cities  like  the  Greeks,  the  Macedonians  chiefly  occupied  open 
agricultural  villages,   and  the  necessity  of  being  always  pre- 
pared, rendered  them  a  nation   of  warriors.     But  at  a  later  Warlike  pro- 

.     1  ,    .       /.        , .  .  '11  1  1  pensitiesofthe 

period  certam  frontier  provinces  were  considered  as  advanced  Macedonians, 
posts,  which  were  usually  entrusted  to  the  younger  sons  of  the 
reigning  family. 

But  the  advantages  of  thus  keeping  war  at  a  distance  were 
counterbalanced  by  the  jarring  interests  which  arose,  as  these 
appanages  became  partly  hereditary ;  particularly,  as  in  the 
instance  now  to  be  mentioned,  when  the  chief  became  a  com- 
petitor for  the  throne. 

Hearing  that  Perdiccas  had  fallen  in  an  unsuccessful  battle  Philip,  son  of 
against  the  lUyrians,  Philip,  son  of  Amyntas,  left  one  of  these  pires"to^tiir 
governments   and  hastened   to  Pella,    hoping   to   succeed   his  government, 
brother.     Although    hereditary,     the    Macedonians    were    not 
very  strict  as  to  the  succession,  provided  it  continued  in  the 
royal  house.     On  this  occasion,  one  party  favoured  a  child,  the 
son  of  Perdiccas,  another  Pausanias,  who  was  supported  by  the 
Thracians  ;  and  a  third,  assisted  by  the  Athenians,  espoused  the 
cause  of  Argaeus.    Moreover,  confusion  and  dejection  prevailed 
amongst  the  people  owing  to  the  recent  defeat,  added  to  the 
apprehension  of  a  fresh  invasion  of  the  Illyrians. 

Superior  talents,   enlarged  by   education   in   the  school   of 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  cxxxvii, 

*  Mitford's  Greece,  cliap.  I.,  sec.  1  and  34. 

^  ^schyl.,  Danaid,  p.  316,  ed.  H.  Stephen,  and  Mitford's  Greece,  chap. 
I.,  s.  2;  Strabo,  lib.  YIL,  p.  321. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  VIII..  cap.  xliv. 


254 


Philip's  education  and  accession.         [chap.  ix. 


By  his  talents 
and  capacity 


he  gains  the 
army  and 
leading  men 
of  the  country, 


Origin  of  the 

Macedonian 

phalanx. 


Subjection  of 
the  lllyrians. 


B  C.  357. 


Pythagoras,  Mheii  the  guest  of  Epaminondas  at  Thebes/  and 
possessing  at  the  same  time  elegant  and  winning  manners, 
Philip  was  eminently  qualified  to  take  the  lead  in  Macedonia. 
Although  arduous,  his  situation  was  promising;  for  the 
working  powers  of  government  being  distributed  amongst  the 
people,^  the  eloquent  master-spirit  of  the  prince  could  not  fail 
to  lead  his  subjects,  securing  their  affection,  and  commanding 
their  admiration  at  the  same  time.  Professedly  as  guardian  of 
his  nephew  Amyntas,  Philip  first  gained  the  army,  and  next 
succeeded  in  bringing  the  leading  men  to  his  interest,  by  ex- 
pressions of  confidence  on  the  one  hand,  and  large  promises  on 
the  other  ;  at  the  same  time,  by  the  secret  and  judicious  use  of 
gold,  he  put  a  stop  to  the  plundering  invasions  of  the  Paeo- 
nians  and  lllyrians.^  Confidence  being  now  in  some  degree 
restored,  Philip  gave  his  earliest  attention  to  the  state  of  the 
army,  endeavouring  to  perfect  the  organization  of  Archelaus, 
and  grafting  on  it  the  more  modern  tactics  of  the  Greeks. 
With  the  latter,  as  well  as  with  the  experience  gained  by  the 
Cyrean  army,  he  was  well  acquainted,  and  from  him  originated 
the  celebrated  Macedonian  phalanx,  which  it  is  supposed  he 
had  already  introduced  into  his  former  government.  It  con- 
sisted of  375  men  in  front  and  16  deep  armed  with  spears  from 
14  to  16  feet  in  length,  in  addition  to  a  long  shield,  a  short 
sword,  a  headpiece,  and  a  breast-plate  of  quilted  linen.* 

With  troops  thus  formed  and  armed  the  king  overcame  the 
Athenians;  and  his  competitor  Argseus  having  been  killed, 
the  peace  which  ensued  enabled  him  to  reduce  the  Illyrian 
tribes  to  submission.^  The  Macedonians  now  assisted  the 
Athenians  in  taking  Potidaea,  with  the  intention  of  seizing  the 
neighbouring  territory  of  Olynthus  also.  But  before  there 
was  time  to  accomplish  the  latter  object,  an  unprovoked  descent 
made  on  Pydna  by  the  Athenian  fleet  put  an  end  to  the 
alliance ;  and  satisfaction  being  refused,  the  Macedonians  and. 
Olyntheans,  with  united  forces,  marched  against  the  Athenians, 
recovered  Pydna,  and  captured  Potidaea.     A  successful  expe- 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVI.,  cap.  ii.  *  Ibid. 

^  Ibid.  •*  Potter's  Archaeol.,  vol.  II.,  chap,  xvii. 

»  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVI.,  cap.  iii. 


CHAP.  IX.]  WARS  IN  ILLYRIA  AND  THRACE.  255 

dition  into  Thessaly  having  followed,  Philip  married  Olynipias,  Philip  defeats 
the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus,   and  professed  himself  and  marries 
ready  to  imitate  Archelaus  by  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace ;     y"P'^- 
but  the  restless  spirit  at  Athens  brought  about  a  formidable 
confederacy  of  the  kings  of  Thrace  and  lUyria,  assisted  as 
they  were  by  the  principality  of  Pseonia.' 

Alike  prepared  to  meet  and  to  surmount  such  difficulties,  Philip's  sue- 
the  energetic  Philip  despatched  Parmenio,  his  ablest  general, 
against   the  Illyrians,  and,   having  overcome  his  opponent  in  B.C. 354. 
Paeonia,   he  marched  into  Thrace,  Avhere  he  was  equally  for- 
tunate.    These  last  successes  were  scarcely  completed,  when  a 
courier  announced  a  great  victory  gained  by  Parmenio  over 
the  Illyrians ;    a  second  messenger  brought  intelligence  that  his 
horse  had  gained  the  Olympian  race ;  and  a  third  made  known 
the  birth  of  a  son  and  heir  to  his  kingdom,  which  now  extended  Birth  of  his 
from  the  Euxine  sea  to  the  Adriatic. 

Philip's  election  to  be  general  of  the  Amphictyons  gave 
fresh  vigour  to  his  enemies,  and  Demosthenes  induced  the 
Athenian  people  to  declare  that  they  did  not  admit  the  claim 
of  the  king  of  Macedon  to  be  an  Amphictyon  :  troops  and  ships 
were  accordingly  sent  into  Boeotia;  and,  for  this  purpose,  con- 
ceding the  precedency  to  the  Thebans,  they  marched  to 
Chaeronea. 

Philip,   as  general  of  the  Amphictyons,   carefully  avoided  Campaign 
being  the  aggressor ;  and  having  fruitlessly  repeated  his  desires  Athenians  and 
of  peace  to  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  marched  at  the  head 
of  30,000  foot  and  2,000  horse  into  the  Boeotian  province,^ 
then  occupied  by  50,000  Athenians  and  Thebans.^ 

Philip  retained  the  command  of  the  right  wing,  and  en- 
trusted that  of  the  left  wing  to  Alexander.  The  Athenian 
forces  were  commanded  by  Chares,  and  the  Thebans  by 
Lysicles;  the  latter  being  remarkable  for  his  rashness,  and 
the  former  for  his  ignorance  as  a  commander.  The  battle 
continued  doubtful  till  about  mid-day,  when  Alexander,  anxious 
to  signalize  himself  in  his  first  battle,  attacked,  and  with  great 
difficulty  overcame  the  sacred  battalion  of  the  Thebans.    Nearly 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVI.,  cap.  xi.  *  Ibid.,  cap,  xxiv. 

»  Ibid. 


256 


BATTLE  AND  PEACE  OF  CH.ERONEA.  [CHAP.  IX. 


Battle  of 
Chseronea. 


Philip's  mode- 
ration after 
the  victory. 


Philip  elected 
autocrator  of 
Greece. 


B.  C.  336. 


Philip 

perishes  by 
the  hand  of 
Pausanias. 


at  the  same  time  Philip  gained  some  advantage  over  the 
Athenians  on  the  left.  But  at  this  moment  Lysicles  pene- 
trated the  centre  of  the  Macedonians,  crying  out,  "  Let  us  pursue 
them  to  Macedonia !"  Perceiving  the  mistake  made  by  ad- 
vancing thus  incautiously,  instead  of  attacking  the  phalanx  in 
flank,  Philip  coolly  remarked,  "The  Athenians  do  not  know 
how  to  conquer,"  and  causing  the  phalanx  to  fall  back  and 
re-form  under  the  cover  of  a  height,  put  the  Athenians  to 
flight,  when  the  whole  army  was  routed  with  the  loss  of  1,000 
Athenians  and  as  many  Thebans.^  Demosthenes  himself  nar- 
rowly escaped,  throwing  away  his  shield  as  he  fled.~ 

Philip's  moderation  after  this  victory,  both  at  Thebes  and 
Athens,  was  great.  No  individual  was  allowed  to  suffer  in 
person  or  property  ;  and  his  magnanimity  and  generosity  at 
the  latter  city  excited  the  admiration  of  the  whole  of  Greece, 
with  the  exception  of  the  implacable  war  party. 

Peace  was  offered  on  the  same  terms  as  before,  and  a  con- 
gress being  assembled  at  Corinth,  Philip  was  elected  general 
autocrator  of  Greece,  which  appointment  was  particularly 
opportune,  by  favouring  the  changes  that  had  taken  place. 
The  fascinations  of  the  late  great  victory  took  the  place  of 
nobler  objects.  The  peaceable  improvement  of  Macedonia  was 
postponed,  and  Philip  sent  two  of  his  generals  in  order 
to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Asia,  whither  he  had  previously 
sent  Attalus  and  Parmenio  to  prepare  the  way,  by  exciting 
revolt.^  The  divorce  of  Olympias  soon  followed,  and  next 
year  their  daughter  was  married  to  her  uncle  the  king  of 
Epirus. 

It  was  during  the  festivities  on  the  latter  occasion,  and  as  it 
is  believed,  to  revenge  an  insult  received  from  Attalus,  that 
Philip  perished  by  the  hand  of  Pausanias,  a  Macedonian  youth 
of  rank." 

Being  the  popular  king  of  a  free  people,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  head  of  the  Greek  republics  by  their  free  choice,  Philip 
was  in  a  position  to  extend  to  the  latter  the  benefit  of  a  limited 
monarchy,  with  all  the  happiness  and  independence  that  are 


'  Diod.  Sic,  lib  XVI.,  cap.  xxiv. 
^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVI.,  caj).  xxv. 


*  iEsch.  de  Cor.,  p.  545. 

*  Ibid. 


CHAP.  IX.]  ALEXANDER  SUCCEEDS  HIS  FATHER.  257 

compatible  with  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large.  But 
the  details  of  the  intended  improvements,  as  well  as  those  con- 
nected with  the  Persian  M'ar,  were  lost  by  the  untimely  fate  of 
the  king. 

On   his   accession,  Macedonia   was   but  an  ordinary  state  Power  of 
weakened  by  war  and  dissensions,   but  on  the  death  of  this  compare"d  with 
gifted  monarch  it  was,  next  to  Persia,  the  most  powerful  king-  P'^^^^^- 
dom  existing ;  and  having  now  become  the  centre  of  arts  and 
civilization,  its  influence  was  nmch  greater  than  the  latter  king- 
dom.    The  vast  physical   power  which  descended  to  Darius 
Codomanus  was  thus,  in  a  great  measure,  counterbalanced,  and 
the  successor  of  Philip  was  placed  in  a  position  no  less  com- 
manding than  that  of  the  Persian  monarch  himself.     Happily, 
notwithstanding   his   extreme   youth    and  inexperience,   Alex- By  hisjudi- 
ander  was  gifted  with   the  necessary  talents  to  grapple  with  Alexander^' 
the  complicated  and  diflBcult  circumstances  in  which  he  was 
placed.    Previously  to  the  funeral  obsequies,  the  prince  told  the 
assembled  Macedonians  that,   though  the  name  was  changed, 
they  would  find  that  the  king  remained.^     The  able  statesmen 
and  generals  of  his  father,  therefore,  were  continued  ;  the  friends 
of  Philip  became  those  of  Alexander ;  and  the  machinery  con- 
tinuing the  same,  none  of  his  personal  friends  being  raised  to 
distinguished  ofiices,  civil  or  military,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  energy  of  Alexander  was  suflScient,   on  the  one  hand,   to 
stifle  the  plot  which  had  caused  the  catastrophe  at  home,^  and, 
on    the    other,   to    maintain    the   ascendancy   as   chief  of  the 
Grecian  republics,  notwithstanding  the  unremitting  exertions  of 
Demosthenes  and  the  rest  of  his  enemies. 

At  Corinth,  the  states,  with  the  exception  of  Lacedaemon,  is  elected 
decreed  that  the  youthful  Alexander  should  be  head  of  the  oTetk^coa! 
confederacy,  and  that  the  unquiet  spirits  should  be  occupied  by  ^"^^eracy. 
carrying  the  war  into  Asia  *,  for  which,  as  will  be  seen,  there 
were  ample  means  at  command.     The  surface  of  Macedonia 
Proper  nearly  equalled  that  of  republican  Greece,   but,   owing 
to  circumstances,  its  power  was  infinitely  greater.     The  people 
enjoyed  equal  rights ;  and  since  all  might  be  called  upon  to 
serve,  they  were  a  nation  of  men  uniting  the  civil  and  military 

•  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XYII.,  cap.  ii.  *  Anian,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xviii. 

VOL.  IL  S 


258  STATE  OF  MACEDONIA  UNDER  ALEXANDER.      [cHAP.  IX. 

Military  and    character,   for  which  they  were  prepared  by  an   appropriate 
leges  of  ^he     cducatioii.     Ill  fact,  the  laws  for  the  city  and  the  camp  were 
Macedonians.   -^^    evcry  Tcspcct   similar ;    the    army    exercising   jurisdiction 
abroad,  and  the  people  at  home.    But  the  disadvantages  arising 
from  the  leader  of  the  army  being  controlled,  were  counter- 
balanced by  the  enthusiasm  which   that  leader  inspired,   and 
they    ceased    altogether   under    such   generals   as   Philip   and 
Alexander,  whose  appeals  to  the  affections  of  the  soldiers  were 
superior  to  mere  commands,  and  rendered  the  courage  of  the 
army  irresistible. 
Alexander's         Dangers  at  home,  however,  delayed  the  contemplated  attack 

first  campaign.  -n        •  it>  •!•  i'iiir>  i? 

on  rersia,  and  Jrarmenio  being  entrusted  with  the  deience  oi 
Macedonia  against  the  Illyrians,  Alexander  proceeded  against 
the  rebels ;  by  a  rapid  march  he  not  only  covered  Amphipolis, 
but  drove  them  into  the  mountains.  Here,  conjointly  with 
the  Thracians,  they  took  up  a  strong  position  between  steep 
precipices  on  the  verge  of  a  quick  declivity,  having  in  front  a 
barrier  of  waggons  ready  to  be  rolled  down,  in  order  to  break 
the  Macedonian  phalanx  as  it  advanced. 

Perhaps  on  no  occasion  throughout  a  military  career  replete 
M'ith  the  most  daring  achievements,  were  more  skill  and  cool 
intrepidity  displayed,  than  by  the  youthful  prince  in  this 
hazardous  attack.  On  seeing  the  waggons  put  in  motion,  as 
they  advanced,  those  Macedonians  who  could  not  shelter  them- 
selves behind  rocks,  were  commanded  to  lie  down  under  a  cover 
formed  by  means  of  their  compacted  shields.  This  project 
succeeded,  and  the  machines  having  passed  over  them  almost 
Defeat  of  the  harmlessly,  the  phalanx  re-formed  and  advanced.  Being  at- 
Tif"^r^°^  tacked  at  the  same  time  in  flank  by  the  Hypaspists  led  by 
Alexander,  the  enemy  fled  with  such  precipitation  that  they 
left  their  families  and  slaves  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.' 
The  line  of  march  from  Pella  by  Amphipolis  indicates  that 
this  affair  took  place  on  the  southern  slope  of  Mount  Hemaeus, 
near  the  principal  pass  through  the  Balkan,  and  northward  of 
Adrianople. 

A  victory  over  the  Triballians  or  Bulgarians  followed,  and 
in  three  days,  traversing  Mount  Hemaeus,  Alexander  reached 

'  Arrian,  Jib.  I ,  cap.  i. 


CHAP.  IX.]         ALEXANDER  CONQUERS  THE  GOTHS,  ETC.  259 

the  river  Ister,  or  Danube,  no  doubt  below  the  present  town  of 

Widdin.     Here  he  experienced  a  slight  check  in  attacking  the 

island  of  Pcuce,'  but  he  speedily  effected  the  passage  of  this  Passage  of  the 

considerable  river,   partly  by  means  of  vessels  dragged  up  the 

stream  from  the  Euxine  for  this  purpose,  and  partly  on  the 

skins  of  which  the  tents  were  formed,  stuffed  with  straw.^ 

The  great  w^ater  barrier,  which  had  been  their  chief  depend-  Subjection  of 

the  GetiE  and 

ence,  being  thus  overcome,  the  Getse  or  Goths  hastily  fled, 
leaving  their  capital  and  much  booty  at  the  mercy  of  the 
Macedonians.  Alexander  was  now  obliged  to  retrace  his  steps, 
and  as  the  best  means  of  repelling  the  inroad  of  the  Illyrians 
and  Taulantians  into  Macedonia,  he  made  a  rapid  march  and 
gained  a  battle  over  the  former  near  their  capital,  Pellion, 
before  their  allies  had  time  to  render  assistance ;  the  latter 
were  therefore  beaten  in  detail,  and  a  peace  having  been  dic- 
tated in  consequence  to  the  Illyrians  and  Taulantians,  Alexander  other  tribes. 
was  free  to  attend  to  other  objects  of  importance.  ^ 

Owing  to  a  combination   of  the  republics,  which  had  been  Return  of 
brought  about  by  Demosthenes,  the  conqueror  hastened  towards  subjection  of 
Greece ;  but  the  report  of  his  death  led  to  a  revolution  before  '^^^•^^^^• 
he  reached  Thebes,  and  the  city  was  stormed  in  consequence: 
6,000  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  the  assault,  and  30,000 
of  the    survivors    being    condemned   to    be    sold,    Alexander 
returned  to  his  kingdom  to  celebrate  the  Macedonian  Olympic 
games  in  the  city  of  Dia,  previously  to  commencing  his  gigantic 
enterprise.^ 

With    the    exception  of  the  opposing  Lacedaemonians,  the  The  invasion 
invasion  of  Asia  was  popular  throughout  Greece;    and    the  by  the  Greeks, 
meeting  at  Corinth  has  been  aptly  called  by  Rollin,  a  Diet  of 
the  Western,  deliberating  on  the   destruction  of  the  Eastern 
world.     A  force  of  7,000  Greeks  and  5,000  mercenaries  were 
therefore    readily    placed    at    Alexander's    disposal,    and    the 
exhausted  treasury  left  by  Philip  having  been  replenished  by  a 
loan  of  800  talents,  he  crossed  the  Hellespont  in  the  spring,  at  B.C.  334. 
the  head  of  a  force,  according  to  Anaximenes,  of  43,000  foot 

'  The  Danube  forms  several  islands  below  Widdin. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  I.,  cap.  iii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  v.,  vi. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xi. 

s2 


260  STATE  OF  ASIA.  [cHAP.  IX. 

Alexander's  and  5,500  liorse,  or  with  little  more  than  34,500  infantry  and 
preparations,  ^^.qq  cavalrv,  according  to  Arrian  and  Plutarch;'  and  with 
the  riches  of  Asia  as  a  temptation  to  his  followers,  he  ventured 
to  invade  an  empire  whose  power  was  but  little  diminished  since 
the  time  of  Xerxes ;  notwithstanding  its  serious  reverses,  and 
some  changes  which  it  had  undergone  :  these  may  now  be  briefly 
noticed. 
State  of  Asia  It  has  already  been  seen  that  after  his  failure  in  Egypt, 
ff°XeSes™^  Ochus  took  the  command  of  Lesser  Asia  in  person  ;  and  the 
renewed  allegiance  of  Sidon  being  followed  by  the  collection  of 
a  powerful  fleet,  that  of  Cyprus  also  followed,  and  nine  govern- 
ments having  been  formed  under  as  many  vassal  kings,  the  army 
proceeded  through  the  territory  of  Sidon ;  and  the  ulterior 
object,  the  subjection  of  Egypt,  was  completed  by  these  skilful 
combinations.  Extremes  belong  to  the  Asiatic  character,  and 
in  this  case  three  brilliant  campaigns  were  succeeded  by  a  state 
of  inactive  luxury.^  In  order  that  this  might  be  as  little  inter- 
rupted as  possible,  Ochus,  partly  following  out  the  intentions  of 
the  second  Darius,  divided  his  vast  territories  into  two  great 
governments ;  that  of  the  eastern  provinces  was  entrusted  to  the 
eunuch  Bagoas,  as  a  reward  for  his  great  services  during  his 
command  in  Egypt ;  and  on  Mentor,  whose  services  in  the 
same  part  of  the  world  had  given  him  an  equal  if  not  a  greater 
claim,  that  of  the  western  districts  was  conferred.  This  satrapy 
extended  from  the  Euxine  to  Upper  Egypt;  it  was,  conse- 
quently, larger  than  the  territory  of  the  younger  Cyrus^  and 
was  ably  conducted.  Indeed,  everywhere  good  government 
and  prosperity  prevailed  throughout  both  viceroyalties. 

Ochus  having  been  poisoned,  and  his  successor.  Arses,  like- 
wise having  met  the  same  fate  after  a  reign  of  three  years, 
Codomanus,  the  satrap  of  Armenia,  and  a  descendant  of  the 
to  the  acces-  second  Darius,  was  raised  to  the  throne.^  Some  preparations 
Codomanus!"^  had  been  made  by  his  predecessor  to  avert  the  hostile  intentions 
of  Philip,  which  were  largely  increased  when  he  learnt  from  his 
emissaries,  particularly  in  Athens,  after  the  termination  of  the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xvii. ;  Plut.  de  fort.  Alex.,  p.  327. 
*  Diod.  Sic,  lib,  XVI.,  cap.  xlvii.  and  lii. 
=>  Ibid.,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  ii. 


CHAP.  IX.]     NATURE  OF  THE  VICEREGAL  GOVERNMENTS.  26  1 

Illyriaii  war  and  the  capture  of  Thebes,  that  the  threatened 
invasion  of  the  father  was  about  to  be  realized  by  his  victorious 
son. 

Darius  had  been  distinguished  not  only  as  a  warrior  against 
the  bordering  nations,  but  still  more  for  his  judicious  govern- 
ment of  a  large  tract  of  country ;'  and  perhaps  at  no  time  since 
the  hosts  of  Xerxes  marched  into  Greece,  was  the  empire  more 
capable  of  being  formidable,  than  when  the  satrap  Codomanus 
appeared  as  the  sovereign  of  Asia,  under  the  well-known  name 
of  Darius. 

Averse  from  war,  and  of  a  mild,  equitable,  and  amiable  dis-  Character  and 

•  p     1    •      1     1  •       •  1         •  z»  1       1      1   1  disposition  of 

position,  we  are  justified  in  believing,  that  ii  he  had  been  per-  Darius. 
mitted  to  carry  out  his  plans,  or  had  his  circumstances  been  less 
trying  than  having  such  a  powerful  enemy  as  Alexander,  the 
reign  of  this  prince  might  have  been  as  much  distinguished  for 
the  equity  and  justice  of  a  flourishing  government  as  it  now  is 
remarkable  in  the  page  of  history,  for  the  greatest  calamities 
and  reverses. 

The  two  earlier  sovereigns  of  the  same  name,  more  par- 
ticularly Hystaspes,  followed  the  Median,  or  rather  the  still 
more  ancient  system  of  government,  and  the  third  equally 
endeavoured  to  carry  out  the  paternal  arrangements ;  making 
in  practice  as  well  as  in  theory,  little  or  no  distinction  between 
born  subjects,  and  those  who  had  become  so  either  from  choice 
or  by  the  rights  of  conquest. 

The  vast  territory  of  Darius,  which  comprised  numerous  The  nature 
provinces,  or,  more  properly, kingdoms,  having  different  manners,  governments, 
languages,  laws,  customs,  and  interests,  presented  at  best  a  dis- 
jointed mass,  without  any  common  interest  in  supporting  the 
supreme  government ;  or  any  tie  whatever  beyond  that  of  tem- 
porary subjection.  Therefore,  one  decided  victory  carried  with 
it  the  allegiance  of  many  satraps,  who,  in  the  East,  are  at  all 
times  ready  to  transfer  to  the  conqueror  those  services  which 
they  had  previously  rendered  to  the  legitimate  sovereign ;  to 
whom  they  consider  such  services  due  only  as  long,  to  use  the 
phraseology  of  the  East,  as  it  is  God's  will  that  he  should  retain 
power. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII,  c.  2. 


262  ADVANTAGES  POSSESSED  BY  THE  INVADERS.     [cHAP.  IX. 

Weakness  of  This  souFce  of  inherent  weakness  existed  in  the  empire  on 
the  invasion  of  another  prince,  whose  talents  and  daring  were 
scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  the  great  conqueror  himself  The 
younger  Cyrus  was  well  aware  that  a  single  victory  would  have 
placed  at  his  command  the  empire  for  which  he  contended,  and 
ensured  for  him  the  same  services  from  Abrocamas,  Tissapher- 
nes,  Teribazus,  and  the  other  satraps,  which  they  had  previously 
rendered  to  his  brother.  And  if  it  be  borne  in  mind,  that  had 
it  not  been  for  the  disobedience  of  Clearchus  this  object  would 
have  been  accomplished  with  a  force  of  only  12,000  veterans  to 
assist  the  Asiatics,  the  nature  and  comparative  power  of  the 
great  enterprise  now  about  to  be  described  will  be  better  under- 
stood.    In  following  the  steps  so  ably  traced  by  his  prototype, 

Advantages     Alexander  conducted  into  Asia  at  least  triple  the  number  of 

possessed  by  _  r  ^ 

Alexander,  experienced  troops,  who  were  entirely  devoted  to  their  leader, 
and  raised  to  the  highest  pitch  of  enthusiasm  by  his  personal 
example,  and  the  additional  temptation  of  the  great  wealth  of 
Asia :  in  the  distribution  of  this,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  realized 
the  promised  liberality  of  Cyrus.  The  funds  on  which  he 
relied  to  carry  out  his  momentous  undertaking  were  the  fruits 
of  his  victories. 

Alexander  was  no  doubt  as  well  acquainted  M-ith  the  political 
state  of  the  territories  about  to  be  invaded  as  he  proved  to  be 
with  their  geographical  state.  The  mutual  jealousies  of  the 
satraps,  as  evinced  by  Tissaphernes,  in  assisting  the  Greeks  to 
overcome  his  rival,  and  the  limited  authority  of  the  great  king 
over  these  feudal  chiefs,^  could  not  have  escaped  the  penetration 
of  the  Macedonian  monarch. 

His  admirable  Well  kuowing  how  to  tum  such  advantages  to  account  by  con- 
tinuing the  satraps  in  their  governments  ;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
holding  out  incentives,  almost  princely,  to  every  chief  in  his 
army,  Alexander  felt  that  the  zeal  of  his  officers  as  well  as  the 
discipline  of  his  troops  must  necessarily  prevail,  and  bring  in  its 
train  the  defection  of  some,  or  perhaps  all  of  the  Greek  mer- 
cenaries who  were  employed  against  him  ;  as  well  as  gain  for 
him  the  suffrages  of  the  Greek  settlements  in  Asia.  To  pro- 
cure the  freedom  of  the  latter  was  the  avowed  object  of  Alex- 

'  See  above,  vol.  II.,  chap,  viii.,  pp.  243,  244. 


policy. 


CHAP.  IX.]  THE  MACEDONIANS  LAND  IN  ASIA.  263 

ander ;  though  had  the  wishes  of  the  people  been  consulted, 
most  of  the  states  would  probably  have  remained  contentedly  in 
their  allegiance  to  Persia. 

Depending  almost  entirely  on  Asia  for  ordinary  supplies  as  He  passes  the 
well  as  money,  but  little  provision  was  made,  and  the  army  soon 
reached  the  straits  which  separate  Europe  from  this  continent. 
Whilst  the  fleet  was  occupied  in  transporting  the  troops  across 
the  unguarded  Hellespont  from  Sestos  to  Abydos,  Alexander 
poured  libations  to  the  waves,  ordered  altars  to  be  raised  where 
he  embarked  and  landed ;  and  when  visiting  the  localities 
immortalized  by  the  king  of  poets,  in  accordance  with  the 
keenness  of  his  feelings  and  the  powerful  superstition  of  the 
time,  he  offered  sacrifices  to  Protesilaus  and  some  others  of  the 
principal  heroes  connected  with  the  fate  of  the  city :  on  the  site 
of  Troy  itself  he  hung  his  own  armour,  replacing  it  by  a  suit  ^"^.°/'-'" 

•'  "  Pi/i  sacrifices  at 

which  had  been  worn  by  one  of  the  former  heroes.'  Troy. 

Aware  that  although  he  had  neglected  the  passage  of  the 
Hellespont,  the  satrap  Mentor  was  prepared  to  oppose  his 
advance  either  across  Mount  Ida  or  through  the  towns  along 
the  western  coast,  Alexander  caused  his  army  to  proceed  east- 
ward along  the  Propontis,  and  having,  as  just  noticed,  visited 
Troy,  he  joined  it  at  Arisba.  From  hence  he  advanced  by  Advance  along 
Percote  and  Lampsacus  to  the  Practius  river  ;  and  onward  by  iuto  Bithynia. 
Hermotus  and  Colonse  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Zelia,  in 
Bithynia. 

Since  the  death  of  Mentor,  the  Persian  forces  were  jointly 
under  Spithridates,  the  satrap  of  Lydia,  Ionia,  &c.,  and  Arsites, 
the  Hellespontine  satrap ;  Memnon  being  only  an  auxiliary 
without  a  command.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  the  latter,  to 
waste  the  country  and  avoid  a  battle,  it  was  determined  to  take 
the  bolder  course  of  defending  the  territory,  and  a  rapid  march 
enabled  the  lieutenants  of  Darius  to  take  a  position  near  Zelia, 
on  the  river  Granicus,^  with  a  force  consisting  of  about  20,000 
Persian  horse,  and  as  many  Greek  mercenaries  under  Omares  ;^  Defensive 
but  with  the  addition  of  the  light-armed  troops  and  followers,  ^"^^^^'^  '°"^' 

'  Arrian,  lib.  I.,  cliap.  xi, 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII,,  cap.  iv. 

'  Arrian,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xv. 


264  BATTLE  OF  THE  GRANICUS.  [cHAP.  IX. 

the  aggregate  probably  approached  1 10,000,  as  estimated  by 
Diodorus  Siculus,'  and  Quintius  Curtius.^ 
Defective  Instead  of  placing  the  cavalry  in  the  rear  as  a  support,  and 

Perstans^on  ^  thc  heavy  armed  in  the  first  line,  where  their  spears  would  have 
Granicu^s  ^^^^  ^^  effectually  in  defending  the  bank  of  the  river,  the 
Persian  chiefs,  depending  upon  their  principal  arm,  committted 
the  serious  mistake  of  reversing  this  order ;  posting  the  horse 
on  the  level  ground  near  the  river  and  the  phalanges  on  the 
heights.' 
Alexander's  Having  in  pcrson  carefully  examined,  and  also  ascertained 
p  an  o  attac  .  ^j^^^  ^j^^  rivcr  was  fordablc,  Alexander  immediately  prepared  to 
attack,  giving  to  his  troops,  with  the  intervals,  a  front  equal  to 
the  too  extended  line  of  the  enemy.  The  phalanges  occupied 
the  centre,  and  the  cavalry  the  two  wings.  On  the  left  were 
the  Grecian,  the  Thracian,  and  the  Thessalian  horse ;  on  the 
right  were  the  royal  companions,  also  the  Macedonian  heavy 
horse  and  the  Hypaspists ;  the  first  being  supported  by  the 
Agrians  and  bowmen,  and  the  second  by  the  Pseonians,  who 
were  also  middle  armed.  Alexander  entrusted  the  command  of 
the  left  wing  toParmenio,  reserving  to  himself  that  of  the  right, 
which  was  to  make  the  principal  attack.  This  wing  advanced 
under  cover  of  some  infantry  and  cavalry  to  begin  the  battle ; 
and  although  the  latter  were  quickly  compelled  to  retire,  their 
attack  gave  the  main  body  time  to  reach  the  right  bank,  on 
which  point,  attracted  by  the  splendour  of  Alexander's  armour, 
the  Persians  directed  their  choicest  troops,  when  the  battle 
became  more  a  personal  struggle  between  individuals  than  an 
Progress  of  ordinary  action.  The  bravery  of  the  Persian  leaders  was  con- 
spicuous till  the  more  successful  valour  of  Alexander  and  the 
royal  companions  prevailed ;  when  Mithridates,  a  son-in-law  of 
Darius,  Pharnaces,  the  queen's  brother,  Spithridates,  and  seven 
others  of  great  eminence  having  fallen,  the  retreat  of  the  Persian 
cavalry  was  the  consequence.  The  infantry  being  now  left 
without  support,  Alexander  immediately  made  an  attack  with 
a  condensed  force  against  the   centre  of  the  Persian  Greeks, 

'  Lib.  XVII.,  cap.  iv.  *  Preface,  p.  20. 

"  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xv.,   xvi.,  with  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII., 
cap.  iv.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  page  20,  Preface. 


CHAP.  IX.]     ADVANCE  TO  SARDIS,  EPHESUS,  AND  CARIA.  265 

who  after  a  resolute  but  unavailing  resistance  were  broken.    In  The  Persians 
addition  to  the  killed,  amongst  whom  were  many  of  the  leading  after  an  obsti- 
men  of  Persia,  2,000  prisoners  surrendered  themselves  in  this"^^ 
great  and  complete  victory  gained  by  Alexander  against  the 
forces  of  Darius :  his  own  loss  was  very  trifling. 

Funeral  honours  for  the  slain  were  the  first  consideration  of 
the  king,  and  the  next,  those  objects  likely  to  facilitate  his 
ulterior  plans.  The  wounded  received  personal  visits,  and  were 
treated  with  extraordinary  care.  Privileges  and  immunities 
were  granted  to  distinguished  soldiers ;  and  300  complete  suits 
of  Persian  armour  were  sent  to  the  temple  of  Minerva,  in  which 
they  were  placed,  with  the  inscription  "  From  Alexander,  son 
of  Philip,  and  the  Greeks,  excepting  the  Lacedcemonians,  these 
trophies  taken  from  the  barbarians  of  Asia."  Regarding  the 
empire  as  his  own,  Alexander  admonished  the  soldiers  to  avoid 
plunder  and  spare  his  subjects ;  and  Callas,  the  satrap  over  the 
Hellespontine  Phrygia,  received  instructions  to  exact  only  the 
regular  revenue  hitherto  payable  to  Darius  at  Dascilium,  and 
to  receive  it  at  the  capital  city. 

Alexander  retraced  his  steps  to  Illium;  from  whence,  following  Alexander  ad- 
nearly  the  route  of  the  army  of  Cyrus,  he  proceeded  through  sa'"j?, 
Antandrus,  Adramyttium,  Pergamus,  and  Thyatira,  to  Sardis ; 
which  formidable  citadel  with  its  treasure,  v,^ere  surrendered  by 
the  treason   of  Mithrenes,   the   governor.     Alexander  having 
continued  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  city,  and  ordered  the 
erection  of  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  he  proceeded  to  Ephesus,  where  and  proceeds 
he  ordered  that  its  venerable  temple  should  be  rebuilt  by  his  EpUc'sus, 
engineer,  Denocrates,  and  that  the  tribute  forn:erly  raised  for 
Darius,  should  in  future  be  paid  to  this  establishment.^    Miletus 
then  fell,  after  a  short  but  determined  resistance ;  and,  in  con- 
sequence, the  Persian  fleet  was  compelled  to  leave  the  coast: 
his  own  fleet  being  laid  up  to  save  expense,  Alexander  advanced 
to  Halicarnassus ;  which  was  occupied  by  a  considerable  force 
under  Memnon,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Asiatic  coast  of 
the  empire. 

The  province  (Caria)  was  however  divided ;  Orontobates  was  iiac  Caria 
faithful  to  Darius,  whilst  queen  Ada,  his  competitor,  joined  ^ 

'  Arrian,  lib.,  T.,  cap.  xviii.  *  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  v. 


266  SIEGE  OF  HALICARNASSUS.  [CHAP.  IX. 

Siege  of  Alexander ;  she  gave  up  the  strong  fortress  of  Alindse,  and 
assisted  him  with  troops  and  supplies.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  consummate  skill  of  the  besieged  enabled  them  to 
protract  the  defence  of  Halicarnassus  for  a  considerable  period ; 
for,  when  by  infinite  labour  the  besiegers  filled  up  the  ditch  so 
as  to  place  their  engines  near  the  walls,  their  works  were  con- 
stantly demolished  or  burnt  by  the  sallies  of  the  besieged. 
Again,  when  the  former  succeeded  in  levelling  part  of  the  walls, 
another  portion  was  seen  to  rise  suddenly  behind  the  opening. 
The  contest  was  long  and  doubtful,  and  bold  sallies  were  con- 
stantly made ;  in  one  of  which,  literally  a  battle,  the  Macedonians 
lost  more  men  in  maintaining  their  position  than  they  had  done 
at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus,     The  constancy  of  Alexander, 

The  town  is     howcver,  triumphed  at  length:  Memnon  retreated  by  sea  to 

taken,  and  its  '  .      i        f>    r-T    •       i      •  i  •   i       i       a  i  ^ 

castle  block-  Cos,  and  the  capital  of  Caria  bemg  demolished,  Alexander, 
after  visiting  queen  x\da  in  the  fortress  of  Alindse  (Moola), 
continued  his  march  coastways,  leaving  the  citadel  of  Halicar- 
nassus (now  Budroun)  still  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Darius. 

As  a  reward  for  the  services  of  Ada,  Alexander  confirmed 
to  her  the  princely  dignity  and  authority,  and  also  granted  to 
the  kingdom  its  ancient  and  valued  political  constitution. 
Owing  to  the  time  of  the  year,  distant  operations  were  post- 
poned, but  the  approaching  winter  was  not  destined  to  be  spent 
in  a  state  of  inactivity.  The  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  been 
recently  married,  were  permitted  to  go  home,  with  an  under- 
standing that  they  would  return  in  the  spring,  bringing  any  re- 
cruits they  might  be  able  to  engage;  after,  by  way  of  encourage- 
ment, dwelling  upon  the  generosity  and  kind  feelings  displayed 
by  their  victorious  captain.  Parmenio  was  now  despatched  to 
Communica-  prescrvc  the  communication  with  Greece,  and  raise  contri- 
^Uh  Greece,  butions  \\\  mouey  and  supplies  in  the  countries  still  subject  to 
Persia ;  whilst  Alexander  proceeded  with  a  select  body  of 
troops,  almost  without  baggage,  to  reduce  the  towns  and  ports 
along  the  mountainous  shore,  stretching  from  Caria  eastward. 
Here  he  found  the  way  prepared  by  the  news  of  his  liberality 
and  successes,  which  had  preceded  him.  The  people  being 
favourable,  the  mercenaries  consented  to  depart,  and  the  strong 
town  of  llyparna,  on  the  borders  of  Lycia,  became  his  without  a 


CHAP.  IX.]  CONQUEST  OF  LYCIA.  267 

blow.  Entering  the  latter  territory,  he  took  Telmissus  (now 
Makri),  and  crossing  Anticragos,  Pinara  (now  Minara), 
Xanthus,  and  Patara  fell  in  succession,  in  addition  to  thirty 
small  towns  which  followed  this  example;  and,  lastly,  Phaselis,  Further opera- 
the  principal  city  of  Lower  Lycia  (now  Tekrova,  in  the  Gulf  of  and^Lycia!''^ 
Adalia),  sent  deputies  bearing  a  crown  of  gold  and  offers  of 
submission:  on  his  way  thither,  to  pass  the  remainder  of  the 
winter,  he  captured  the  town  of  Telmissus,  in  Pisidia,  by  storm. 

Towards  the  close  of  winter,  Alexander  hastened  onward, 
hoping  by  occupying  the  ports  of  Cilicia  and  the  adjoining  part 
of  the  Syrian  coast  to  deprive  the  enemy  of  the  services  of  his 
fleet;  and  this  was  carried  out  with  his  characteristic  boldness. 

Mount  Climax,  a  singularly  rugged  chain,  intervened  in  the 
line  of  Perga,  and  terminated  at  the  coast  by  a  precipitous  cliff 
washed  by  the  sea,  leaving  no  passage  whatever,  except  under  Adventurous 

,.  .  \-f       .  •Ill       march  rouud 

extraorduiary    circumstances.      Havmg    ascertanied    that    the  Mountciimax. 
periodical  wind  was  at  hand,  which  would  cause  a  momentary 
passage,   Alexander  despatched    a  few  light  troops   over   the 
ordinary  route,  and  seizing  the  precise  moment  of  a  decrease  of 
water,  during  a  northerly  wind,  the  troops  by  wading  for  many 
hours  up  to  the  middle,  at  the  foot  of  what  is  termed  the  ladder, 
succeeded  in  passing  along  the  Lycian  shore.     The  accomplish- 
ment of  this  rash   undertaking,  was  attributed  to   miraculous 
interposition  ;^  and  the  Pamphylian  towns  of  Perga,  Aspendus, 
Side,  and  Sillium,  being  subjected  in  consequence,  Alexander, 
following  the  vale  of  Cestrus,  entered  the  recesses  of  Mount 
Taurus.     Here  he  defeated  the  Salagassians  and  Telmisseans, 
captured  the  city  of  the  former,  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Selgse  ;  and  the  whole  of  Pisidia  submitted,  apparently  for  the  subjection  of 
first  time  to  any  conqueror.^  Pisidia,  &c. 

A  march  of  five  days  enabled  Alexander  to  take  the  capital 
of  Phrygia  (Celsenee),  after  which  he  marched  on  Gordium, 
where  he  was  joined  by  Parmenio  and  the  rest  of  his  army, 
including  the  bridegrooms,  with  a  strong  body  of  recruits  from 
Macedonia ;  and  the  first  campaign  in  Asia  terminated  by 
cutting  the  famous  knot.^ 

'  Plin.,  lib.  v.,  Alex.,  pp.  G73.  674. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xxvii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.  '  Ibid.,  cap.  xxx. 


268  memnon's  project  and  death.  [chap.  ix. 

Memnon  pur-       Memnoii,  hoping  to  recover  his  oversight,  by  which  Sardis, 

Alexander.  °  Ephcsus,  Milctus,  and  Halicamassus  were  lost  to  Darius,  was 
both  diligent  and  successful  in  another  quarter  during  the  ope- 
rations just  mentioned.  A  large  portion  of  the  coast,  it  is  true, 
was  in  possession  of  a  victorious  enemy,  but  the  numerous 
islands  were  open  to  Memnon's  commanding  fleet ;  w^hich, 
having  taken  Chios  without  a  blow,  proceeded  to  Lesbos,  and 
took  the  island,  with  the  exception  of  Mitylene.  Memnon 
awaited  the  fall  of  this  city,  in  order  that  he  might  proceed  to 
the  Hellespont,  and  execute  his  part  of  the  great  plan  which 
had  been  projected,  of  cutting  Alexander  off  from  Europe,  and 
thus  enabling  Darius  to   overpower  the  small  force  that  had 

His  death.  dared  to  invade  his  dominions.  But  death  terminated  Mem- 
non's faithful  services  in  the  camp  before  Mitylene ;  and  Phar- 
nabazus,  his  nephew  and  successor,  being  unequal  to  the  task, 
his  great  designs  fell  to  the  ground. 

Being  no  longer  seriously  threatened,  Alexander  had  the 
choice  of  either  resuming  the  offensive,  or  of  remaining  on  the 
defensive  behind  the  Taurus,  confining  himself  to  the  peninsula 
of  which  he  was  already  almost  master;  and  circumstances 
speedily  gave  him  the  command  of  the  remainder  of  the  ter- 
ritory. Owing  to  some  dissatisfaction,  Paphlagonia  offered  to 
transfer  its  allegiance  from  Darius  to  Alexander ;  ^  and  since 
the  only  province  still  subject  to  Persia,  namely,  Cappadocia, 
submitted  as  he  advanced,  Alexander  thus  became  master  of 
the  whole  of  Hither  Asia :  but  it  was  necessary  to  possess 
Cilicia  also,  this  being  the  first  province  beyond,  and  contain- 
ing the  most  practicable  route  between  Greater  and  Lesser 

HiUier  Asia  Asia ;  also,  with  Syria  by  land,  and  Greece  by  sea.  Alexander, 
therefore,  made  a  rapid  march  to  the  place  where  Cyrus  had 
been  encamped ;  and  having  forced  the  imperfectly  guarded 
gates  of  Cilicia,  he  was  in  time  to  save  Tarsus  from  being 
plundered  by  the  Persian  troops.^ 

Over-exertion,  added  to  the  imprudence  of  bathir.g  in  the 
cold  waters  of  the  Cydnus,  brought  on  a  fever,  which  delayed 
his  progress  for  a  time,  but  from   which  he  eventually  reco- 
vered.    The  important  mountain-passes  which  connect  Cilicia 
'  Arrian,  lib.  II,,  cap.  iv.  *  Ibid. 


subjected. 


CHAP.  IX.]  THE  ARMIES  OF  DARIUS  AND  ALEXANDER.  269 

with  the  countries  to  the  eastward  must  have  been  known  from 
the  march  of  Cyrus ;  therefore  Parmenio  was  despatched  along  ciiicia  Cam- 
the  coast  with  the  greater  part  of  the  heavy-armed  foot  to  KuVgcd^cliicia 
occupy  them ;  this  he  accomphshed,  in  addition  to  taking  the  occupied, 
city  of  Issus,  and  securing  the  defile  to  the  westward  (Kara 
Kapu),  whilst  the  rest  of  the  army  was  engaged  on  a  more 
difficult  service  in  the  opposite  direction.  Anchialus,  a  town 
founded  by  Sardanapalus,  was  the  fruit  of  Alexander's  first 
day's  march ;  and,  proceeding  westward,  he  garrisoned  Sole', 
after  laying  it  under  contribution.  Having  subjected  Rugged 
Ciiicia  in  the  short  space  of  seven  days,  he  received  intelli- 
gence, on  returning  to  Campestris,  that  Halicarnassus  had 
fallen,  and  that  his  generals  had  been  completely  successful  in 
Caria.  Whilst  Alexander  was  employed  in  securing  Ciiicia, 
and  the  part  of  Syria  westward  of  the  Amanus,  Darius  was 
scarcely  less  diligent:  his  Greek  mercenaries  were  increased  to  Vastprepa- 

•'  "  .    .        ,         ,  rations  of 

about  30,000  men/  to  whom  were  jomed  about  60,000  Darius. 
Asiatics,  called  Cardacs,  trained  like  the  Greeks  for  close 
fight ;  and  the  middle  and  light  armed  made  up  the  remainder 
of  an  army  estimated,  most  likely  including  the  followers,  at 
600,000;-  which,  however,  would  only  give  from  150,000  to 
200,000  combatants.  But  if  the  large  number  of  Greeks  and 
Cardacs  be  taken  into  consideration,  Darius  was  at  the  head  of 
the  most  efficient  army  which  had  hitherto  marched  towards 
Greece,  and  he  was  assisted  by  many  talented  refugees  fi-om 
the  latter  country :  this,  however,  owing  to  the  suspicious  dis- 
position of  Asiatics,  was  at  least  but  a  doubtful  advantage. 

Darius  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  encamped  about  two  days  He  crosses  the 
from  the  passes  of  the  Amanus,  at  a  place  called  Sochi  ;^  where, 
his  Grecian  counsellors  recommended  him  to  halt,  urging  that 
the  impetuosity  of  Alexander  would  induce  him  to  advance. 
The  Persians  attributed  this  advice  to  sinister  motives,  and 
recommended  the  bolder  course  of  moving  through  the  passes 
to  expel  the  invaders ;  adding,  that  this  would  be  more  be- 
coming a  great  monarch  and  the  fine  army  which  he  had 
raised.      Darius   appears  to   have  hesitated,  and  during  the 

'  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii.  *  Ibid. 

^  Possibly  Ukiiz-Suzle  on  the  river  'Afrln. 


270 


MUTUAL  PREPARATIONS  FOR  BATTLE.  [cHAP.  IX. 


Darius  ad- 
"vances  from 
Sochi,  and 


Alexander  to 
Myriandrus. 


The  contend- 
ing armies 
pass  one 
another. 


delay,  intrigue  and  suspicion  caused  the  unjust  execution  of  the 
Athenian  Charidemus.  This  event  turned  the  scale ;  and  the 
treasure,  the  harems  of  the  distinguished  officers,  with  the 
heavy  baggage,  being  sent  to  Damascus,  the  army  was  ordered 
to  advance  for  this  purpose ;  quitting  ground,  which  although 
but  partially  adapted  for  cavalry,  afforded  space  to  deploy  the 
whole  army. 

Alexander,  who  was  then  at  Mallus,  felt,  on  the  one  hand, 
that  the  advantages  of  a  fine  position  would  be  lost  by  proceed- 
ing, whilst  on  the  other,  a  moral  effect  must  be  produced  on 
his  adherents  by  attacking  Darius.  As  usual,  Alexander 
determined  to  risk  everything,  and  a  movement  was  made,  in 
ignorance  that  Darius  was  then  simultaneously  advancing, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  singular  circumstance,  that  the  contend- 
ing armies  were, '  previously  to  the  battle,  in  reverse  positions. 

Having  resolved  to  engage  Darius  wherever  he  could  be 
found,  the  energetic  Alexander  hastened  through  the  Syrian 
gates,  and  encamped  beyond  Myriandrus.  As  a  defensive 
position,  and  for  an  inferior  force,  the  narrow  strip  extending 
to  the  Issus  was  particularly  favourable.  The  Mediterranean 
secured  one  flank,  the  range  of  Amanus  the  other,  the  prin- 
cipal pass  (now  Beilan)  being  no  doubt  occupied ;  there  was 
besides  a  speedy  communication  by  means  of  light  vessels,  with 
the  rest  of  the  ground  to  be  defended.  In  this  state  of  things, 
Darius  crossed  the  Amanus  by  the  upper  or  northern  pass, 
which  had  been  neglected  by  Alexander,  and  having  debouched 
near  the  town  of  Issus,  just  after  Alexander  had  passed,  some 
of  the  sick  and  wounded  Macedonians  who  had  been  left  there 
were  cruelly  maimed,  and  then  sent  to  report  the  number  of 
his  forces  to  Alexander.  A  violent  thunder-storm  at  the 
moment,  prevented  Alexander  from  ascertaining  the  fact  till 
the  following  day,  when  one  of  his  vessels  announced  that  a 
very  large  army  was  encamped  on  the  western  slopes  of 
Amanus.  Although  much  surprised,  and  probably  seriously 
alarmed,  by  this  unlooked-for  intelligence,  his  retreat  being 
thus  cut  ofl'  by  an  overwhelming  force,  he  carefully  concealed 
his  apprehensions,  and  adopted  at  the  same  time  the  most 
decided  measures. 


CHAP.  IX.]        POSITIONS  OF  THE  CONTENDING  ARMIES.  271 

The  soldiers  were  commanded  to  take  refreshments  prepa- 
ratory to  a  march  ;  and  in  order  to  anticipate  the  discouraging 
effect  of  a  retrograde  movement,  Alexander,  with  admirable 
presence  of  mind,  told  his  commanders  that  Darius  had  taken 
precisely  the  step  which  he  most  desired  ;  having  been  led  by 
divine  impulse  into  a  situation  where  a  great  part  of  his  force, 
and  particularly  his  powerful  cavalry,  could  not  act  for  want  of 
space.  Hoping  also  to  remedy  his  own  omission,  he  despatched 
a  body  of  horse  with  some  bowmen :    and,  himself  speedily  fol-  Alexander 

.  .    .  (-^       .  .        returns  and 

lowing,   he  reached  the  gates  of  Cilicia  and  Syria  about  mid-  occupies  the 
night ;  when,   having  gained   this    important  pass,  which  had  before" Darius^ 
been  equally  neglected  by  Darius,  he  halted  for  the  rest  of  the 
night.^ 

It  is  probable  that  Darius  became  aware  of  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  armies  rather  sooner  than  it  was  known  to  Alex- 
ander ;  but  this  advantage  was  lost  to  him  on  account  of  the 
encumbrances  which  impeded  his  movements  :  he  endeavoured 
the  next  morning  to  repair  his  neglect;  but  finding  the  gates 
already  in  possession  of  the  enemy,  he  halted  after  a  march  of 
about  ten  miles,  and  occupied  a  position  which  extended  from 
the  mountain  to  the  sea  along  the  river  Pinarus.^ 

At  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  the  stream  in  question,  now  Positions  of 
the  Deli-chai,  makes  a  bold  sweep  southward,  and  again  west-  armies.*^"  '°^ 
ward,  between  banks  so  steep  as  to  be  impracticable  for  ordi- 
nary cavalry ;  but  a  little  lower,  and  onward  to  the  sea,  the 
banks  are  lower.  Darius  therefore  proceeded  to  strengthen 
his  position  along  the  right  bank,  covering  the  operation  by  a 
large  body  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  Mho  remained  in  advance 
till  it  was  completed.  The  margin  of  the  Pinarus  was  there- 
fore occupied  by  the  heavy-armed  troops  of  Darius,  the  Greek 
mercenaries  and  the  family  of  Darius  being  in  the  centre,  with 
the  Cardacs  on  each  flank.  The  nearest  heights  on  the  left 
were  occupied  by  light-armed  troops ;  the  cavalry  extended 
along  the  right  bank,  from  the  Cardacs  to  the  sea.^  The  plains 
and  the  resources  of  Cilicia  being  thus  completely  covered,  the 

'  Arrian,  lib.  II,,  cap.  viii. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  x.,  and  Quintius  Curtius,  lib.  III.,  cap.  9,  10. 

*  Ibid.,  Arrian  and  Quintius  Curtius. 


272   THE  RIGHT  WING  OF  EACH  ARMY  STRENGTHENED.  fCHAP.  IX. 


Dispositions  of 

Alexander's 

forces. 


position  of  Alexander  was  full  of  difficulty,  and  a  daring 
attack  offered  the  only  chance  of  extricating  his  array  from  its 
perilous  situation. 

Having  ascertained  the  enemy's  formation,  he  placed  his 
phalanx  opposite  to  the  Greeks  serving  under  Darius,  and  the 
republican  Greeks  were  posted  on  each  flank  to  oppose  the 
Cardacs  and  the  cavalry.  The  left  wing  was  entrusted  to 
Parmenio  ;  Alexander  commanded  the  right,  intending,  by  a 
desperate  attempt,  to  force  the  enemy's  left.^ 

The  limited  space  decidedly  favoured  the  attack  of  an  infe- 
rior force,  particularly  as  the  banks  of  the  river  did  not  offer 
any  serious  impediment  except  towards  the  left  of  the  Persians, 
where  it  was  counterbalanced  by  another  circumstance,  of 
which  Alexander  speedily  took  advantage.  Owing  to  the  out- 
ward sweep  made,  as  already  noticed,  by  the  Pinarus  in  passing 
the  lowest  slope  of  the  hills,  the  Persians,  who  occupied  the  in- 
terior or  right  bank,  must  of  necessity  not  only  have  been  out- 
flanked by  an  enemy  occupying  the  exterior  side,  but  partly 
taken  in  reverse  also  as  the  assailants  advanced.  But,  as  stated 
by  Arrian,^  the  latter  were  in  the  first  instance  exposed  to  the 
same  evil ;  for,  owing  to  the  curve  or  bay  in  the  mountains, 
the  Persian  light  troops  posted  on  the  high  ground,  threatened 
the  rear  of  the  Macedonians.  Believing  that  these  hills 
effectually  secured  the  left  of  the  position,  Darius  detached  a 
eng  ene  ,  (>Qj-,gj(jgj.^l3l(3  body  of  cavalry  to  strengthen  his  right,  posting 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  arm  between  the  Cardacs  and  the  sea. 
Here  the  grand  attack  of  the  Persians  was  to  be  made  on  the 
cavalry  of  Alexander,  with  a  view  to  its  being  followed  up, 
by  taking  the  infantry  in  flank  and  rear. 

By  these  dispositions,  the  right  and  stronger  part  of  each 
army  was  opposed  to,  and  destined  to  attack  the  left  and 
weaker  portion  of  the  enemy.  But  on  perceiving  that  this  had 
been  carried  too  far,  Alexander  despatched  the  Thessalian 
horse  and  some  chosen  foot  to  reinforce  Parmenio,  who  had 
orders  to  keep  close  to  the  sea,  that  he  might  not  be  outflanked  ; 
while  Darius  made  no  attempt  to  remedy  his  error. 

Alexander  having  completed  his  dispositions,  addressed  a 
'  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  x.  *  Lib.  II ,  cap.  viii. 


The  right  of 
the  Persian 
army 


CHAP.  IX.]  THE  BATTLE  COMMENCED  BY  ALEXANDER.  273 

few  animating  words  to  his  followers,  alternately  rousing  the  Alexander 
national  feeling  of  the  Macedonians,  the  Greeks,  Illyrians,  and  soldiers. 
Thracians  ;  reminding  the  Greeks  of  the  conduct  of  the  ten 
thousand,'  and  the  whole  that  they  were  about  to  be  the  libe- 
rators of  the  universe,  and  to  push  their  conquests  farther  than 
those  of  Hercules  or  Bacchus  ;  also  that  the  spoils  of  the  East 
would  soon  be  at  their  feet,  almost  without  the  necessity  of 
using  a  sword  to  gain  them. 

At  this  juncture,  the  wild  war-cry  of  the  Persians  was  heard  Commence- 
and  answered  by  that  of  the    Macedonians,   which  was  still  progress  of  the 
louder,    owing   to    the    reverberation   of  the   mountains   and  ^'^"^^" 
forests.     Alexander  seized  this  moment  to  order  the  middle 
and  light  armed  troops  to  advance,  to  cover  the  phalanx,  which 
had  an  enemy  in  rear  as  well  as  in  front  ;^  and  the  Persian 
light  troops  being  driven  from  the  heights  which  encircle  this 
part  of  the  Pinarus,  a  position  was  gained  from  which  missiles 
reached  the  flank  and  rear  of  the  Persian  heavy  armed,  on  the 
river's  brink.^      Alexander  seized  this  moment  to  lead  his  pha- 
lanx slowly  across  the  Pinarus,  and  having  ascended  its  oppo- 
site baak,   he  rushed  to  attack  the  Cardacs,  who  were  quickly 
routed.     Encouraged  by  this  success,  the  Macedonian  phalanx 
next  attacked  the  more  formidable  post  of  the  Persian  Greeks, 
and  a  severe  contest  followed.     At  the  same  time,  the  cavalry  Mutual  ad- 
was  hotly  engaged,  each  side  having  the  advantage  alternately ;  duringThe 
both  suffered  great  loss,  and,  owing  to  the  great  bravery  of  the  <="°t*^st. 
troops,  the  combat  was  long  undecided.^     In  the  meanwhile 
the  Macedonian  infantry  suffered  severely  in  this  part  of  the 
battle,  but  they  continued   to   persevere^  till  the  confederate 
Greeks,  after  having  put  the  enemy's  left  to  flight,  came  to 
their  support.     Being  thus  taken  in  flank,  the  Persian  Greeks 
gave  way,  and  were  nearly  all  put  to  the  sword. 

The  conflict  now  approached  the  centre  of  the  line,  in  which, 
agreeably  to  ancient  custom,  Darius  had  taken  post,  seated  on 
a  splendid  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses  abreast,  and  his 
striking  costume  as  well  as  his  position,  at  once  marked  him  as 

'  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  vii,  *  Ibid.,  cap.  ix, 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  X.  *  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIII.,  cap.  vi. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xi. 
VOL.  II.  T 


274  DEFEAT  AND  LOSS  OF  DARIUS'  ARMY.  [cHAP.  IX. 

a  special  object  of  attack,  as  well  as  defence ;  for  Sabaces  the 
satrap  of  Egypt,  Atires,  Eheomithrus,  and  other  illustrious 
Persians,  perished  at  his  side  ;  and  it  is  said  that  Alexander 
himself  was  slightly  wounded  in  the  tumult.^  Darius  con- 
tinued in  his  chariot  in  the  midst  of  the  slaughter,  till  the 
horses  became  so  ungovernable,  owing  to  their  wounds  and  the 
heap  of  slain  under  their  feet,  that  the  king  would  have  been 
carried  into  the  enemy's  ranks,  had  it  not  been  for  a  vigorous 
charge  made  by  his  brother  Oxathres.  This  gave  time  to 
bring  up  another  chariot,  and  the  struggle  continued  for  a 
Flight  of  time.^  But  as  the  left  had  been  routed,  and  he  was  nearly 
anus,  an  ^^^  ^g.  £j.q^^  ^^^  right  wiug,  by  the  almost  total  destruction  of 
the  centre,  Darius  fled  in  his  chariot,  till  the  nature  of  the 
ground  obliged  him  to  mount  his  horse.^ 

Up  to  this  period  the  Persian  horse  appear  to  have  had  the 
advantage  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  even  the  skill  of  Parmenio 
and  the  bravery  of  the  Thessalian  cavalry  would  have  been 
unavailing,  had  it  not  been  for  the  masterly  attack  made  by 
Alexander  on  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  line,  and  the  rapid 
successes  which  caused  the  Persian  horse  and  the  rest  of  the 
right  wing  to  commence  a  retrograde  movement  that  they 
might  not  be  cut  off/ 
loss  of  the  Near   the   battle-ground  the  mountains  are  practicable   for 

sequence.  °  "  infantry,  and  they  are  partially  so  for  such  expert  horsemen  as 
the  Persians.  The  infantry  would  naturally  resort  to  the 
slopes  of  the  hills  for  immediate  safety,  but  owing  to  their  posi- 
tion near  the  sea,  the  bulk  of  the  cavalry  would  be  obliged  to 
follow  the  coast,  till  they  could  return  as  they  entered,  by  the 
Upper  Amanic  pass,  which  was  at  no  great  distance ;  and  there 
no  doubt  the  pursuit  of  Alexander  terminated. 

Arrian  states  the  loss  of  the  Persians  to  have  been  100,000, 
including  10,000  horse,^  which  probably  was  more  than  half 
the   number    of  combatants.       Other   writers,    except   Justin, 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vi.,  and  Quintius  Curtius,  lib.  III., 
cap.  xi. 

""  Arrian,  lib.  II,,  cap.  xii. ;  Pint.,  p.  669. 

^  Arrian,  lib,  II.,  cap.  xi, 

*  Ibid.  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  IX.]  Alexander's  kindness  to  the  captive  queens.    275 

make  it  greater.'     The  latter  ^  gives  61,000  foot,  1 1,000  horse.  Loss  of  the 
and  40,000  Persians.  coTdingV^' 

The  carnage  during  a  fierce  and  prolonged  contest  in  the*^^^^'"' 
centre  of  the  line  must  have  been  considerable,  but  this  could 
scarcely  have  been  the  case,  either  on  the  left,  where  the  Per- 
sians were  speedily  routed,  or  on  the  right,  where  they  had 
the  advantage ;  and  the  estimate  of  Justin,  in  the  absence  of 
any  Persian  accounts,  seems  to  be  nearest  the  truth,  even  in- 
cluding the  followers.     On  giving  up  the  pursuit,  and  retracing 
his  steps  as  far  as  the  camp  lately  occupied  by  Darius,  Alex- 
ander found    the    royal    tent   prepared,  agreeably  to   Eastern 
custom,  with   all   that  splendour  for  which  the  Persians  were 
remarkable ;  and  he  could  not  overlook  the  circumstance  that 
he  appeared  to  have  succeeded  to  the  dominion,  as  well  as  to 
the  moveable  palace  of  Darius.  The  feast  given  the  same  night  The  tent  of 
to  some  of  his  principal  officers,  was  interrupted  by  wild  shrieks 
and  lamentations  in  an  adjacent  tent.      On  ascertaining  that 
the  latter  emanated  from  a  part  of  the  royal  harem,  who  were 
making  the  customary  lamentations  for  the  supposed  death  of 
Darius,   Alexander  sent  to  inform  the  princesses  that  he  v>-as  Alexander 
still  alive,  adding  the  assurance,  that  their  treatment  should  in  captives*^ '^ 
every  way  be  suitable  to  their  exalted  rank.     Next  day,  after  ^<>°o^''^^iJ'- 
seeing  his  wounded  soldiers,  though  still  suffering  from  his  own 
wounds,   he    visited    the   royal   captives,    accompanied  by   his 
favourite  Hephsestion,  to  give  this  assurance  in  person.     The 
superior  height  of  the  latter — a  lofty  stature  being  much  valued 
in  Persia — caused  Sisygambis,  the  queen-mother,  to  throw  her- 
self at  his  feet ;  Alexander  endeavoured  to  relieve  her  confusion 
by  saying  there  was  no  mistake,  for  Hephsestion  was  also  an 
Alexander. 

At  once  perceiving,  from  his  condescension  and  kindness, 
that  Alexander  did  not  intend  that  the  youthful  queen  should 
experience  the  fate  which  the  laws  of  Asiatic  conquest  prepared 
her  to  expect,  Sisygambis,  after  acknowledging  her  gratitude, 
added,  addressing  the  conqueror  particularly,  "  That  she  could 
support  the  heavy  yoke  entailed  by  her  calamity,  since  he  pre- 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vi.,  states  it  to  be  120,000,  and  10,000  horse. 
*  Lib.  XI.,  c.  9. 

t2 


Altars  con- 
secrated on 
the  field  of 
battle. 


Advance  into 
Syria  and 
Phoenicia. 


Parmenio 

captures 

Damascus. 


276    CAPTURE  OF  DAMASCUS  AND  INVASION  OF  PHCENICIA.  [CHAP.  IX. 

ferred  to  be  distinguished  by  his  clemency  rather  than  by  his 
power."' 

The  magnanimous  decision  of  Alexander  was  taken  possibly 
not  without  a  struggle,  and  he  quitted  their  tent  exhorting  the 
princesses  to  take  courage ;  but,  lest  his  resolution  might  fail, 
he  did  not  again  trust  himself  in  the  presence  of  the  youthful 
queen,  the  most  attractive  as  well  as  the  most  lovely  woman  of 
her  time.^ 

After  celebrating  the  merits  of  the  slain,  and  bestowing  suit- 
able rewards  on  the  living,  Alexander  consecrated  altars  to 
Jupiter,  Hercules,  and  Minerva  on  the  battle-ground,  prepa- 
ratory to  indulging  that  overpowering  ambition  to  which  his 
late  success  had  given  birth,  and  for  which  circumstances  were 
now  so  peculiarly  favourable. 

Darius  with  the  remnant  of  his  army  had  passed  the  river 
Euphrates,  leaving  Syria  unprotected.  Parmenio  and  the 
Thessalian  horse  were  despatched  to  seize  it,  whilst  the  rest  of 
the  army  took  nearly  a  parallel  direction  along  the  coast 
towards  Phoenicia.  Although  a  satrapy  of  Persia,  this 
territory  contained  several  governments,  subject  to  different 
patriarchal  chiefs  or  kings,  who  were  always  jealous,  and  not 
unfrequently  opposed  to  one  another.  Aradus,  one  of  these, 
comprised  the  northern  part  of  Phoenicia,  and,  within  its  limits, 
Mariame  and  Marathus,  two  ports  nearly  opposite  to  the  isle 
of  Aradus  (Puad).^ 

Owing  to  the  mercantile  connexion  of  the  latter  place  with 
Greece,  the  transfer  of  its  allegiance  to  Alexander  was  to  be 
expected ;  and  during  the  advance  of  the  conqueror,  no  doubt 
along  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  Gerostratus,  the  sovereign  of 
Aradus,  sent  a  golden  crown  in  token  of  submission. 

Parmenio,  in  the  meanwhile,  accomplished  his  task ;  for, 
through  treason,  the  capital  of  Syria,  with  a  large  amount  of 
treasure,  fell  into  his  hands,  as  well  as  the  deputies  who  had 
been  sent  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  Thebans,  and  Athenians,  to 
concert  measures  with  Darius  against  Alexander.  Nearly  at 
the  same  time  messengers  came  from  Babylon  with  an  appeal, 

'  Quintius  Curtius,  lib.  III.,  c.  xii.  *  Ibid. 

'  Plin.,  lib.  V.^  c.  XX. 


CHAP.  IX.]    DARIUS  PROPOSES  PEACE  WITH  SPLENDID  OFFERS.     277 

which,  being  at  once  feeling  and  dignified,  showed  that  Darius 
was  not  subdued  by  his  recent  calamity.  His  letter  stated,  in 
substance,  that  Alexander  having  continued  the  unprovoked 
hostilities  commenced  by  his  father,  he  had  been  compelled  to 
defend  his  territory  ;  and  God's  will  having  disposed  of  the 
victory,  it  now  remained  to  ofier  peace  and  friendship,  and  to  Darius  pro- 

T    •  1  •  »•  1  •  1  1  PI  •         -o  1   r>        -1      poses  terms  of 

solicit,  as  a  king  irom  a  king,  the  release  oi  his  wiie  and  lamily  peace, 
at  the  price  of  any  ransom  he  might  name,  in  addition  to  the 
territory  westward  of  the  Halys.^ 

On  receiving  this  letter,  Alexander  summoned  a  council, 
before  which,  it  is  said,  he  placed  in  the  name  of  Darius  other 
proposals"  more  suitable  to  his  wishes ;  but,  however  this  may 
have  been,  the  conqueror,  in  his  reply,  dwelt  upon  the  former 
invasions  of  Greece,  the  murder  of  Philip,  and  the  unjust 
acquisition  of  the  throne  by  Darius.  Not  satisfied  with  these 
reproaches,  Alexander  desired  that  he  might  be  addressed  as 
king  of  Asia,  and  lord  of  all  that  was  once  possessed  by  Darius  : 
on  such  terms  he  expressed  his  readiness  to  restore  to  Darius  Haughty  reply 

■t  •     r>       -i  -111  T  1-  IT  of  Alexander. 

his  family,  provided  he  supplicated  m  person ;  adding,  that  he 
then  might  ask  freely,  and  nothing  would  be  refused.^ 

Phoenicia  was  of  vital  importance,  in  order  that  Alexander 
might  cripple  the  naval  superiority  of  Persia,  and  circumstances 
favoured  his  desire  to  obtain  possession  of  it.  Jealousy  of  their 
prosperous  daughter.  Tyre,  induced  the  Sidonians  to  request 
Alexander  to  take  their  state  under  his  protection,  and  the 
request  was  readily  granted.  The  town  of  Byblus  capitulated 
on  his  approach ;  and  as  he  advanced,  even  the  Tyrians  sent 
Azelmic,  the  son  of  their  king,  to  tender  their  submission. 
Doubting  their  sincerity  in  desiring  to  transfer  their  allegiance 
from  Persia,  Alexander  announced  his  intention  of  visiting  the 
city,  that  he  might  offer  sacrifices  to  the  Tpian  Hercules. 
Suspecting  his  purpose,  the  Tyrians  replied,  that  in  all  other  The  Tyrians 

.  ...  refuse  to  open 

matters  they  were  ready  to  obey,  but  declined  admitting  either  their  gates  to 
Persians  or  Macedonians  within  their  walls ;  adding,  that  it     ^^^"^  ^^' 

*  Compare  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vi.,  with  Quint.  Curt.  lib.  IV., 
cap.  1.,  and  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xiv, 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vi. 

^  Arriau,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xiv.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. 


278  SITUATION  OF  TYRE.  [cHAP.  IX. 

was  unnecessary  to  do  so  in  this  case,  since  the  original  temple 
was  still  standing  in  Old  Tyre.^ 
Determination  This  reply  being  Submitted  to  a  council  of  war,  agreeably  to 
Tyrer^^^  the  Macedonian  custom,  it  M^as  determined  to  reduce  Tyre, 
which  was  then  the  bulwark  of  Phoenicia,  previously  to  pro- 
secuting the  contemplated  invasion  of  Egypt."^  The  natural 
strength  of  an  insular  situation,  fortified  with  prodigious  care,  and 
the  possession  of  a  superior  fleet,  induced  the  wealthy  Tyrians 
to  brave  the  contemplated  attack,  considering  their  city  to  be 
impregnable.  Palsetyrus  was  the  most  ancient  city,^  but  if 
not  previously,  we  know  that  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Hiram 
there  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter  on  the 
island,  with  which  there  was  a  communication  by  means  of  a 
kind  of  bank  or  dike.^  Ithobal  the  Second  appears  to  have 
been  on  the  throne  during  the  memorable  siege  of  thirteen 
years  by  Nebuchadnezzar  ;^  when  the  inhabitants  retired  to  the 
island,  and  having  cut  off  the  communication  by  destroying  the 
dike,  the  disappointed  conqueror  was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
enterprise.^  Subsequently  the  city  was  confined  to  the  island, 
which  is  at  the  distance  of  about  800  yards  from  the  coast,  and 
was  probably  much  larger  at  that  time  than  previously." 
Alexander  Stimulated  rather   than  deterred  by  the  additional  difficulty 

restore  the  of  being  deprived  of  a  fleet,  Alexander  determined  to  restore 
the  ancient  communication,  and  after  some  little  hesitation  the 
troops  commenced  the  gigantic  undertaking  of  carrying  out  a 
mole  from  the  mainland,  using  for  this  purpose  the  neighbour- 
ing forests,  and  the  remains  of  the  ancient  city.  A  stiff"  clay 
bottom  made  the  work  at  first  comparatively  easy,  but  as  the 
water  deepened,  the  difficulties  were  greatly  increased,  and  the 
workmen  being  exposed  to  attacks  from  the  vessels,  in  addition 

'  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xvi.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xi. 

^  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xvii. 

^  Vol.  I.,  pp.  480,  481. 

■*  Hiram,  tlie  son  of  Abibalu3,  raised  a  bank,  to  join  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
on  the  island  to  the  city.— Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  ii.,  sec.  vii. ;  and 
cap.  v.,  sec.  iii. 

'  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  X.,  cliap.  xi.,  and  lib.  I.  Contra  Apion. 

"  Ezek.,  cliap.  XXIX.,  v.  18. 

''  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  481. 


ancient  mole. 


GHAP.  IX.]  SIEGE  AND  FALL  OF  TYRE.  279 

to  those  from  the  walls,  Alexander  erected  as  a  protection,  two 
wooden  towers  at  the  extremity  of  the  dike  to  contain  his 
engines ;  and  covered  them  with  leather  and  raw  hides  to  pre- 
vent their  being  easily  burnt.'  But  the  intrepidity  and  vast 
resources  of  the  enemy  triumphed  ;  and  a  bold  effort  enabled 
the  besieged  to  burn  these  structures  by  means  of  a  hulk  filled 
with  liquid  bitumen  and  other  combustible  materials,  which 
they  ignited  as  she  was  placed  a5;ainst  the  towers.  Part  of  the 
dike  was  destroyed  also,^  and  a  sudden  storm  afterwards  com- 
pleted the  destruction  of  the  work.^  Alexander  was  so  much 
discouraged,  particularly  by  the  latter  circumstance,  that  he 
was  on  the  point  of  abandoning  the  siege,  and  of  marching  to  Difficulties  of 
Egypt  ;*  but  being  opportunely  reinforced  by  vessels  from 
Rhodes,  Cilicia,  and  the  ports  of  Phoenicia,  be  determined  to 
renew  the  attempt  by  sea  and  land,  depending  chiefly  on  the 
former,  since  he  had  now  the  superiority  on  that  element. 

A  hasty  attempt  to  storm  through  an  imperfect  breach 
having  failed,  Alexander  took  advantage  of  a  calm  day  to  make 
a  general  assault,  by  approaching  the  walls,  and  making  simul- 
taneous attacks  on  different  points  with  his  battering  engines. 
After  some  progress  was  made  with  these  machines,  ships  with 
ladders  were  advanced  to  replace  the  others,  and  at  length 
Alexander  stormed  at  the  head  of  the  main  body.  Thus,  after 
a  protracted  and  determined  resistance  of  nearly  eight  months, 
the  proud  city  of  Tyre  was  carried,  having  sustained  the  loss  offinai  success  of 
6,000  men;  2,000  were  afterwards  nailed  to  gibbets,  and 
30,000  of  the  inhabitants  were  sold  for  slaves :  the  Macedo- 
nians were  not  only  greatly  enraged  by  the  obstinacy  of  the 
defence,  but  also  by  the  cruelty  of  the  Tyrians  in  putting  to 
death  some  Macedonians  who  had  been  taken  on  the  passage 
from  Sidon.^ 

During  this  operation,  Alexander's  lieutenants  were  success- 
ful in  Paphlagonia,  Lycaonia,  Tenedos,  Ghio,  &c.,  being  unop- 

'  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xviii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xix.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  iii. 
^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  iii. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vii. 

*  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxiv.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib,  IV.,  cap.  iv., 
and  Justin,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  iii.,  and  lib.  XL,  cap.  x. 


280  DARIUS  AGAIN  PROPOSES  PEACE.  [cHAP.  IX. 

Fresh  offers  of  posed  by  Darius,  who  instead  of  exerting  himself  to  preserve 
peace.  Tyre,  appears  to  have  trusted   entirely  to  negotiation.     The 

generosity  experienced  by  his  beloved  queen  made  a  strong 
impression  on  him.  Darius  is  said  to  have  prayed  that,  next 
to  himself,  his  noble  enemy  should  be  the  sovereign  of  Asia. 
It  was  with  these  warm  feelings  that  messengers  were  despatched 
with  fresh  proposals,  which  reached  Alexander  towards  the 
close  of  the  siege  of  Tyre.  Ten  thousand  talents  were  offered 
as  a  ransom  for  his  family  by  Darius,  and  a  peaceful  alliance  to 
be  cemented  by  a  marriage  with  his  daughter ;  with  whom,  as 
her  dower,  Alexander  was  to  have  the  countries  lying  between 
the  river  Euphrates  and  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
Alexander  To  this  Alexander  haughtily  and  briefly  replied,  that  he  did 

to  make  peace,  not  Want  the  uioncy,  and  need  not  ask  Darius's  leave  to  marry 
his  daughter;  adding,  that  he  would  not  accept  part  of  an 
empire  which  he  considered  to  be  wholly  his  own. 

All  hope  of  peace  being  thus  ended,  Darius  reluctantly  pre- 
pared for  another  struggle,  and  the  Bactriaus  under  Bessus, 
with  other  distant  levies  which  had  been  too  late  for  the  recent 
campaign,  were  ordered  to  assemble  at  Babylon ;  but  these 
preparations  did  not  cause  any  change  in  the  plans  of  his 
enemy.  ^ 
B.  c.  332.  On  the  fall  of  Tyre,  Alexander  marched  towards  Jerusalem, 

He  marches  to  being  bent  on  punishing  the  Jews  for  refusing  supplies  during 
the  late  siege,  which  they  had  done  on  the  broad  ground  that 
they  were  bound  to  Darius  as  long  as  he  lived.  This  imminent 
danger  was,  however,  averted  by  a  vision,  agreeably  to  which, 
the  high-priest  Jaddua,  accompanied  by  the  priests  in  their 
various-coloured  robes  of  fine  linen,  went  forth  attended  by  a 
multitude  of  citizens  clad  in  white,  and  met  the  conqueror  a  little 
way  from  the  city.  On  perceiving  this  sacred  procession,  it  is 
said  that  Alexander  advanced  alone,  and  having  prostrated 
himself  before  the  holy  name  of  God  inscribed  on  the  diadem 
of  the  leader,  he  took  the  high-priest  by  the  hand,  and  entering 
the  city  as  a  peaceable  visiter,  he  offered  sacrifices  in  the 
temple.  Here  it  was  shown  him  in  the  book  of  Daniel  that  he 
was  prefigured  as  the  Greek  destined  to  overthrow  the  Persian 
'  Arriau,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxv. 


CHAP.  IX.]    ALEXANDER  MARCHES  TO  JERUSALEM  AND  GAZA.        28 1 

empire  ;  with  which  he  was  so  much  delighted  that  he  readily 

granted  to  the  Jews  the  boon  of  retaining  the  laws  of  their  Certain  prWi- 

r        o    ^  1  1         •  •         o  leges  granttd 

loreiathers  ;  he  granted  them  also  immunity  trom  taxes  every  to  the  Jews, 
seventh  year,  when  they  neither  sow  nor  reap.^ 

The  animated  and  highly-wrought  picture  of  the  Jewish 
historian  has  been  doubted,  but  Alexander  was  unlikely  to 
leave  such  an  important  city  unnoticed  in  his  rear ;  and  from 
his  subsequent  relations  with  the  Jews,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
some  understanding  with  them  was  established,  either  personally 
or  by  one  of  his  officers. 

The  only  place  southward  of  Jerusalem  which  could  impede  Advance  to 
future  operations  was  Gaza,  a  city  commanding  the  high  road 
to  Egypt,  and  then  governed  by  Batis.  Notwithstanding  the 
successes  of  Alexander,  to  which  all  other  rulers  seemed  ready 
to  succumb,  this  faithful  eunuch,  with  the  assistance  of  a  body 
of  Arabs  whom  he  had  engaged  for  this  service,  determined  to 
defend  his  post  for  Darius.  A  fortress  situated  between  Phoe- 
nicia and  Egypt,  and  having  a  small  port  on  the  coast,  at 
the  distance  of  a  short  league,  was  of  vital  consequence  to 
Alexander  •,  but  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  required  all  the 
energies  of  this  great  commander.  He  had  not  to  contend,  as 
recently,  with  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  a  powerful  fleet,  but  the 
extent  of  the  city,  and  the  unusual  height  of  its  walls,  which 
were  raised  on  the  crest  of  ground  about  sixty  feet  above  the 
plain,^  gave  considerable  strength  to  the  place,  independently  of 
its  position ;  which,  though  not  in  the  ocean,  was  in  other 
respects  effectively  an  island.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  its  peculiar 
that  some  of  the  engineers  considered  it  impracticable  to  master 
such  walls  by  force ;  but  Alexander  observed  that  the  difficul- 
ties were  small  compared  with  the  importance  of  the  under- 
taking f  and  he  proceeded  to  give  orders  to  commence  what 
proved  almost  the  greatest  achievement  which  he  was  ever 
destined  to  accomplish. 

On  the  southern  side  of  the  city  a  prodigious  mound  was 
commenced,  and  as  the  surrounding  desert  denied  the  ordinary 

'  Joseph.  Ant.,  lib.  XI.,  cap.  iv.,  v.,  viii. 

^  Biblical  Researches,  &c.,  by  E   Robinson,  D.D.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  374,  375. 

^  Arrian.  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxvi. 


282  SIEGE  AND  FALL  OF  GAZA.  [cHAP.  IX. 

resources,   earth  and   timber,   probably   olive  and  date  trees, 
which  abound,'  were  brought  from  a  distance   over  the  sand 
with   great   labour ;  the  people  of  the  adjacent  country  being 
employed  for  this  purpose. 
Protracted  Owing  to  thcsc  difficulties,  added    to   those   caused  by  the 

^e^cneeo  e  (jgj-gpj-^^jj^g^j  defence  and  constant  sallies  of  the  besieged,  the 
rampart  and  the  mines  progressed  but  slowly ;  especially  the 
latter,  which  as  the  sand  required  to  be  everywhere  supported, 
were,  even  with  this  assistance,  maintained  with  the  greatest 
difficult}',  more  particularly  as  the  work  was  exposed  at  the 
same  time  to  constant  attacks  in  every  stage. 

The  battering  machines,  including  those  which  had  been 
used  at  Tyre,  having  at  length  been  brought  to  play  with 
advantage  on  a  level  with  the  walls,  and  a  partially  practicable 
breach  effected,  the  assault  took  place  forthwith."  Notwith- 
standing a  severe  loss,  the  Arabs  thrice  held  their  ground 
against  the  shock  of  the  Macedonians ;  but  in  a  fourth,  the 
example  and  unshaken  valour  of  their  leader,  who  before,  in 
repelling  one  of  the  sallies,  had  been  severely  wounded  in  the 
shoulder  by  an  arrow  discharged  from  a  catapult,^  enabled 
some  of  the  Macedonians  to  get  within  the  walls,  and  the  gates 
being  forced  open  one  after  another,  the  main  body  of  the  army 
Capture  of  the  entere4  the  city.  The  Arabs,  however,  maintained  their 
city  y  storm,  ^.y^^^^q^^qy^  Continuing  a  brave  but  ineffectual  resistance  till  the 
last,  every  one  losing  his  life  where  he  stood ;  except  indeed 
Batis  himself,  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  covered  with 
wounds,  but  still  alive.*  Six  thousand  men  perished  according  to 
one  account,  that  of  Hegesias  ;  and  10,000  Arabs  and  Persians 
according  to  another,^  in  addition  to  the  wives  and  children  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  were  sold  for  slaves  by  order  of  Alexander/' 
This  commercial  emporium  contained  great  stores  of  frankin- 
cense, myrrh,  and  other  booty  ;  and  a  remarkable  proof  of  this, 
and  of  the  connexion  of  this  place  with  the  East,  is  given  by 
Plutarch,  who  says  that  Alexander  sent  his  tutor,  Leonidas,  a 

'  Biblical  Researches,  &c.,  by  E.  Robinson,  D.D.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  372-376. 
*  Arrian,  lib.  II„  cap.  xxvii.,  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vii. 
^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vi.  '*  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxvii. 

^  (.iuint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vi.  "  Arrian,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxvii. 


CHAP.  IX.]  MARCH  TO  EGYPT.  283 

present  of  five  hundred  talents  weight  of  frankincense,  and  a 
hundred  of  myrrh,  in  recollection  of  the  hopes  he  had  entertained 
and  the  reproof  he  had  received  when  a  boy.  It  seems  that 
Leonidas  one  day  had  observed  Alexander,  at  a  sacrifice,  throw- 
ing incense  into  the  fire  by  handsful,  and  said,  "  Alexander, 
M  hen  you  have  conquered  the  country  where  spices  grow,  you 
may  be  thus  liberal  of  your  incense ;  but,  in  the  meantime,  use 
what  you  have  more  sparingly."  Alexander  therefore  wrote 
thus :  "  I  have  sent  you  frankincense  and  myrrh  in  abundance, 
that  you  may  be  no  longer  a  churl  to  the  gods."  ^ 

The  sale  of  captives  was  the  custom  of  the  time  ;  but  for  the 
honour  of  Alexander  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  statement  is  not 
correct  of  his  having,  as  Achilles  is  said  to  have  treated 
Hector,  caused  the  dying  Batis  to  be  dragged  round  the  town 
at  the  heels  of  a  chariot." 

Circumstances  favoured  the  next  enterprise  ;  for  on  arriving  March  to 
before  Pelusium  with  his  army  and  fleet,  the  Egyptians  being 
dissatisfied  with  the  satrap  Mazaces,  were  ready  to  welcome 
Alexander.  Having  thus  acquired  the  fertile  territory  of  the 
Nile  without  a  blow,  the  excitement  of  warlike  objects  gave 
place  for  a  time  to  those  of  peace :  and  having  examined  the 
course  of  the  Nile  from  Memphis  to  Heliopolis,  Alexander 
strove  to  unite  his  new  and  old  subjects  by  amusements  and 
religious  ceremonies,  himself  assisting  in  the  sacrifices  to  Apis, 
instead  of  outraging  the  feelings  of  the  Egyptians  by  showing 
contempt  and  scorn  for  the  objects  of  their  worship.  An 
examination  of  the  coast  succeeded,  and  in  order  to  replace  the 
defective  ports  at  Pelusium  and  the  Canopus,  the  city  bearing 
his  name  was  projected  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  which  its 
ruins  still  indicate,  with  a  view  of  facilitating  the  commerce  of 
the  west,  also  of  commanding  that  which  was  expected  to  spring 
from  his  intended  conquest  of  the  east.  For  this  invasion 
Alexander  was  now  preparing,  by  raising  troops  in  Greece  to  Alexander 
strengthen  and  consolidate  his  Asiatic  levies ;  and  it  was  during  the  go've^m- 
the  interval  thus  employed  that  his  visit  to  the  remarkable  °'^°^°^^-''P^ 
temple  of  Ham  or  Amnion,  in  the  oasis  of  the  latter  name, 

'  Alexander,  in  Plutarch,  Langhorne's  ed.,  p.  356. 
'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vii. 


284         REGULATION  OF  EGYPT  AND  ADVANCE  TO  TYRE.    [CHAP.  IX. 

took  place ;  probably  to  give  Alexander's  enterprise  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  oracle. 

Accompanied  by  a  considerable  body  of  horse  and  foot,  he 
arrived  at  the  temple ;  and,  in  the  return,  the  greater  part  of 
the  troops  took  the  longer  route  by  the  shore  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea,  whilst  Alexander  with  the  remainder  boldly  crossed 
the  desert  in  a  direct  line  to  Memphis. 
The  ancient  The  arrangements  for  the  government  of  Egypt  were  now 
^J^ygJ]"^'  completed,  the  basis  of  which  was  the  maintenance  of  the 
ancient  laws  under  the  executive  government  of  local  chiefs, 
some  of  whom  were  Egyptians,  and  others  Macedonians,  and 
the  whole  were  placed  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  vice- 
roy or  Deloaspis ;  ^  the  post  next  in  rank,  with  the  chief  military 
command,  being  naturally  entrusted  to  a  Macedonian. 

Having  completed  these  arrangements,  by  issuing  public 
orders  for  all  to  respect  and  execute  the  ancient  laws  and  insti- 
tions,  Alexander  determined,  by  assuming  the  offensive,  to 
anticipate  the  march  of  Darius  towards  Syria  and  Egypt. 
Alexander  Being  reinforced  by  400  Grecian  infantry,  and  500  Thracian 
toward? Asia,  horse,  in  the  spring  of  the  year  331  B.C.  he  put  the  army  in 
motion  towards  Tyre ;  ^  his  force  amounting  apparently  to 
7,000  horse,  and  about  40,000  foot,  besides  the  Asiatic  levies, 
whose  number  has  not  been  given  by  historians. 

At  Tyre,  the  appointed  rendezvous  of  his  fleet  and  army, 
Alexander  found  deputies  from  Athens  and  several  other 
republics,  soliciting  his  return  to  defend  them  against  the  Lace- 
daemonians ;  but  past  successes  had  only  inflamed  the  desire  of 
encountering  more  dangers,  and  making  other  conquests.  Alex- 
ander therefore  sent  some  money  to  Antipater,  and  having 
despatched  a  fleet  to  the  Peloponnesus,  the  march  was  con- 
tinued, after  celebrating  a  public  sacrifice  to  Hercules,  in  which 
the  whole  army  joined. 
Probably  Although  the  route  onward  from  Tyre  is  not  mentioned,  the 

Phoenicia.  facility  of  obtaining  supplies,  as  well  as  the  circumstance  of  the 
Phoenicians  and  Cyprians  being  ordered  to  furnish  vessels  ^  for 
crossing  the  Euphrates,   clearly  indicate  that  it  was  through 

'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  v.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  vi. 

=•  Ibid. 


CHAP.  IX.]  MARCH  THROUGH  MESOPOTAMIA.  285 

Phoenicia,  most  likely  by  keeping  along  the  Upper  Orontes  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch,  at  a  moderate  distance  from 
which  place  there  were  four  crossing  places  over  the  Euphrates, 
namely,  the  Zeugmas  of  Sumeisat,  Eiim  Kal'ah,  Bir,  and 
Thapsacus. 

Alexander  directed  his   march  on  the  last,  which  was  the  Darius  assem- 
crossing  place  of  Cyrus, ^  whose  steps  he  was  following.     Pre-rousann™^' 
parations  to  meet  the  invaders  were  by  this  time  far  advanced,  y^°^s  ^^^ 
and  the  Scythians,  Parthians,  Indians,   and  other  levies,  with 
200  scythed  chariots,  being  assembled  in  Babylonia,  and  the 
troops  newly  armed  with  swords  and  spears  of  a  longer  and 
better  description,  Darius  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  more 
numerous  army  than  that  which  had  been  destroyed  at  the 
Issus.- 

On  reaching  Upper  Mesopotamia,  Mazseus  was  posted  in 
advance  to  dispute  the  passage  at  Thapsacus,  but  he  abandoned 
this  position  without  offering  any  obstruction,  except  that  of 
breaking  down  the  bridge  on  the  approach  of  the  enemy ;  and 
Alexander,  instead  of  resorting  to  the  tedious  operation  of 
using  his  boats,  repaired  the  bridge,  and  passed  the  great  river 
without  the  slightest  opposition.^ 

Local  tradition  has  transmitted  the  fact  of  the  passage  of  Nicephoriom 
Iskender  Acbar  ;  and  there  is  the  additional  fact  that,  tempted 
by  the  advantages  of  the  situation,  he  ordered  the  city  of  Nice- 
phorium,  now  Kakkah,  to  be  built.* 

The  position  of  Darius  near  the  Tigris,  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  country  along  the  direct  line  having  been  wasted 
by  Mazseus,  determined  Alexander  to  proceed  to  Babylon  by 
the  circuitous  route  along  the  Tigris,  which,  in  addition  to 
affording  more  supplies,  would  be  less  exposed  to  excessive 
heats.* 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vii. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  ix.  ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vii.,  says 
800,000  foot  and  200,000  horse. 

^  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  Ill,,  chap,  viii.,  with  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV., 
cap.  ix. 

*  Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxvi. ;  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxiv. ;  and  above,  vol.  I., 
pp.  48,  114. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vii. 


286 


PREPARATIONS  OF  DARIUS. 


[chap.  IX. 


Route  from  It  is  a  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  historian,  that,  conform- 

th?ngris/°  ably  to  his  description,  in  proceeding  northward  along  what  was 
subsequently  one  of  the  royal  roads  (which  is  still  to  be  traced 
by  the  pavement)  to  Carras  and  to  Amida,  now  Diyar  Bekr, 
the  river  Euphrates,  and  subsequently  the  mountains  of  Ar- 
menia, would  be  on  the  left  hand.^ 

Whilst  crossing  Upper  Mesopotamia,  it  was  ascertained  from 
some  of  his  scouts  who  had  been  taken,  that  Darius  was 
encamped  with  a  numerous  army  in  a  position  where  he 
intended  to  dispute  the  passage  of  the  Tigris.^  On  receiving 
this  intelligence,  Alexander  directed  his  march  towards  the 
spot  that  had  been  indicated ;  but  on  arriving  there,  he  neither 
found  Darius  nor  any  of  his  troops,  therefore  he  only  expe- 
rienced the  difficulty  of  fording  a  stream  which,  owing  to  its 
depth  and  rapidity,  is  all  but  impracticable  for  an  army. 

The  passage  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the  vicinity 
of  Eski  Mosul,  which  point  would  have  been  speedily  reached 
if,  as  is  probable,  Alexander  took  a  more  easterly  direction  when 
he  reached  the  vicinity  of  either  Mardm  or  Nisibm.    It  appears 
Retreat  of      that  Darius  on  reaching  Upper  Mesopotamia,  suddenly  turned 
the  Tigris  and  to  the  right,  and  crossed  first  the  Tigris  and  then  the  Caprus  or 
^■'  Lesser  Zab,  and  halted  at  Arbela,  now  Arbfl,  a  small  tow^n  with 

a  ruined  castle,  situated  on  an  artificial  mound  742  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  not  stated  why  Darius  quitted  the  favourable 
ground  in  Mesopotamia,  where  there  was  scope  for  the  whole 
of  his  forces,  including  the  chariots,  but  it  may  be  inferred  from 
his  attempts  to  negotiate,^  that  a  peaceable  reunion  with  his 
family,  and  not  a  battle,  had  been  his  object ;  and  thus  he  lost 
the  opportunity  of  crippling,  if  not  destroying,  Alexander's 
army,  first  when  crossing  at  Thapsacus,  and  again  at  Eski 
Mosul. 

But  having  at  length  resolved  to  meet  his  enemy,   Darius 
left  the  greater  part  of  his  baggage,  provisions,  &c.,  at  Arbela, 


'  Arriaii,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vii.  See  also  the  route  from  Thapsacus  towards 
tlie  interior  of  Mesopotamia,  in  a  north  by  easterly  direction,  to  Haran,  and 
from  thence,  by  Mardin,  to  the  river  Tigris,  at  Eski  Mosul.  Map  No.  2  and 
Index  Map. 

*  Ibid.  =»  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xi. 


CHAP.  IX.]        LAST  PROPOSALS  OF  DARIUS  FOR  PEACE.  287 

crossed  the  Lycus,  or  Great  Zab,  and  encamped  on  the  river 
Bumadus,  at  a  village  called  Guagamela,  which  is  about  600 
Stadia  from  Arbela.'  In  the  meanwhile,  Alexander,  with  his 
usual  tact,  quieted  an  alarm,  which  the  occurrence  of  a  total 
eclipse  of  the  moon  at  the  moment  of  passing  the  Tigris  had 
caused  in  the  camp,  by  directing  Aristander,  the  soothsayer,  to 
assure  the  soldiers  that  the  eclipse  portended  evil  to  Persia, 
and  not   to  Macedonia.      Being   ignorant  of  the    position   of  Alexander 

.  rpy.       ...  .       crosses  and 

Darius,   he  followed   the  course  of  the   Tigris    into   Assyria,  advances 
having  the  Gordysean  mountains  on  his  left ;  but  during  his  Tigrfs.  ^ 
fourth  march,  his  uncertainty  was  relieved,  by  learning  from 
some  prisoners  that  Darius  occupied  a  strong  camp  at  no  great 
distance ;  and  he  halted,  in  consequence,  to  prepare  for  battle. 

Darius  appears  to  have  taken  this  opportunity  to  make  his 
third  and  final  proposals  for  peace,  to  which  he  was  alike 
inclined  by  a  quiet  disposition,  and  personal  esteem  for  Alex- 
ander ;  whose  greatness  of  mind  in  the  first  instance  towards 
Statira,  and  particularly  his  feeling  conduct  at  the  time  of  the 
queen's  death,  had  inspired  an  aftectionate  husband  with  the 
warmest  gratitude  and  the  greatest  admiration.  With  tears  in 
his  eyes,  and  his  hands  raised  towards  heaven,  Darius  prayed 
that  God,  who  disposes  of  all  things,  would  preserve  to  him 
the  empire  of  the  Persians  and  Medes  as  it  had  been  received ; 
but  he  added,  as  the  recollections  of  the  husband  overcame 
the  pride  of  the  monarch,  "if  it  be  otherwise  decided,  and 
the  glory  of  the  Persians  must  fall,  may  none  but  Alexander  sit 
upon  the  throne  of  Cyrus."" 

The  princely  oft'er  of  30,000  talents  of  gold  and  all  the  He  again  re- 
territory  lying  between  the  Hellespont  and  Euphrates,  as  a  liberal  terms. 
dower  with  his  second  daughter,  having  been  made  by  the 
ambassadors,  couched  in  language  which  enhanced  the  value, 
(for  Darius  was  ready  to  divide  the  empire  itself,)  it  was  as  a 
matter  of  form  referred  to  the  council.  But  the  peaceable 
course  advised  by  Parmenio,  with  the  silent  sanction  of  his 
colleagues,  not  being  palatable,  Alexander  told  the  deputies 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  money,  which  he  did  not  want, 

'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xi. 


288 


APPROACH  OF  THE  TWO  ARMIES. 


[chap.  IX. 


some  prepara' 

tiODS. 


His  neglect. 


the  rest  was  already  in  his  possession ;  and  attributing  to 
Darius  the  design  of  endeavouring  to  corrupt  his  friends,  and 
bribe  his  soldiers  to  kill  their  prince,  he  added,  that  he  would 
pursue  him  to  the  last  extremity,  not  as  an  open  enemy,  but 
as  an  assassin  and  a  poisoner.*  To  these  reproaches  they 
simply  replied,  that  since  Alexander  was  resolved  to  continue 
to  make  war,  his  frankness  was  praiseworthy,  and  it  was  time 
they  should  hasten  to  apprise  Darius  of  the  necessity  of  being 
prepared  for  an  immediate  battle.  Accordingly,  Darius  took 
Darius  makes  Something  like  a  decided  step  by  detaching  3,000  horse  under 
Mazaeus  to  endeavour  to  obstruct  the  enemy,  who  by  this  time 
had  almost  reached  the  Persian  camp. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  hope  of  peace,  and  the  prospect  of 
recovering  his  family,  had  caused  Darius  to  commit  the  un- 
pardonable oversight  of  allowing  the  invaders  to  cross  two 
mighty  rivers,  and  without  interruption  to  traverse  extensive 
plains,  where  the  Persian  cavalry  might  have  watched  their 
movements  at  some  distance ;  leaving  them  only  a  desert  as 
they  advanced.  But  instead  of  being  thus  harassed,  Alexander's 
forces,  numbering  about  40,000  European  infantry  and  7,000 
cavalry,^  independently  of  the  Asiatic  levies,  entered  Assyria 
in  the  most  efficient  state,  advancing  with  the  infantry  forming 
two  columns  in  the  centre,  the  cavalry  on  the  flanks,  and  the 
baggage  in  the  rear.^  After  advancing  about  30  stadia,  the 
cavalry  under  Mazaeus  was  seen  retiring  from  some  hillocks, 
which  being  immediately  occupied,  the  Persian  army  was 
indistinctly  visible  through  the  fog.'*  The  long-wished-for 
opportunity  of  meeting  his  adversary  for  the  moment  perplexed 
rather  than  encouraged  Alexander,  who  instead  of  closing  with 
the  enemy  as  usual,  determined  by  the  advice  of  Parmenio  to 
delay  the  attack.  Taking  the  light  horse  and  the  royal  cohort, 
Alexander  examined  the  camp  of  Darius,  and  having  made 
himself  well  acquainted  with  the  position  of  the  enemy,  and 
strengthened  his  own,  by  means  of  a  palisade,  a  council  of 
war  was  summoned  to  deliberate.     Parmenio  and  some  others 


Alexander 
reconnoitres 
the  camp  of 
Darius. 


'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xi.  *  Arrian,  lib.  Ill,,  cap.  xi. 

^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xii. 

*  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xii.,  with  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xi. 


CHAP.  IX.]  DARIUS  ADDRESSES  HIS  ARMY.  289 

recommended  a  night  attack  as  being  likely  to  be  unexpected, 
and  therefore  terrible  as  well  as  destructive.  To  this,  the  uncer- 
tainty of  attacks  in  the  dark,  the  superior  knowledge  possessed 
of  the  country  by  the  enemy,  and  the  difficulties  of  a  retreat 
were  opposed ;  and  the  meeting  was  reminded  that  it  was 
incumbent  on  Alexander  to  conquer  openly.  Orders  were  now 
issued  to  take  some  repose  preparatory  to  a  regular  battle,  and 
the  different  commanders  were  desired  to  make  known  to  the 
soldiers  that  the  contest  was  not  for  a  petty  province  such  as  Alexander 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  or  even  Egypt,  but  for  the  empire  of  Asia ;  soidiersr 
and  that  success  would  depend  upon  the  courage  and  united 
exertions  of  every  individual.^ 

Although  a  feeling  of  anxiety,  if  not  of  alarm,  was  manifested 
about  the  result  of  the  contemplated  struggle,  the  address  of 
Darius  was  powerful.  Not  long  ago,  he  observed  to  his  army, 
they  had  marched  against  Greece,  but  the  inconstancy  of  fortune 
at  the  Granicus,  and  again  at  the  Issus,  had  removed  the 
barrier  of  two  great  rivers,  and  placed  the  Persians  on  the 
defensive,  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom.  But  his  duty  had  been 
performed  by  assembling  a  force  which  this  vast  plain  could 
scarcely  contain  ;  he  had  likewise  furnished  the  necessary  arms, 
equipments,  and  provisions,  with  suitable  battle-ground  for  this 
multitude :  the  rest,  he  added,  depended  upon  themselves.  "  It  Animating 
is,"  observed  the  king  to  the  soldiers,  "  become  a  contest  for  Darius  to  his 
existence,  and,  what  is  dearer  still,  the  liberty  of  your  wives  ^°"°^'''''s- 
and  children,  who  must  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  unless 
your  bodies  become  a  rampart  to  save  them  from  captivity." 
Darius  added,  that  his  own  mother  and  his  children  w^ere  still 
in  that  prison  where  Statira  had  lately  perished,  and  now 
appealed  to  their  compassion  and  fidelity  for  deliverance  from 
a  prolonged  captivity.  His  eloquent  address  concluded  with 
this  remarkable  peroration  : — "The  enemy,"  said  the  king,  "  is 
at  hand ;  and  as  this  contest  must  either  overturn  or  establish 
the  greatest  empire  in  the  world,  I  conjure  you  by  the  splendour 
of  the  sun,  by  the  fires  on  our  altars,  which  represent  this  lumi- 
nary, and  by  the  immortal  memory  of  C\tus,  the  great  founder 
of  the  empire,  to  maintain  the  glory  of  the  nation  unsullied."" 

'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  ix.  ^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xv. 

VOL.  II.  U 


290  ORDER  OF  BATTLE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  ARMY.       [cHAP.  IX. 

Darius  now  proceeded  to  make  the  following  arrangements. 
The  Persian    On  the  left,  the  principal  line  consisted  of  Dahians,  Arachosians, 
^'  horse  and  foot  intermingled ;   in  front  were  the  Bactrian  and 
Scythian  horse,  with  100  two-wheeled  chariots ;  and  in  rear, 
forming  a  third  line,  were  the  Cadusians  and  a  mixed  body  of 
Persian  horse. ^      The  right  was  also  formed  in  three  lines,  the 
principal  of  which  was  composed  of  Cselo-Syrians,   Mesopota- 
mians,  IMedes,  Parthians,  and  Sacse,  in  addition  to  Tapurians 
and    Hyrcanians,    supported    by   another    line    composed    of 
Albanians  and  Sacesinse ;  with  a  third  in  front,  of  chariots  and 
cavalry,   namely,  the  Armenian  and  Cappadocian  horse.     In 
the  centre  under  Darius  himself  were  the  roval  kinsmen,  the 
Persian    Melophori,   who  were  distinguished   by  grenades  of 
gold,  ^  the  Indians,  the  Carian  exiles,  and  Mardian  archers ; 
with  the  Greek  mercenaries  on  each  side.     In  front  were  50 
chariots  and  15  elephants,  and  in  the  third  or  supporting  line, 
were  the  Uxians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Sitaceni,  and  the  people 
bordering  upon  the  Erythrean  Sea.^ 
ascertained  by      A  documcnt  Containing  the  preceding  plan  of  Darius  having 
beeii  intercepted  on  the  eve  of  the  battle,  Alexander  was  not  only 
informed  of  the  whole  of  the  details,  but  he  appears  likewise  to 
have  known  that  Darius  meant  to  keep  his  forces  under  arms, 
expecting  a  night  attack.* 

The  Macedonians  passed  the  night  in  a  state  of  anxiety,  in 
which,  contrary  to  his  wont,  Alexander  largely  shared.'  The 
soothsayer  Aristander  was  summoned,  and  after  endeavouring 
to  propitiate  Jupiter,  Minerva,  and  Victory,  by  prayers  and 
sacrifices,  Alexander  retired,  but  not  to  sleep.  Absorbed  with 
anxiety  about  the  result  of  the  coming  battle  against  such 
fearful  odds,  at  one  time  he  planned  a  general  attack  with  his 
whole  force  on  the  Persian  right,  at  another  a  general  attack  in 
Various  plans  front  was  Contemplated,  and  this  again  gave  place  to  a  meditated 
tempiatcd.  attack  ou  the  left  wing ;  and  in  this  unsettled  state  the  great 
captain  continued  till  at  length  his  bodily  frame  being  com- 

'  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xiii.,  with  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xi. 
^  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xli, 

^  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xiii.,  with  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xi. 
*  Ibid.  »  Ibid.  Quint.  Curt. 


CHAP.  IX.]       MACEDONIAN  ORDER  OF  BATTLE.  29 1 

pletely  exhausted,  he  found  relief  from  the  all-absorbing  anxie-  Preparations 
ties  of  the  mind,  and  a  deep  sleep  was  the  consequence,  which  attack. 
continued  till  long  after  daylight.  On  being  awoke  with  some 
difficulty  by  Parrnenio,  Alexander  briefly  directed  the  com- 
manders to  take  post  and  await  his  orders.'  He  speedily 
appeared  in  the  unusual  equipment  of  armour,  displaying  a 
cheerful  countenance,  from  which  the  army  confidently  augured 
victory;  and  the  palisade  being  overturned  to  give  space,  the 
troops  were  immediately  formed,  nominally  in  two  wings  with 
the  cavalry  in  front,  but  actually  in  a  grand  hollow  square,  in 
order  to  resist  the  general  attack  intended  to  be  simultaneously 
made  on  the  front,  flanks,  and  rear  by  the  enemy's  forces,  which 
greatly  outflanked  the  Macedonians. 

The  latter  were  thus  detailed :  the  right  wing  comprised  the  Order  of 
auxiliary  horse  called  Agema,  and  was  supported  by  the  squadrons  ^"  ^' 
of  Philotas  and  Meleagre,  &c.    To  these  succeeded  the  phalanx 
and  the  Argyraspides,  strengthened  by  the  corps  of  C?enus,  the 
OrestsB,  and  Lyncestae,  who  were  followed  by  the  foreign  levies 
under  Amyntas  with  the  Phrygians,  who  completed  this  wing.^ 
The  formation  of  the  left  wing  was  nearly  similar,   having  the 
Peloponnesian  and  other  cavalry  in  front,  the  Thessalian  horse, 
with  the  phalanx  and  infantry,  in  the  rear.    A  moveable  phalanx 
was  ready  to  support  any  part  of  each  wing,  prepared  to  con- 
tract or   dilate  its  front  as  occasion  required ;    and  auxiliary 
corps  were  placed  ready  for  action  towards  the  flanks  and  rear, 
both  of  which  were  as  well  protected  as  the  front  itself;^  and  in 
order  to  avoid  the  most  formidable  arm  of  the  enemy,  Alex- 
ander desired  a  passage  to  be  opened  for  the  chariots  and  the 
horses,  with  a  view  to  the  latter  being  speared  as  they  passed.* 
Parmenio  commanded  the  left  wing,  and  as  usual  the  king  led 
the  right,  which  was  advancing,  when  Bion  a  deserter  came  at 
full  speed  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  caltrops :  the  cavalry 
avoided  them  in  consequence,  by  taking  an  oblique  direction. 

'  Compare  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  viii.,  with  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV., 
cap.  xiii. 

"^  Diod.  Sic.  ibid. ;  Quint.  Curt,  ibid ;  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xi. 
^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xiii. ;  Arrian,  lib.  Ill,,  cap.  xii.,  xiii. 
*  Ibid.  Arrian,  and  Quint.  Curt. 

u  2 


292 


DARIUS  COMMENCES  THE  ATTACK. 


[chap.  IX. 


The  Persian 
attack  com- 
mences suc- 
cessfully. 


For  some  time 
the  battle  con- 
tinues doubt- 
ful. 


But  Darius  commenced  the  battle  at  this  moment,  by  making 
a  signal  for  his  chariots  to  advance,  and  Bessus  to  charge 
Alexander's  left  flank  simultaneously  with  the  Massagetian 
cavalry.  The  former  caused  considerable  loss  and  disorder  as 
they  broke  through  the  first  line  of  the  Macedonians  at  full 
speed,  and  the  danger  was  increased  by  Mazseus  having  got 
into  the  rear  of  the  Macedonian  left ;  at  the  head  of  1,000  horse 
he  reached  the  baggage,  and  not  only  released  many  of  the 
captives,  who  were  slightly  guarded,  but  he  was  at  the  point  of 
also  rescuing  the  family  of  his  master.^ 

Parmenio  being  alarmed,  sent  Polydamus  for  orders ;  when 
Alexander  replied,  that  victory  will  not  only  recover  what  is 
lost,  but  obtain  what  belongs  to  the  enemy  also  ;  "  Let  him  not, 
therefore,"  said  the  king,  "  weaken  the  order  of  battle  or  be 
influenced  by  the  loss  of  baggage,  but  continue  to  fight  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  Philip  and  Alexander." 

Amyntas,  however,  with  some  squadrons,  made  an  attempt 
to  rescue  the  baggage,  and  on  being  repulsed  by  the  Cadusians 
and  Scythians,  he  retreated  towards  the  king,  who  was  so 
uneasy  lest  the  soldiers  might  quit  their  ranks  to  save  their 
efiects,  that  he  despatched  Aretas  with  his  lancers  to  attack  the 
latter." 

By  this  time  the  chariots  had  penetrated  the  phalanx,  and  the 
flanks  of  the  horses  being  pierced  right  and  left,  they  became 
unmanageable ;  a  frightful  carnage  ensued  of  horses  and  men, 
and  there  was  a  general  discomfiture ;  some  carriages,  however, 
penetrated  to  the  rear,  mangling  and  killing  the  unfortunate 
beings  whom  they  happened  to  meet.  In  the  meanwhile  Aretas 
killed  the  chief  of  the  Scythians  whilst  pillaging,  and  pursued 
his  people ;  but  the  Bactrians  having  recovered  the  lost  ground, 
the  Macedonians  sought  safety  by  flying  towards  Alexander.' 
Uttering  the  cry  of  victory,  the  Persians  fell  with  fury  upon  the 
enemy  as  if  he  had  been  everywhere  defeated ;  which,  in  fact, 
must  have  been  the  result,  had  not  the  intrepid  leader  main- 
tained the  contest  almost  single  handed.  Having  at  length  by 
his  animating  example,   reproaching  and  exciting  alternately, 

'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xiii.,  xv. 

*  Ibi(l.,  cap.  XV.  ^  Ibid. 


CHAP.  IX.]  CRITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  BATTLE.  293 

renewed  the  courage  of  his  soldiers,  and  a  successful  charge 
being  made  at  their  head,  it  was  followed  up  by  an  attack  on 
the  Persians ;  but  being  taken  in  reverse  as  he  advanced  by 
the  left  wing  of  the  enemy,  Alexander  would  have  been  de- 
stroyed, if  the  Agrian  cavalry  had  not  attacked  the  latter  in 
rear,  and  obliged  them  to  face  about  to  defend  themselves.' 

This  caused  an  extraordinary,  if  not  an  unprecedented  state 
of  things.     Alexander  was  engaged  at  the  same  time  with  an  Alexander 
enemy  in  his  front  and  another  in  the  rear.     The  latter  were  Ss  h?s  ^^^^ 
attacked  by  the  Agrians,  and  these  in  turn  by  the  Bactrians,  ground. 
who   had   returned  with    their  pillage,    and   being   unable   to 
resume  their  ranks,  fought  according  to  chance  in  a  desultory 
manner. 

A  succession  of  hostile  bodies  encircling  one  another  in  deadly 
strife,  must  ere  long  have  been  fatal  to  one  of  the  armies,  and 
owing  to  what  was  of  itself  an  accidental  circumstance  this 
melee  ended  by  the  total  overthrow  of  the  Persians.  Darius 
was  in  a  chariot,  Alexander  on  horseback,  and  each  surrounded  state  of  the 
by  followers  ready  either  to  conquer  his  rival,  or  fall  under  the  in  the  day. 
eye  of  their  prince,  when  the  death  of  his  charioteer,  who  was 
killed  by  a  dart  thrown  by  Alexander  himself,  gave  rise  to  the 
belief  in  both  armies,  that  Darius  himself  had  fallen.^ 

Previously  the  battle  had  been  stoutly  and  successfully  con- 
tested. The  baggage  and  spoil  of  Alexander's  army  had  been 
plundered  by  Mazseus,  his  right  wing  was  taken  in  reverse,  his 
left  was  worsted  by  the  Massagetian  horse,^  and  even  in  the 
heat  of  the  battle,  after  their  chief  dependence,  the  chariots,  had 
been  overthrown,  the  Persians  maintained  their  ground  during 
the  carnage,  till  they  thought  they  saw  their  sovereign  fall,^ 
From  this  instant  there  was  a  complete  panic,  the  centre  and  Panic  and 
left  flying  amidst  indescribable  and  irremediable  confusion  ;  Persians.'  ^ 
and  Darius  was  hurried  along  in  a  cloud  of  dust,  so  dense,  that 
it  is  said  the  sound  of  the  whips  urging  the  horses  was  the  only 
guide  by  which  Alexander  pursued  the  fugitive  monarch.*.     The 

'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xv. 

^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  viii. ;  Arriau  does  not  mention  this  circum- 
stance. 

"  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xv.  ■•  Ibid. 


294  FLIGHT  AND  CARNAGE  OF  THE  ASIATIC  ARMY.     [CHAP.  IX. 

Total  rout  of  historian,  M'ho  appears  to  have  been  most  famihar  with  the 
details  of  this  momentous  battle/  observes,  that  the  calamities 
of  a  whole  century  seemed  to  be  comprised  within  the  short 
space  of  that  fatal  day.  Some  of  the  fugitives  strove  to  save 
themselves  at  all  risks  by  taking  the  shortest  road,  others 
directed  their  steps  towards  difficult  defiles,  or  paths  unknown 
to  their  pursuers.  Horse  and  foot,  armed  and  unarmed,  the 
healthy,  the  sick,  and  the  wounded,  without  order,  and  without 
a  chief,  hastened  onward  in  a  frightful  state  of  confusion,  which 
was  increased  if  possible  by  efforts  to  find  the  means  of  alle- 
viating their  thirst.  Regardless  of  all  other  considerations,  they 
drank  to  such  excess  on  reaching  the  river  Lycus,  that  they 
were  unable  to  continue  their  flight,  and  the  bridge  which,  in 
consideration  of  the  fugitives  rather  than  himself,  Darius  had 
purposely  left,  being  soon  overcrowded  and  choked,  numbers 
were  driven  into  the  stream."  Alexander,  however,  did  not 
continue  the  pursuit,  alleging  that  his  troops  were  exhausted, 
their  weapons  blunted,  and  that  the  day  had  closed ;  but,  in 
reality,  he  halted  with  vexation  and  rage  because  he  was  aware 
that  the  retrograde  movement,  which  he  was  about  to  make  to 
relieve  Parmenio  from  his  critical  situation,  must  permit  the 
enemy  to  escape.  But  he  had  not  proceeded  far,  when  he  met 
the  Persian  and  Parthian  cavalry  in  full  retreat.  The  intel- 
ligence of  the  fall  of  Darius  had  caused  Mazajus  to  relax  in  his 
efforts,  and  ultimately  to  retreat,  taking  a  circuitous  route  with 
Pursuit  of  the  the  remainder  of  Darius'  forces  to  Babylon.^  No  longer  ob- 
Aiex'a^nderf  structed,  Pamicnio  made  an  onward  movement  with  the  lefl 
wing,  seizing  the  enemy's  tents  as  he  proceeded,  he  subsequently 
captured  their  baggage,  camels,  elephants,  &c.,  and  continued 
to  advance,  till  Alexander  himself  returned  to  the  Lycus ;  and 
afler  a  short  rest  resumed  the  pursuit,  hoping  to  complete  the 
wonderful  success  of  the  day,  by  capturing  the  fugitive  king."* 

Niebuhr'    supposed  Guagamela    to   be  represented  by  the 
village  of  Karmelis,  which  is  situated  on  the  Khazir  stream, 

'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xvi.  *  Ibid. 

^  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  .\vi.,  with  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xv. 

*  Arrian,  ibid. 

'  Travels,  vol.  II.,  p.  342,  Copenhagen  edition. 


CHAP.  IX.]  DARIUS  RETREATS  INTO  MEDIA.  295 

about  sixteen  miles  eastward  of  Mosul,  but  it  does  not  appear  Provable  site 

1  1  •  1         1  1  •   •  ■    1  •  1  •  i.    •  ,       ,  of  the  battle. 

that  there  is  any  local  tradition  regarding  this  most  important 
battle  ground  mentioned  in  Asiatic  history,  excepting  Beit 
Genua,  or  house  of  bones,  which  possibly  may  be  connected 
therewith;^  and  the  circumstance  that  Arbela  was  built  by 
Darius.^  In  all  likelihood  the  battle  took  place  between  'Ain-el- 
Bertha  (Mons  Nicator)  and  the  great  Zab,  probably  on  that  part 
of  the  plain  which  is  watered  by  the  Khazir-sii  or  Bumadus." 

Beyond  a  hollow  square  to  protect  the  flanks  and  rear,  there 
w^as  nothing  remarkable  in  the  order  of  the  battle  of  Arbela, 
which  was  only  a  fierce  protracted  melee,  and  Alexander,  who 
was  most  indebted  to  his  personal  bravery,  and  the  steady  disci- 
pline of  his  troops,  particularly  in  sustaining  the  shock  of  the 
chariots,  at  length  gained  the  victory. 

By  one   account^  the  loss  of  the  Persians  during  this  fearful  Loss  of  the 

Pcrsisus. 

struggle  for  the  empire,  was  40,000  men,  and  by  another,  more 
than  double  this  number  ;^  but  even  the  former  seems  to  be  an 
over  estimate,  and  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  100  Macedonians 
stated  to  have  fallen  on  the  other  side.^  The  flight  of  Darius 
naturally  continued  till  he  reached  the  baggage  and  reserve  of 
his  army  at  Arbela,  where  he  assembled  several  of  his  principal 
officers,  some  of  whom  had  likewise  arrived  from  the  battle. 
Expressing  his  belief  that  Alexander  would  endeavour  to  seize 
the  two  capitals,  Darius  announced  his  intention  of  proceeding 
to  Ecbatana  to  raise  another  army,  hoping  to  have  his  revenge 
after  Alexander's  warriors  were  absorbed  in  the  enervating  Darius  pro- 
luxuries  of  Babylon  and  Susa ;''  adding  expressively,  that  in  batana. 
difficult  circumstances,  things  that  are  necessary,  not  those 
which  are  great,  must  be  first  thought  of;  and  that  his  prede- 
cessors had  been  enabled  to  recover  previous  losses  by  the  use 
of  iron  rather  than  gold.®  Having  abandoned  the  idea  of  de- 
fending Mesopotamia  and  Susiana,  Darius,  accompanied  by  the 

'  Travels  and  Eesearches  in  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  Clialdea,  and 
Armenia,  by  AV.  F.  Ainsworth,  F.G.S.,  F.R.G.S.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  135,  136. 

*  Rich's  Kurdistan,  vol.  II.,  p.  18. 

^  Ainsworth's  Travels,  &c.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  135,  136. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xvi. 

^  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  viii.  ^  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xv. 

^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i.  *  Ibid. 


296 


ALEXANDER  ENTERS  BABYLON. 


[chap.  IX. 


Alexander 
arrives  at 
Arbela. 


Alexander 
coutimies  his 
inarch  to 
Babylon 


Bactrians,  some  Persians,  his  kindred,  a  few  Melophori,  and 
about  2,000  foreign  mercenaries/  proceeded  to  the  Atropa- 
tenian  Ecbatana,  probably  by  Rowandiz,  from  whence  tra- 
versing the  Zagros  at  the  pass  of  the  Keli-shin,  he  finally  arrived 
at  the  Median  Ecbatana.^  Alexander  reached  Arbela  too  late 
to  get  possession  of  Darius,  bat  the  royal  furniture  and  rich 
stuffs,  together  with  4,000  talents,  fell  into  his  hands.^ 

As  Darius  had  foreseen,  the  route  of  Babylon  was  taken, 
and  in  four  days  Alexander  reached  the  city  of  Memnis,  evi- 
dently Kerkiik,  from  the  distance,  as  well  as  from  the  par- 
ticulars given  of  a  fountain  in  a  cavern,  with  such  an  abundance 
of  bitumen  that  it  supplied  cement  for  a  great  part  of  the  walls 
of  the  capital."* 

On  approaching  the  Queen  of  the  East,  Mazseus  came  with 
his  family  to  offer  the  city  and  his  services,  to  which  the  con- 
queror was  entitled  agreeably  to  eastern  custom ;  and  thus  a 
very  formidable  siege  became  unnecessary.  The  inhabitants 
perfumed  the  streets  with  incense  and  spices,  and  the  Magi,  the 
Chaldeans,  the  soothsayers,  and  the  musicians  having  attended 
the  triumphal  march  of  Alexander,  he  sacrificed  to  Belus,  and 
gave  directions  for  the  restoration  of  the  celebrated  temple 
devoted  to  this  deity .^ 

'  Arrian,  lib-  III.,  cap.  xvi. 

^  Major  Rawlinson,  Vol.  X.,  RoJ^  Geog.  Journ.,  pp.  21,  149. 
""  Quint.   Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i.,   but  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  p.  538,  says 
3,000  silver  talents. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  ibid.  ^  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi. 


(    297     ) 


CHAPTER  X. 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  ALEXANDER  IN  SOUTHERN,  NORTHERN,  AND  EASTERN 
PERSIA,  ALSO  IN  BACTRIANA,  SOGDIANA,  AND  EASTWARD  OF  THE 
RIVER  INDUS. 

March  to  Susa,  the  Persian  Gates,  and  Persepolis. — Advance  to  Ecbatana. — 
Treasure  found  in  those  Cities. — Advance  to  the  Caspian  Gates. — Pursuit 
and  Deatli  of  Darius. — Invasion  of  Hyrcania. — Campaigns  in  Kliorasan 
and  Drangiana. — Alexandria  ad  Caucasum  built. — Invasion  of  Bactria. — 
Passage  of  the  Oxus. — March  to  Maracanda  and  the  Jaxartes. — Siege  of 
Cyropolis. — Activity  of  Spitamenes. — Warlike  People  north  of  the  Paro- 
pamisus. — Capture  of  the  Fort  of  Oxyartes. — Alexander's  Marriage  to 
Roxana. — Expedition  into  Margiana. — Hill  Fort  of  the  Paraetacse  taken. 
— Winter  at  Zariaspa,  and  Death  of  Clitus. — Return  across  the  Paropa- 
misus,  and  March  to  the  Indus. — Siege  of  Aornas. — Visit  to  Nysa. — 
Alexander  passes  the  Indus  and  defeats  Porus. — Sakala  taken. — The  Army 
refuses  to  cross  the  River  Hyphasis. 

To  the  wealth  of  Babylon  the  army  had  looked  forward  as  the 
reward  of  their  past  labours  and  dangers,  as  well  as  of  those  to 
be  encountered  in  overcoming  the  vast  preparations  which  had 
been  made  to  defend  the  seat  of  empire.^  But  the  leading 
object  of  the  growing  ambition  of  Alexander  had  now  been 
obtained  without  resistance  ;  for  the  mighty  struggle  in  ap- 
proaching Arbela  not  only  had  placed  the  Queen  of  the  East 
at  the  feet  of  the  conqueror,  but  also  had  paralysed  everything 
like  an  organized  defence  of  the  neighbouring  territory ;  and 
the  second  city  of  the  empire,  with  its  strong  castle  and  pro- 
digious wealth,  awaited  the  conqueror. 

The  unprotected  treasures  of  Susa  being  the  next  object,  Alexander 
Alexander  hastened    to   complete   his   arrangements   for   the  go^Jrn^eu'rof 
government  of  Babylonia,  which  with  Susiana  became  the  base  i^^^^J^o^- 
of  still  greater  and  more  distant  operations. 

The  satrapy  of  Armenia  was  bestowed  upon  Methrines,  that 

*  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  vi.,  p,  518. 


298        SUSA  AND  THE  TREASURE  TAKEN  BY  ALEXANDER.    [cHAP.  X. 


•with  regal 
honours. 


of  Babylon  was  continued  to  Mazseus :  ^   Apollodorus  raised 

numerous  recruits  in  Asia;  and  others  having  arrived  from 

Macedonia,^    i^lexander,    after   halting   thirty-four   days    and 

He  marches     distributing  ample  rewards,  proceeded  towards  Susa,  the  more 

towards  Susa.  ^,gi^|;j.al  Capital,  and  the  winter  residence  of  the  Court.^ 

As  Alexander  approached,  the  son  of  Abulites  came  to 
offer  to  surrender  the  city,  and  on  reaching  the  Choaspes, 
now  the  Kerah  or  Kerkhah,  the  offer  was  repeated  by  the 
satrap  in  person;  whose  respect  was  further  manifested  by 
He  is  received  having  a  procession  of  elephants  and  swift  dromedaries, 
bearing  presents  of  regal  mag-nificence.*  Besides  which  the 
conqueror  found  in  the  royal  treasury  of  Susa  50,000^  un- 
wrought  ingots,  or  about  9,365,000^.,  which  had  been  collected 
by  different  sovereigns  for  their  children  and  descendants ;  but 
had  now  passed  to  a  stranger  as  the  result  of  a  single  battle. 

Whilst  in  this  city,  reinforcements  joined  from  the  Asian  Greek 
cities,''  which  enabled  Alexander  to  complete  his  preparations  for 
another  campaign.  Having  restored  the  satrapy  of  Susiana  to 
Abulites,  and  entrusted  the  government  of  Susa  itself,  with  the 
care  of  the  royal  captives,  to  Archelaus,  he  resumed  his  march 
towards  Persis.  Making,  as  has  been  presumed,  a  detour^  to 
avoid  the  river  Coprates,  or  river  of  Dizful,  on  the  fourth  day 
the  army  crossed  the  Pasitigris,  probably  above  Ahwaz,^  and 
invaded  the  territory  of  the  Uxii.     The  people  of  the  plains 


Preparations 
for  another 
campaign. 


'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi, 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xii.;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  ii. 

'  A  direct  line  in  an  E  S.E.  direction,  through  Lower  INIesopotaniia, 
would  touch  the  river  Tigris  about  the  commencement  of  the  Shatt-el-Hai 
at  Ki'it-el-'Amarah,  which  is  70  miles  from  Babylon  ;  and  55  miles  farther 
is  the  ancient  crossing  place  of  that  river,  called  El  Kantarah,  which  is  a 
little  below  Imam  Gharbi.  The  remaining  distance  to  Siis  is  about  100 
miles,  or  nearly  230  miles  in  all,  over  a  level  country ;  and  the  march  occu- 
pied 20  days,  according  to  Arrian  (lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi.),  including  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Hai  Canal  and  tlie  rivers  Tigris  and  Choaspes. 

■*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  ii. 

'  Forty  thousand  only,  according  to  Diod.  Sic,  lib,  XVII.,  cap.  xiv. 

°  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi. 

'  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  205. 

"  Following  a  part  of  tlie  river  Shiipur,  the  distance  would  be  from  42 
to  45  miles. 


CHAP.  X.]  THE  UXII  SUBDUED.  299 

submitted,  but  a  considerable  body  of  mountaineers  under  pian  of 
Madates  opposed  him,  and  the  pass  which  they  occupied  was 
too  strong  to  be  carried  by  a  direct  attack.^  Alexander  having, 
however,  ascertained  that  the  fortress  might  be  taken  in  reverse, 
detached  1,500  light  troops  and  1,000  Agrians  under  Tauron^ 
at  sunset ;  and  moving  himself  north-eastward  at  the  third 
watch  to  give  time,  he  passed  the  straits  by  daybreak,^  being 
provided  with  materials  to  make  screens  to  protect  his  men 
during  the  delicate  operation  of  placing  the  towers  against  the 
walls. 

The  flinty  and  precipitous  nature  of  the  ground,  however,  Rock  fortress 
caused  a  serious  loss  notwithstanding;  and  perceiving  some 
hesitation  among  his  men,  Alexander  asked  the  soldiers  if  they 
were  not  ashamed  to  make  difliculties  before  such  a  paltry 
place,  after  having  taken  so  many  splendid  cities.  A  tortoise 
was  now  formed  with  their  bucklers  as  a  protection,  just  as  the 
corps  under  Tauron  appeared  above  the  citadel,  and  the  enemy 
being  thus  closely  pressed  on  both  sides,  the  town  presently 
surrendered.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  fled,  and  others  retired 
into  the  citadel,  which  afterwards  surrendered,  under  favour- 
able terms,  obtained  at  the  earnest  intercession  of  Sisygambis. 

Some  ruins  near  the  caves  of  Shikoftehi-Suleiman,  on  the 
plain  of  Mai- Amir,  appear  to  be  those  of  the  Uxian  city  ;  and 
the  narrow  pass,  connecting  the  plains  of  Halegiin  and  Mal- 
Amir,  answers  to  the  straits  passed  by  Alexander  before  day- 
light.^ 

The  rest  of  the  Uxian  territory  being  added  to  the  satrapy  Akxamier 
of  Susiana,  Alexander  despatched  the  main  body  under  Par-  advance!^ 
menio  along   the   plain,   and  leading  the  light  troops  by   the 
mountain  road  on  the  left  flank,  he  joined  them,  on  the  fifth 
day,  near  the  Susiad  rocks^  which  separate  Susiana  from  Persis 
or  Pars.     The  difl&cult  defile  at  the  foot  of  Kal'eh  Sefid,  about 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xv. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iii ;  but  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvii.,  calls 
the  commander  Craterus. 

^  Quint.  Curt,,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iii. 

*  Baron  de  Bode's  Notice  in  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  XIII., 
pp.  108-112. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xv.,  p.  541  ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iv. 


300  ALEXANDER  FORCES  THE  PERSIAN  GATES.         [CHAP.  X. 

four  miles  eastward  of  Failioun,  no  doubt  represents  the  Uxian 
narrow,  and  the  Persian  Gates,  whose  great  natural  strength 
had  been  increased  by  art ;  and  moreover  they  were  occupied 
by  a  strong  force  under  the  Satrap  Ariobarzanes.' 
He  experi-  A  determined  attack  was  made  on  these  defences  next  morn- 

from  the^Uxii  '"S  '•>  ^^^  ^^  the  assailauts  were  exposed  to  bowmen,  darters,  and 
machines,  placed  on  the  heights  commanding  each  side  of  this 
narrow  defile,  and  being  at  the  same  time  vigorously  opposed 
in  front,  Alexander  was  at  length  forced  to  retire.  Success, 
however,  was  only  delayed  ;  for,  on  learning  that  some  difficult 
paths  led  through  the  mountains,  one  of  those  plans  of  attack 
was  speedily  formed  which  so  often  lead  to  successful  results.^ 

Taking  the  most  laborious  and  difficult  part  of  the  enter- 
prise, Alexander  proceeded  that  very  night  at  the  head  of  a 
chosen  body  of  light  troops,  and  having,  by  extraordinary 
rapidity  in  passing  over  the  most  difficult  ground,  surprised 
three  outposts  in  succession,  he  finally  succeeded  in  getting 
round  to  the  rear  of  the  Persian  camp  about  daybreak;  and  on 
the  trumpets  announcing  this  success  to  the  rest  of  the  army, 
Craterus,  as  had  been  concerted,  simultaneously  attacked  the 
opposite  extremity  of  the  pass.  The  enemy  being  now  completely 
surprised  by  Alexander's  manoeuvre,  effectual  resistance  ^vas  in 
vain ;  some  fled  from  Alexander  to  Craterus,  whilst  others 
Capture  of  the  attempted  to  escape  from  Craterus  towards  Alexander,  and  in 
'  this  helpless  situation  a  large  proportion  of  the  defenders  were 
cut  to  pieces  ;  but  Ariobarzanes,  with  great  intrepidity,  made 
his  way  towards  Persepolis  at  the  head  of  a  few  horse.^  Fresh 
exertions  being  necessary  in  consequence,  Alexander  continued 
the  march  without  giving  his  troops  a  moment's  repose,  and 
finding  that  Philotas,  who  with  admirable  forethought,  and 
knowledge  of  the  country,  had  been  previously  detached  for 
this  purpose,  had  already  prepared  a  flying  bridge,  the  Araxes, 

'  Forty  thousand  foot  and  700  horse,  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xviii. ;  but  only 
25,000  foot  and  300  horse,  according  to  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xv., 
p.  541. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xviii.;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xv. ;  and 
Quint,  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iv. 

^  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iv.,  with  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII., 
ciip.  XV.,  p.  542,  and  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xviii. 


CHAP.  X.]  PERSEPOLIS  TAKEN  AND  SACKED.  301 

now  the  Band-emir,  was  crossed ;  and,  hurrying  onward  Avith 
the  cavalry,  Alexander  reached  Persepolis  in  time  to  anticipate  March  to 
the  plunder  of  the  royal  treasury,  which  he  privately  knew    ^'^^p®'^* 
from  Tiridates,  the  governor,  was  intended  by  the  Persians. 

The  city  was  devastated  in  the  most  remorseless  manner, 
with  the  exception  of  the  palace  and  citadel.  The  former 
was  occupied  by  Alexander  himself,  and  in  the  latter  he  found 
the  prodigious  amount  of  120,000  talents,^  near  27,120,000/. 
sterling. 

The  scarped  rock  immediately  behind  the  grand  plateau  is 
evidently  the  remains  of  the  acropolis,^  and  the  position  of  its 
sepulchral  excavations,  at  some  distance  above  the  ground, 
without  a  regular  entrance,  agrees  with  that  of  the  tombs  of  the 
kings  in  the  royal  mountain,  in  which  the  bodies  were  placed, 
probably  by  machines,  and  in  which  there  were  excavations 
suited  for  the  treasure.^  The  ruins  on  the  adjoining  plain  seem  Ruins  of  Pa- 
to  have  been  those  of  Pasargada,  but  probably  the  second  city  ^^^sada. 
of  this  name.  From  the  other  Pasargada,  which  was  founded 
by  Cyrus,  and  now  surrendered  by  Gobares  with  6,000  talents,* 
being  separately  mentioned,  it  may  be  inferred  that  it  was  at 
some  distance  from  the  existing  capital,  and  therefore,  possibly, 
it  coincides  with  the  Persagadis  ( Qii.  Farsa-Gerd  ?)  and  the 
tomb  of  Cyrus,  now  the  Mesjid-i-Madreh  Suleiman  on  the 
plains  of  Murgh-ab,^  about  twenty-three  miles  north-eastward  of 
Persepolis,  which  was  opened  by  Alexander,  on  his  return  from 
India.*^ 

That  knowledge  of  the  countries  to  be  passed,  for  which  Halt  at  Perse- 
Alexander  was  so  remarkable,  induced  him  to  halt  four  months  jSion^oMhe 

Cosscei,  &c. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  v. ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xviii.  ; 
Justin,  lib.  XI.,  cap.  xiv. 

^  Rex  Arcem  Persepolis,  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  vi. 

*  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  73,  210,  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xvi. 

*  Cyrus  Persagadum  urbem  condiderat,  quam  Alexandre  praefectus  ejus 
Gobares  tradidit. — Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  vi. 

^  Since  the  above  was  written,  the  inscription,  which  is  five  times  re- 
peated   on    the    pilasters   at    Murgh-ab,    viz.,    Adam    Qurus'  k'hs'aj'a-piyil 

Hakhamani'siyii,    has    been    translated,    Ego    Cyrus,   rex   Achcemenius. 

Memoires  de  laSociete  Royale  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  Copenhagen,  1844 
p.  422. 

'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i. 


302  PURSUIT  OF  DARIUS  TO  ECBATANA.  [CHAP.  X. 

at  Persepolis,  in  order  to  escape  the  severity  of  a  Persian 
winter.  During  the  earlier  part  of  this  inclement  season  he 
subjected  the  Cosscei,  Mardi,  kc. ;  but  want  of  active  occupa- 
tion subsequently  led  to  the  most  unpardonable  scenes  of 
revelry  and  excess,  during  one  of  which,  at  the  instigation  of 
Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  and  whilst  in  a  state  of  ebriety, 
he  threw  the  first  torch  into  the  splendid  palace  of  Xerxes  and 
his  father  Darius.^ 
Darius  re-  ^^  appears  that,  on  reaching  Ecbatana,  Darius  commenced 

pares  for  war.  preparations  for  another  struggle  in  Media,  Parthia,  Bactria, 
&c.,  and  on  the  side  of  Greece  also,  w^here  the  timely  employ- 
ment of  300  talents  had  induced  the  Athenians  and  Lacedae- 
monians to  make  war  upon  the  Macedonians,  &c. ;  but  as 
Alexander  had  succeeded  in  the  main  object  of  providing  for 
the  continuation  of  the  war  by  securing  the  treasures  of 
Darius,^  the  mass  of  which  was  safely  deposited  in  the  citadel 
of  Susa,  he  was  not  disposed  to  give  his  enemy  more  time  to 
mature  his  plans.  Therefore,  leaving  the  heavy  baggage  to 
follow,  he  commenced  his  march  towards  Media  before  the 
winter  had  quite  terminated. 

On  the  twelfth  day  he  learnt  that  the  confederate  republics 

had  been  successful,  and  that  the  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of 

the  Lacedaemonians  had  deterred  the  Cadusians  and  Scythians 

from  sending  assistance;    and  Darius    being    in    consequence 

unable  to  keep   the  field  had  quitted  Ecbatana,  taking  with 

him  3,000  horse,    6,000  foot,   and   7,000  talents;  and   three 

Reinforce-      days  later  Alexander  occupied  the  summer  palace  of  the  luxu- 

AuSande"  at  ^^^"^  mouarchs  of  Persia.     During  this  halt  Alexander's  army 

lichataua.       ^yjjg  reinforccd  by  5,000  foot  and  1,000  Greek  horse,  with  a 

much  larger  barbarian  force,  which  the  Greeks  also  raised. 

Being  thus  strengthened,  and  having  ample  funds,  Alexander 

'  The  hachis,  or  grand  hall  of  reception,  appears  to  have  been  commenced 
by  the  latter  and  finished  by  the  former  monarch. — Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V., 
cap.  i. ;  Momoires  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  Copenhagen,  1844,  pp.  353, 
361,  363,  364. 

^  These,  including  the  remains  of  the  spoils  of  Lydia,  which  Cyrus  con- 
veyed to  Ecbatana,  amounted  to  445,000  talents,  or  nearly  90,570,000/. 
sterling  (Hales'  Analysis  of  Chronology,  &c.,  vol.  I.,  p.  215)  ;  for,  as  foretold, 
Dan.,  chap.  XT.,  v.  2,  tlie  fourth  kiny:  was  to  be  richer  than  they  all :  "  by  his 
strength  through  his  riches  he  shall  stir  up  all  against  the  realm  of  Grecia." 


CHAP.  X.]         ALEXANDER  PASSES  THE  CASPIAN  GATES.  303 

was  in  a  condition  to  realize  the  hopes  given  in  the  outset  to  The  civic 
his  followers ;  and  in  so  doing  he  well  knew  how  to  increase  home, 
his  influence  as  a  general,  and  at  the  same  time  augment  his 
power  as  a  sovereign.  Accordingly  he  declared  that  the  civic 
Grecian  troops  were  released  from  the  obligation  of  further 
service ;  giving,  as  a  recompense  for  their  bravery  and  good 
conduct,  a  donation  of  about  400,000/.  sterling ;  but  he  added 
it  was  open  to  all  to  continue  to  share  his  glory  and  fortune. 
These,  as  might  be  expected,  after  such  unexampled  successes 
and  liberality,  were  very  numerous ;  the  others  proceeded  to 
Phoenicia  to  embark  for  Euboea. 

With  a  view  to  active  operations,  Harpalus,  with  the  remains 
of  the  treasure  and  6,000  Macedonian  foot,  was  left  at  Ecba- 
tana,  and  Parmenio  being  directed  to  lead  the  mercenary 
troops  through  the  territory  of  the  Cadusians  into  Hyrcania, 
Alexander  resumed  the  pursuit  of  Darius.  Speed  being  of  Pursuit  of 
more  consequence  than  numbers,  a  select  body,  consisting  of 
the  royal  companions,  some  Agrians,  a  few  bowmen,  and  mer- 
cenary horse,  advanced  from  Ecbatana,  probably  by  the  line 
of  the  present  capital  of  Teheran,  to  Phagse ;  accomplishing 
the  distance  of  about  250  miles  with  such  speed,  that  many  of 
the  infantry  who  could  not  support  the  fatigue  were  left  behind, 
and  numbers  of  horses  died  from  fatigue. 

Finding  that  Darius  had  abandoned  the  Caspian  Gates  (one 
day's  march  eastward),  Alexander  halted  to  collect  his  troops, 
and  was  joined  by  some  of  the  army  of  Darius. 

On  the  sixth  day,  Alexander  marched  to  the  Caspian  Gates,  Darius  carried 
where  he  learnt  from  Bagistanes,  a  Babylonian,  and  other  fugi-  bjtm^officlrs. 
tives,  that  Darius  had  been  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy,  and  was 
now  conducted  as  a  prisoner  by  the  usurper  Bessus,  and  his 
coadjutors  the  satraps  of  Arachosia  and  Aria.^  Commise- 
rating, probably  for  the  first  time,  the  unhappy  situation  of  the 
king,  Alexander  was  soon  in  pursuit,  at  the  head  of  some  of  his 
light  troops,  provided  with  two  days'  provisions,  and  followed 
by  the  main  body  with  the  heavy  armed,  &c.,  under  Craterus. 
Long  and  very  rapid  marches  are  amongst  the  most  remark- 
able circumstances  connected  with  the  campaigns  of  this 
'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxi. 


304 


PURSUIT  AND  DEATH  OF  DARIUS. 


[chap.  X. 


Alexander 
pursues  the 
conspirators. 


Death  and 
character  of 
Darius. 


prince  of  warriors,  and  none  were  more  extraordinary  than  the 
present.  It  appears  to  have  been  continued  without  interrup- 
tion during  the  afternoon  and  succeeding  night ;  and,  after  a 
short  repose  the  following  noon,  it  was  continued  throughout 
the  next  night,  when  at  daybreak  Alexander  reached  the  place 
where  Bagistanes  had  left  the  satraps.  Here  he  learnt  that 
Bessus  was  not  far  in  advance,  conducting  the  royal  captive  in 
a  covered  chariot.  Although  the  troops  were  almost  exhausted 
they  made  fi-esh  exertions,  and  about  the  following  noon 
reached  a  village  which  the  satraps  had  only  quitted  the  pre- 
ceding evening.  Another  effort,  therefore,  might  crown  Alex- 
ander's wishes,  and  on  this  he  determined.  In  order  to  secure 
the  services  of  part  of  the  phalanx,  500  of  this  body  were 
mounted  on  cavalry  horses,  with  whom,  and  the  rest  of  the 
horse,  Alexander  hastened  onward  without  allowing  any  re- 
pose. Leaving  the  dismounted  men  with  the  remainder  of  his 
troops  to  follow  by  the  ordinary  road,  he  took  a  direct  line 
across  the  desert,  and  next  morning,  at  daylight,  after  having 
marched  about  175  miles  in  rather  less  than  four  days,  he  dis- 
covered the  enemy  escaping  in  a  disorderly  manner.^ 

Finding  that  Alexander  gained  upon  them,  notwithstanding 
their  efforts  to  hurry  on  the  chariot,  Satibarzanes  and  Bar- 
zsentes  fled  in  company  with  Bessus,  after  grievously  wounding 
their  prisoner;  and  before  Alexander  reached  the  spot,  the 
unfortunate  king  had  already  expired  by  the  road-side,  probably 
somewhere  in  the  plain  country  near  Dhamahan. 

Whether  the  prodigious  efforts  made  by  Alexander  were  to 
complete  the  fall  of  Darius  or  display  a  tardy  generosity  cannot 
now  be  known,  but  his  remains,  after  being  embalmed  by 
order  of  Alexander,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
queen-mother,  were  deposited  in  the  usual  place  of  sepulture 
of  the  royal  family,  with  all  the  pomp  and  ceremony  belonging 
to  the  sovereign  of  Persia.^  The  eventful  career  of  Darius 
terminated  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  and  the  fiftieth  of  his 
age.  His  talents  and  disposition  were  admirably  suited  to 
adorn  private  life,  and  under  other  circumstances  he  probably 

'  Compare  Airian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxi.,  with  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xiii. 
^  Quint.  Curt.,  ibid. 


CHAP.  X.]        INVASION  OF  HYRCANIA,  THE  MARDI,  ETC.  305 

would  have  been  equally  distinguished  as  the  head  of*  a  great 
empire :  even  Arrian,  who  was  not  very  favourable  to  him, 
says  that  he  never  attempted  any  invasion  upon  the  rights  of 
his  subjects.^ 

Soon  after  the  murder  of  Darius,  Alexander  proceeded  to 
the  ancient  capital  of  Parthia,  Hecatompylos,  which  appears  to 
have  been  at  no  great  distance ;  where,  having  concentrated 
his  scattered  troops,  he  marched  to  the  borders  of  Parthia,^ 
and  after  a  little  time  descended  from  the  elevated  plateau  to 
invade  Hyrcania,  now  the  low  marshy  tract  of  Mazanderan. 
In  order  to  subdue  several  mountain  tribes  at  the  same  time,  Alexander 
Alexander  marched  in  three  divisions  :  Erigyius  led  the  main  Tapuri. 
force  along  the  royal  road  towards  Zadracarta,  the  modern 
Saree-,^  another  under  Craterus,  with  the  carriages  and  heavy 
baggage,  made  a  circuit  to  the  west  through  the  territories  of 
the  Tapuri  (Taberistan)  ;  the  third,  under  the  king,  crossed 
by  the  shortest  and  most  difficult  path,^  and  being  reunited  in 
the  plains  of  Hyrcania,  the  whole  marched  to  Zadracarta, 
where  the  satrap  of  Tapuria,  and  other  chiefs,  came  to  transfer 
their  allegiance  from  Darius  to  Alexander. 

Perhaps  no  prince  better  understood  the  consolidation  of  his  Alexander's 
conquests  than  Alexander ;    he  rewarded  the  fidelity  of  the  The  followers 
aged  Artabazus  and  his  sons  to  Darius,  by  places  of  honour^  Danus. 
about  his  own  person  ;  the  satrapy  of  the  Tapuri  Mas  continued 
to  Autophradates,  with  the  addition  of  the  adjoining  territory 
of  the  Mardians.     The  rough  and  mountainous  country  of  this 
people  was  now  invaded  and  subjected  for  the  first  time,  chiefly 
by  means  of  a  troop   of  darters,  raised    and  organized  after 
the  matchless  equestrian  warriors  of  Parthia.^ 

Public  games,  and  Alexander's  growing  inclination  to  give 
way  to  the  luxuries  of  Zadracarta,  were  interrupted  by  intelli- 
gence from  Bactria,  that  Bessus  had  formally  claimed  the 
sovereignty  of  Asia,  assuming  the  title  of  Artaxerxes. 

'  Lib..  III.,  cap,  xxii.  *  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  iv. 

^  From  the  position  of  tiie  Tapuri.  and  the  other  routes  taken,  the  junction 
of  the  three  corps  would  have  been  in  this  neighbourhood. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxiii. 

*  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxiii.,  xxiv.,  with  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VI., 
cap.  iv.,  v.,  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xix.,  xx. 

VOL.  II.  X 


306  MARCH  THROUGH  PARTHIA  TO  DRANGIANA.       [CHAP.  X. 

Being  resolved  to  prevent  the  murderer  of  Darius  from  ob- 
taining his  throne,  Alexander  immediately  marched  by  the 
shorter  route  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Elburz  chain, 
passed  the  confines  of  Parthia,  and  reached  Susia,^  a  city  of 
Aria,  about  550^  miles  from  Zadracarta.  Although  one  of  the 
murderers  of  Darius,  Satibarzanes  was  pardoned  on  his  submis- 
sion ;  and  Alexander  having  sent  him  back  with  distinction  to 
the  seat  of  his  government,^  hastened  his  march  towards 
Bactria,  in  order  to  anticipate  the  auxiliaries  expected  from 
Scythia. 
Flank  march        Shortly  aftcrwards,  Alexander  having  learnt  that  the  Mace- 

to  Artacoana.  ^  ^  °  a      • 

donian  guard  of  honour  had  been  put  to  death,  and  that  Sati- 
barzanes was  raising  troops  to  support  the  pretensions  of  Bessus, 
his  former  accomplice,  made  a  retrogade,  or  rather  a  flank 
movement ;  and  taking  with  him  a  light  division,  he  marched 
seventy-five  miles ^  in  two  days  to  Artacoana,  but  the  satrap 
had  already  fled  from  his  capital,  having  been  deserted  by  most 
of  his  followers.  The  position  of  this  city,  afterwards  Alexan- 
dria, which  was  near,  or  at  Herat  in  Aria,  opened  another  and 
more  convenient  route  into  Bactriana,  but  the  hostile  disposi- 
tion manifested  elsewhere,  obliged  Alexander  to  remain  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Paropamisus ;  and  he  marched  against 
Barzsentes,  the  satrap  of  Drangiana.  Like  his  coadjutor  Sati- 
barzanes, he  fled  towards  the  borders  of  India;  but  being 
Execution  of  arrcstcd  and  sent  back,  Alexander  caused  him  to  be  executed 

Baiza;ntes.        n       .^  i  z>  i  •  "    •        >, 

for  the  muraer  oi  nis  sovereign. 

The  route  taken  towards  the  Drangse,  or  more  properly 
Zarangeei,  meaning  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  round  the 
lake  of  that  name,  was  nearly  southwards  to  Furrah,  probably 
representing  Phra,  and  it  is  a  distance  of  199  miles'^  to  Proph- 
thasia,"  now  supposed  to  be  Peshawarun,  which  is  situated  on 

'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxv. 

-  By  the  longer  route,  or  the  northern  side  of  the  Elburz  chain,  it  is 
about  665  miles  from  Saree  to  Fyzabad,  near  the  |>resumed  site  of  Susia. 
"  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxv. 

*  Six  hundred  stadia. — Ibid. 

*  Ibid. 

'  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvii, 
7  Vol.  I.,  p.  168. 


CHAP.  X.]   CONSPIRACY  OF  PHILOTAS  :   ADVANCE  TO  ARACHOSIA.    307 

the  northern  side  of  lake  Zcrrah/  The  halt  at  this  place  became 
memorable  in  consequence  of  the  execution  of  Philotas,"  who 
was  prosecuted  by  the  king  himself;  and  sentence  being 
passed  by  a  jury  of  Macedonians,  he  was  executed  on  the  spot. 
The  acquittal  of  Amyntas  on  this  occasion  favours  the  belief 
that  the  guilt  of  Alexander's  most  intimate  and  favoured  friend 
was  established :  it  is  not  so  clear  that  Parmenio,  who  was  Death  of 
arraigned  in  his  absence,  and  afterwards  executed,  deserved  his 
tragical  fate. 

After  some  delay,  and  with  embittered  feelings,  Alexander 
followed  the  lower  part  of  the  Etymander  or  Helmand  river, 
and  he  reached  the  district  of  the  Ariaspae  (breeders  of  horses),^ 
a  quiet  agricultural  people  of  limited  number;  on  whom,  in 
return  for  supplies  opportunely  furnished  to  his  army,  Cyrus 
had  bestowed  the  honourable  appellation  of  E verge tse,  bounti-  The  Ariaspae 

„  ,  or  Evergetse. 

lui  or  beneiactors. 

Being  pleased  with  a  state  of  civilization,  which  this  people 
had  preserved,  owing  to  their  isolated  and  almost  insular  situ- 
ation, which  was  formed  by  the  lake  Zerrah  and  two  rivers, 
Alexander  declared  them  free,  offering  them  an  increase  of  ter- 
ritory, of  which  however  they  only  availed  themselves  to  a 
limited  extent.^ 

Resuming  his  march  he  received  the  submission  of  the  Ge- Submission  of 
drosi  and  the  Arachosi.     The  capital  of  the  latter  territory  ^  is  aud  Arachosi. 
supposed  to  have  been  in  the  Ghilziyeh  country,  not  far  to  the 
south-eastward  of  Kandahar,  or  Alexandropolis,  and  at  a  place 
now  named  U'lan  Robat,"  or  Shahri-Zohak.^      The  distance 

'  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  H.  H.  Wilson,  M.A.  F.R.S.  p.  154. 

'^  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxvi.,  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  vii., 
viii.,  with  Diotl.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xxiv. 

^  Supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian  word  'Aryaswa. — Ariana 
Antiqua,  by  H.  H.  Wilson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  London,  1841. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxvii. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  iii, ;  and 
Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xxiv. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxvii. 

®  Arachosiorum  Oppidum. — Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvii. 

^  Not  Deh  Zangee,  the  Huzarah  capital,  as  stated,  by  mistake,  p.  169, 
vol.  I. 

^.  Major  Eawlinsoii's  Letter  from  Kandahar,  vol.  XII..  pp.  112,  113,  of 
Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

X  2 


308 


DEATH  OF  SATIBARZANES. 


[chap.  X. 


Comparative 
distances. 


Death  of 

Satibarzanes. 


Pursuit  of 
Bessus. 


The  great 
chain  of  the 
Paropamisus. 


thither  from  Peshawarmi,  in  a  direct  line,  approaches  300 
miles ;  but  including  the  circuit  made  to  the  territory  of  the 
Gedrosians,  it  probably  would  be  about  460  miles,  which  would 
coincide  with  the  4,600  stadia  given  by  Eratosthenes,^  and 
approaches  the  515  Roman  miles  of  Pliny .^ 

The  adjacent  territory  of  the  Indi  who  had  sent  back  Bar- 
zsentes,  next  engaged  the  attention  of  Alexander,  notwith- 
standing the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country  and  the  deep 
snows  of  this  tract,  which  corresponds  with  the  rugged  district 
around  Ghizni  or  Ghaznein.^  Intelligence  having  been  brought 
of  the  irruption  of  Satibarzanes  at  the  head  of  some  Bactrian 
cavalry,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of  another  revolt  of  the  Arians, 
for  once  an  important  service  was  entrusted  to  others,  namely, 
two  Persians  and  two  Macedonians,  who,  being  despatched 
with  an  adequate  force,  succeeded,  after  a  well-contested  battle, 
in  which  Satibarzanes  was  killed,  in  dispersing  the  Arians  ;  and 
the  great  barrier  of  the  Paropamisus  was  now  almost  the  only 
protection  left  to  Bessus. 

The  grand  object  of  Alexander  being  thus  accomplished,  of 
securing  his  rear  by  subjecting  the  tribes  southward  of  the  great 
chain,  he  prepared,  notwithstanding  the  physical  difficulties 
of  the  country,  to  pursue  Bessus  with  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
forces,  which  had  just  been  augmented  by  the  troops  lately  com- 
manded by  Parmenio ;  as  well  as  reinforcements  from  Greece, 
and  30,000  eastern  youths,  who  were  to  be  trained  to  arms 
in  the  Macedonian  manner.* 

The  army  marched  2,000  stadia^  to  Karura,  or  Kabura,  the 
Ortospana  of  Strabo,^  and  onward  from  thence  till  they  halted 
at  the  root  of  the  vast  chain,  here  called  the  Paropamisus,^  but 
westward  bearing,  as  has  been  seen,  at  different  places,  the 
names  of  the  Elburz,  the  Masula,  and  the  Taurus.     It  may  be 

'  P.  175,  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  H.  H.  Wilson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  London, 
1841. 

*  Lib.  VI,,  cap.  xvii. 

'  Ariana  Antiqua,  p.  178,  and  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  169. 

*  Pint,  in  vita  Alex. 

*  Stated  to  be  250  Poman  miles. — Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvii. 

*  Lib.  XI.,  p.  514,  and  vol.  XII.,  p.  113,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
'  Vol.  L,  pp.  161,  172. 


CHAP.  X.]  INDIAN  TRADE  KNOWN  TO  ALEXANDER.  309 

followed  for  a  distance  of  1,950  geographical  miles,  namely, 
from  the  shores  of  the  Propontis,  through  lesser  and  greater 
Asia;  till,  under  the  names  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Himalaya,^ 
it  forms  the  water-shed  between  India  and  Chinese  Tartary. 
Bearing  the  name  of  the  Yun  Ling  mountains,  it  runs  north- 
eastward through  China  Proper,  and  finally,  as  the  Kinghan 
or  Sioiki  chain,  it  traverses  Mongolia  in  the  same  direction, 
till  it  unites  with  the  stupendous  Altai,  in  about  fifty  degrees 
north  latitude,  and  before  the  latter  terminates  on  the  shores 
of  the  Northern  Pacific. 

As  the  inquiring  mind  of  the  great  conqueror  is  not  likely  ^^^^^^^^'^ 
to  have  neglected  the  sources  of  information  at  his  command,  knowledge  of 
there  is  every  reason  to  conclude  that  Alexander  was  not  only 
aware  of  the  vast  length  of  the  great  chain  at  which  he  had 
now  arrived,  but  that  he  had  also  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
extensive  regions  by  which  it  is  traversed.  Whilst  in  Phoenicia, 
Alexander  had  a  fidl  opportunity  of  ascertaining  particulars 
regarding  the  Indian  trade.  Indeed,  his  letter  sent  with  a 
present  of  frankincense  and  myrrh  to  his  former  tutor,  of  itself 
establishes  this  fact  f  while  the  construction  of  the  Syrian,  and 
afterwards  of  the  Egyptian  Alexandria,  may  be  taken  as  a 
further  proof  how  much  his  attention  had  long  been  turned  to 
this  subject.  Thus  the  products  of  the  East  afforded  the  means 
of  carrying  out,  or  rather  of  renewing  the  lucrative  trade  of  the 
Phoenicians,  which,  as  has  been  seen,^  extended  to  the  most 
distant  parts  of  the  world. 

The  plains  northward  of  the  great  Asiatic  chain  were  tra-  Caravan 

*  routes  through 

versed  by  the  two  eastern  caravan  routes ;  both,  as  will  be  Persia,  &c. 
more  fully  described  in  the  xviiith  Chapter,  converging 
upon  Balkh,  from  whence  another  double  line  conveyed  the 
goods  westward.  Part  rounded  the  Caspian,  and  the  remainder 
traversed  Persia,  towards  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  latter 
line  was  more  particularly  connected  with  Phoenicia,  to  which 
territory  the  sea-trade  between  China  and  the  Persian  Gulf 

'  Vol.  I.,  pp.  72,  73,  74,  and  284  to  294. 
^  See  above,  p.  282. 
'  Ibid.,  p.  128,  et  seq. 


310  EASTERN  PHILOSOPHY  CULTIVATED.  [cHAP.  X. 

was  also  directed.     This,   as  has  been  seen,  passed  through 
Arabia.^ 

The  earlier  intercourse  between  Europe  and  the  East  was  not, 

however,  by  any  means,  confined  to  the  passage  of  merchants 

and  their  followers  from  one  region   to  another.     Philosophy 

and  letters  were,  from  the  remotest  times,  diligently  cultivated 

in  Egypt  and  the  East ;  and  between  the  eighth  and  third  cen- 

Thaies  and      turics  bcforc  ChHst,  learned  men,  Pittacus,  Thales,  Herodotus, 

i^ntmfctbn^in  and  others  from  the  West,  frequently  sought  instruction  on  the 

the  East.        banks  of' the  Nile,  as  well  as  in  the  more  distant  region  of 

I'ran.      From  the  writings  of  Herodotus,  the  voyage  of  Scylax 

must  have  been  well  known  to  Alexander. 

The  central  situation  of  I'ran  connected  that  region  on  the 
one  hand  with  India  and  China,  and  with  the  western  countries 
on  the  other.  At  a  very  remote  period,  woven  silk,  furs,  and 
the  best  kind  of  iron,  reached  the  latter  by  the  route  of  Persia.^ 
A  political  connection  also  existed  between  the  Persians  and 
Indians,  and  a  portion  of  the  territory  of  the  latter  people  was 
Early  use  of  subjected  by  Cyrus.^  The  use  of  maps  and  plans  of  seas  and 
^^^^'  harbours  in  their  wars  against  the  Greeks,   and  particularly  a 

map  on  copper,"  attest  the  knowledge  of  geography  which  had 
been  attained  by  this  people.     The  writings  of  Ctesias  there- 
fore, and  still  more  the  archives  of  his  adopted  country,  must 
have  opened  a  wide  field  to  the  inquiring  mind  of  the  youthful 
monarch.     With  such  materials  at  command,  the  intervals  of 
repose  between  his  brilliant  campaigns  were  not  likely  to  be 
spent  in  idleness;  indeed,  the  successive  movements  demon- 
strate, in  every  instance,  that  Alexander  and  his  engineers  were 
already  prepared  for  every  contingency.     The  barriers  which 
had  been  raised  by  the  peculiarities  and  exclusiveness  of  an 
Amaimagation  eastern  government,  were  now  succeeded  by  a  complete  amal- 
of  eastern  and  p-omation  of  raccs,  and  from  this  period  dates  the  fusion  of  the 
nations.         eastern   with    the   western    countries.      Persia,    hitherto   the 
greatest  kingdom  of  the  world,   was  now  at  the  feet  of  the 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  124. 

*  Plin.,  lib.  XXXIV.,  cap.  xiv. 

^  Xen.  Cyropced.,  lib.  VIII.,  p.  510. 

*  See  above,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xlix. 


CHAP.  X.]  ENTRANCE  INTO  BACTRIA.  311 

conqueror,  and  furnished,  not  only  the  means  of  extending  his 
conquests,  but  at  the  same  time  the  knowledge  how  they  could 
best  be  carried  out. 

The  formidable  barrier  at  which  Alexander  had  now  arrived 
being  as  yet  impracticable  for  an  army,  \he  troops,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  dangers  of  inaction  and  idleness,  were  employed  in 
building  Alexandria  ad  Caucasum,  which  is  stated  to  be  fifty  f^'*^^^°^"a  *^ 

°  .      .  ,  .         Caucasum 

Roman  miles  from  Ortospana ;  but  as  it  is  at  the  same  time  built, 
added  that  accounts  vary,^  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  site  in 
question  was  at  or  near  Beghram,  the  Beihram  of  the  East.^ 

Before  the  snow  was  off  the  ground,  Alexander  entered  the 
mountains  by  the  pass  of  Koushan,  which  is  a  little  w^ay  north- 
west of  that  place,  and  understood  to  be  practicable  most  of  the 
year.  After  fifteen  days  of  great  suffering  from  cold,  hunger, 
and  fatigue,  the  army  reached  the  plains  and  more  congenial 
climate  of  Bactria,  without  opposition  ;  for  Bessus,  being  unable 
or  unwilling  to  meet  the  invaders,  had  retired  into  Sogdiana, 
and  was  followed  by  some  of  his  allies  under  Spitamenes,  who 
burnt  their  boats  after  crossing  the  Oxus.  The  Bactrians 
being  dispersed,  the  campaign  terminated  with  the  capture  of 
Aorni  and  Bactra,  the  two  principal  cities  of  the  province,  and 
here  Alexander  permitted  those  soldiers  who  were  wounded  or 
otherwise  disqualified  to  return  to  Europe  ;  he  then  resumed 
the  pursuit  of  the  fugitive  Bessus.  The  great  and  rapid  river  Alexander 
Oxus  was  crossed  by  means  of  tent  skins,  stuffed  with  light  oxus. 
materials,  and  made  impermeable  to  water ;  on  which,  partly 
as  rafts  and  partly  as  separate  floats,  the  whole  army,  not  being 
opposed,  was  transported  across  in  the  short  space  of  five  days.^ 

This  bold  manoBuvre  decided  the  campaign,  the  daring 
manner  of  effecting  the  passage  producing  a  greater  impression 
than  the  most  brilliant  victory  •,  for  Spitamenes  the  satrap  of 
Sogdiana,  and  Dataphernes  the  satrap  of  the  Dase,^  offered  to 
deliver   Bessus,    now   their    prisoner,    to    one   of  Alexander's 

'  Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvii. 

^  Vol.  I.,  p.  172,  and  vol.  XII.,  p.  113,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
^  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxix ;  or  six   days,  according  to  Quint.  Curt., 
lib.  VII.,  cap.  V. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxix. 


312  BESSus  taken:  action  near  the  jaxartes.    [chap.  X. 


officers ;  and  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  being  despatched  at  the 

head  of  the  taxis  of  Philotas  (100  men  according  to  Xenophon), 

and  a  select   force,   made  a  distance   equal    to   ten  ordinary 

marches  in  four   days,   and   returned  with   the    captive.     On 

»  being  brought  into  his  presence,  naked,  and  led  by  a  halter, 

Bessusiscap-  Alexander   subjected  him   to  the   further  ignominy  of  being 

Seated  with    scourgcd,  and  then  conducted  to  Bactra,^  or  Zariaspa,  to  await 

ignominy.       j^j^   doom.     Alexander  halted   at  Maracanda,    the   capital   of 

Sogdiana,  now  Samarkand,  to  replace  the  horses  lost  in  crossing 

the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  to  receive  supplies  from  the  rich  valley 

of  Al  Sogd,  and  the  rest  of  the  province  ;  since  designated  the 

Miiliammedan  paradise  of  Ma-wera-1-nahr.^ 

All  this  territory,  the  ancient  Transoxiana,  had  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  the  conqueror ;  but  in  marching  onward,  and 
as  he  approached  the  northern  frontier,  hostilities  were  renewed. 
In  the  vicinity  of  this  river,  mistaken  for  the  Tanais,  and 
variously  called  the  Araxes  of  Cyrus,  the  Orxantes,^  Jaxartes, 
and  Silys,^  some  of  the  Macedonian  horse,  when  foraging  at  a 
distance,  were  surprised  and  slain  by  some  of  the  barbarians, 
about  20,000  of  whom  returned  to  their  mountainous  country ; 
which  in  the  absence  of  precise  details,  may  be  presumed  to  be 
southward  of  the  Jaxartes,  and  towards  the  border  of  the 
Ferganah  district.  Alexander  lost  no  time  in  pursuing  them 
thither,  where  he  w^as  bravely  opposed  by  slings  and  arrows ; 
when,  after  several  determined  attacks  and  severe  losses,  besides 
receiving  a  dangerous  wound,  he  succeeded  in  dislodging  and 
dispersing  the  enemy.^ 

Having  been  shot  through  the  leg,  and  the  lesser  bone  broken 
by  an  arrow,  the  necessary  repose  required  for  the  limb,  com- 
pelled the  active-minded  prince  to  endure  the  slow  motion  of  a 
litter ;  and  a  warm  contest  was  settled  by  deciding  that  the 
infantry  and  cavalry  should  alternately  have  the  honour  of  car- 
rying their  general. 

'  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxx. 

*  Ibn  Haukal ;  Ouselcy's  translation,  p.  233,  ed.  1800. 

*  Plin.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvi. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  vi.,  places  the  capital,  Maracanda,  beyond 
the  Orxantes,  or  Jaxartes. 

'  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  v.,  with  Arrian,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xxx. 


Alexander 
•wounded  and 
carried  in  a 
litter. 


CHAP.  X.]   REVOLT  OF  THE  SOGDIANS  AND  SCYTHIANS.       313 

All   embassy  arrived  at  this  period  from  the  Scythians  of  Embassy  sent 

^  .  ..by  the 

Europe,  and  another  from  those  of  Asia,  namely,  the  Abii,  Scythians  to 
who  are  distinguished  as  being  the  most  just  nation  upon  earth.^  ^^^°  "' 
Both  were  favourably  received,  without  however  entering  into 
any  kind  of  treaty ;  but  with  a  view  to  the  consolidation  of  his 
conquests  southward  of  the  river  Jaxartes,  Alexander  sum- 
moned the  Sogdian  chiefs  to  meet  and  deliberate  on  this 
matter.^ 

But  instead  of  conciliating,  this  step  only  excited  the  jealousy 
of  his  new  subjects  ;  and  Alexander's  intention  of  constructing 
a  city  on  the  Jaxartes  being  viewed  with  suspicion,  gave  the 
partisans  of  Bessus,  the  Sogdians,  together  with  many  of  the  Revolt  of  the 
Bactrians,  and  all  the  Scythians  within  the  river  in  question,  an  Scythians,  &c. 
opportunity  of  engaging  in  a  fresh  revolt.  The  Scythians  took 
the  initiative  by  putting  to  death  the  Macedonian  troops  who 
were  stationed  within  their  territory  •,  and  the  whole  withdrew 
to  certain  strong  places  southward,  probably  in  the  district  of 
Ferganah.  Six  of  these  were  built  of  that  particular  material 
called  tapia,  a  kind  of  conglomerate  f  but  the  seventh,  Cyro- 
polis,  now  Khojend,  had  stone  walls  and  a  citadel,  with  a 
garrison  proportionate  to  its  great  importance. 

Perceiving  how  the  mistake  of  the  enemy  in  abandoning  a 
desultory  warfare  might  be  turned  to  good  account,  Alexander 
sent  Craterus  to  establish  a  complete  blockade  by  lines  of  con-  Blockade  of 

n      •  r^  ^•     i        Tt       •        '  •   ^     r^  ■^  Cyiopolis. 

travallation  at  Cyropolis.  iieginning  with  (jraza,"  whose  gar- 
rison was  put  to  the  sword,  four  other  towns  were  successively 
taken,  and  the  siege  of  Cyropolis  was  then  carried  on  with 
great  vigour.  During  the  tedious  operation  of  preparing  the 
battering  and  other  machines,  Alexander,  availing  himself  of 
an  unexpected  opportunity,  led  a  small  party  one  by  one  into 
the  town,  along  the  narrow  bed  of  a  mountain  torrent  which 
had  been  neglected.  The  party  entering  in  this  manner, 
opened  the  nearest  gate,  which  admitted  a  sufficient  force  to 

'  Iliad,  lib.  XIII.,  v.  6 ;  and  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. 

^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  667. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  ii. ;  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xxx. 

*  Probably  Ghaz,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Ferganah. 


314     PASSAGE  OF  THE  JAXARTES  :    SCYTHIANS  DEFEATED.  [CHAP.  X. 

Capture  of  tiie  carry  the  town.     It   was    taken  after   a  fierce   struggle,    the 
citadel.  garrison  consisting  of  18,000  men  ;  8,000  of  these  were  killed, 

and  the  rest  retired  to  the  citadel,  which,  for  want  of  water, 
surrendered  within  two  days.^  The  fall  of  this  city  completed 
the  conquest  of  the  country ;  but  unfortunately  the  brilliancy 
of  Alexander's  exploits  was  stained  by  his  cruelty  in  razing 
most  of  the  towns  and  destroying  their  inhabitants. 

The  speed  and  energy  of  these  operations  disconcerted  the 
northern  Scythians,  who  had  arrived  to  co-operate  just  as 
Cyropolis  had  fallen  ;  but,  thinking  they  were  safe,  they 
remained  on  the  further  side  of  the  Jaxartes,  taunting  and 
insulting  the  victors. 

Exasperated  by  their  conduct,  and  the  interruptions  they 
caused  in  building  the  city,  afterwards  called  Eschata  or 
Alexander  Extreme,"  Alexander  determined  to  punish  them.  The  bold 
ja^ane^^  aud  "^^^^  delicate  operation  of  crossing  a  large  river  for  this  purpose, 
immediately  in  the  face  of  a  numerous  and  determined  enemy, 
w'as  effected  by  means  of  inflated  skins  for  the  light  armed,  and 
large  rafts  for  the  cavalry  and  phalanges ;  the  operation  being 
covered  by  darts  thrown  from  machines  on  the  left  bank,  the 
soldiers  kneeling  behind  their  bucklers,  with  archers,  slingers, 
&c.,  in  advance,  to  clear  the  bank  as  they  approached,  the 
troops  being  animated  by  peals  of  trumpets. 

Owing  to  these  masterly  arrangements,  the  Scythians  were 
unable  to  maintain  their  position  on  the  right  bank ;  and  the 
defeats  tlie  landing  being  effected,  the  subsequent  defeat  of  the  Scythians 
"cjtuans.  j^  ^  severe  struggle,  forced  them  to  sue  for  peace,  and  express 
their  readiness  to  submit  to  the  conqueror.^  This  opportune 
event  left  Alexander  free  to  proceed  against  the  satrap  of 
Sogdia,  Spitamenes,  w'ho  in  one  inroad  had  destroyed  a  con- 
siderable body  of  Macedonians  on  the  river  Polytimetus,  and 
he  was  now  about  to  make  another  to  renew  the  siege  of  Mara- 
canda. 

'  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  i. ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xxx. 

^  Probably  the  modern  Aderkand  or  Uzkend,  on  the  Jaxartes.  near  tlie 
eastern  end  of  Ferganali  district. — Edrisi,  vol.  VI.,  pp.205,  210,  211; 
Recueil  de  Voyages  et  Memoires,  &c.,  Societo  de  Geo.,  ed.  Jaubert. 

"  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  viii.,  ix. ;  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  iv.,  v. 


CHAP.  X.]  STATE  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  315 

A  rapid  march  of  about  1,500  stadia  made  in  three  days/ 
anticipated  the  latter  operation ;  Spitamenes  retreated,  and 
Alexander,  after  causing  the  country  near  the  banks  of  the 
Polytimetus  or  Kohik  river^  to  be  devastated,  and  leaving  some 
of  the  Sogdiaiis  still  in  arms,  took  up  his  winter  quarters  in 
Zariaspa  or  Bactra.^ 

While  in  this  city,  Alexander  ordered  Bessus  to  be  muti-  Aiexandcn's 
lated  previously  to  being  sent  to  Ecbatana ;  where,  agreeably  bcssuI  ^'* 
to  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  he  was  made  to  suffer  a 
cruel  death.''  Here  also  20,000  men  joined  the  army  from 
Greece,  but  this  number  scarcely  replaced  the  losses  sustained 
during  the  preceding  difficult  marches  ;  and  they  were  urgently- 
needed  in  order  to  maintain  the  conquests  already  made  north 
of  the  Paropamisus. 

After  crossing  this  great  chain,  Alexander  found  himself  in  state  of  the 
different  circumstances  from  those  in  which  he  had  previously  people.^  ^" 
been.      Southward,   where  a  portion   of  the   people  defended 
the  peaceable  artizans   and   manufacturers  who  composed  the 
mass  of  the  inhabitants,  the  submission  of  the  M'hole  country 
naturally  followed  the  loss  of  one  or  two  battles.     But  north- 
ward, where,  as  herdsmen  and  husbandmen,  all  the  inhabitants 
of  a  country  were  necessarily  warriors,  one  defeat  only  led  the 
way  to  another  attempt  to  regain  their  cherished  liberty.     It  is 
not  therefore  surprising,  that  whilst  Alexander  was  preparing 
for  his  ulterior  operations,  the  Sogdians,  who  occupied  different  Revolt  of  the 
strongholds,^  again  rose  against  Peucolaiis,  the  satrap  whom  he  "*^°'  ''^"''' 
had  appointed. 

As  this  circumstance  interfered  with  the  execution  of  his 
plans,  Alexander,  to  avoid  the  delay  which  must  be  the  con- 
sequence of  besieging  several  places  successively,  determined  to 
employ  at  once  the  whole  of  his  army  on  this  service  ;  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  force  which  was  left  to  vratch  the  Detached 
Bactrians,  who  had  also  manifested  a  disposition  to  rebel.  s^m  vices  of  the 

Alexander  himself  marched  towards  Maracanda,  whilst  four 

'  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  vi. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  x.,  says,  having 
made  a  great  distance  in  four  days. 

^  Wiiicli  passes  near  Samarkand.         ^  Pliny,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xviii. 

■*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  x.         *  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap,  xv.,  xvii. 


316  OPERATIONS  NORTH  OF  THE  PAROPAMISUS.        [cHAP,  X. 

other  divisions  under  Hephsestion,  Ptolemy  son  of  Lagus, 
Perdiccas,  and  Coenus  were  successful  elsewhere  ;^  all  having 
had  the  easy  task  of  reducing  cities,  instead  of  being  obliged 
to  overcome  the  ordinary  but  more  formidable  desultory  warfare 
Alexander      of  the  Sogdiaus.     Alexander  took  up  his  winter  quarters   at 

HFlDtGrS  Sit, 

^autaka.  Nautaka,^  in  Sogdiana,  now  Karshi  and  the  first  city  beyond 
the  Oxus  ;  but  that  period  did  not  pass  in  total  inactivity.  The 
ever-active  Spitamenes  seized  this  opportunity  to  make  an 
inroad  at  the  head  of  some  Sogdians  and  Massagetas  towards 

R  c.  329  to     Bactria,  where  he  revenged  himself  by  killing  several  of  the 

o28*  ^ 

corps  called  companions,  and  a  good  many  mercenary  horse, 
before  he  was  expelled  by  Alexander  in  person. 

orspitamlnes.  -^c  made  a  fresh  attempt  afterwards,  by  attacking  Gabse,  or 
Bagae,  on  the  river  Oxus ;  where  he  was  defeated  by  Ccenus 
the  satrap,  with  consequences  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
state  of  the  country  at  that  time  ;  for  his  Bactrian  and  Scythian 
followers  seized  this  opportunity  to  make  their  peace,  by  sending 
the  head  of  Spitamenes  as  a  peace  offering  to  Alexander.^ 

With  this  chief  terminated  the  long-continued  warfare  in  the 
plains  of  Bactria  and  Sogdiana ;  but  in  the  remoter  parts  of 
the  latter  territory,  and  also  in  the  adjoining  province  of 
Parsetacene,  some  strongholds  were  still  occupied,  one  of  which 
in  the  sequel  proved  to  be  peculiarly  difficult  to  Alexander 
himself.  Oxyartes,  the  Bactrian  chief,  whilst  keeping  the  field, 
had  placed  his  family  with  some  of  his  own  people  and  a  party 
of  Sogdians,  on  a  rock -girt  fort  in  the  Sogdian  mountains ; 
which,  being  amply  provisioned  and  almost  inaccessible,  was 
deemed  altogether  impregnable.  Invited,  and  as  usual  stimu- 
lated by  its  difficulties,  Alexander  reached,  and  summoned  the 
place  whilst  it  was  still  deeply  covered  with  snow ;  and  the 
scoffing  reply  that   they    only    feared    winged    soldiers,    gave 

Surprise  and    additional  interest  to    the    enterprise.     A  daring  plan  being 

capture  of  tip  i  i  i*  mi 

Oxyarta.  Speedily  formed  to  attempt  what  appeared  to  be  impossible, 
Alexander  promised  ten  talents  to  the  first  who  should  reach 
tlie  summit  of  the  rock,  nine  talents  to  the  second,  and  smaller 
sums,  ending  with  300  darics,  to  the  last ;  300  of  the  most 

'  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xv.  ;  and  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xxxiii, 
*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xviii.  "  Ibid. 


CHAP.  X.]     CAPTURE  OF  THE  HILL  FORT  OF  OXYARTA.       3  1 7 

expert  in  clambering  rocks  were  selected  to  make  an  attempt 
on  one  particular  side,  which  was  so  high  and  so  precipitous, 
that,  as  Alexander  probably  was  aware,  it  was  considered  unne- 
cessary to  keep  watch  there.  By  aiding  one  another,  and  by  Manner  of 
the  assistance  of  short  ropes  with  iron  wedge-pins  driven  into  thrrockf 
the  ice  and  crevices  of*  the  rocks,  the  men  finally  reached  the 
summit  before  daybreak,  after  prodigious  exertions  and  the  loss 
of  thirty  or  thirty-two  of  their  number,  who  slipped  and  were 
killed  during  the  perilous  undertaking. 

Assured  of  their  success  by  seeing  the  concerted  signal  of 
long  pieces  of  linen  waving  from  the  summit,  to  imitate  the 
motion  of  wings,  Alexander,  preparatory  to  an  assault  against 
the  less  precipitous  part  of  the  position,  sent  another  summons, 
announcing  that  his  winged  soldiers  had  gained  the  summit  of 
the  rock  ;  and  the  surprise  and  consternation  were  so  great  in 
consequence,  that  the  garrison  immediately  surrendered.  This 
singular  post,  which  is  called  by  Quintius  Curtius  the  rock  of 
Arimazes,^  and  Sysimithres  by  Strabo,  is  supposed  to  be  repre- 
sented by  Kurghan-Tippa  on  the  Oxus.^  Amongst  the  captives 
were  the  family  of  Oxyartes ;  one  of  whom  was,  by  this  accident, 
destined  to  become  the  bride  of  the  conqueror.  Next  to  the 
queen  of  Darius,  the  celebrated  Koxana  was  considered  to  be 
the  loveliest  woman  in  the  East ;  and  as  she  made  a  deep 
impression  on  Alexander,^  an  alliance  so  likely  to  further  his  Alexander 
ambitious  projects  was  speedily  completed.  As  might  have  been  Roxana. 
expected,  it  was  followed  by  the  submission  of  Oxyartes  himself; 
and,  as  will  presently  be  seen,  it  led  to  that  of  another  formidable 
chieftain. 

The  expedition  into  Margiana  appears  to  have  followed  this  Expedition 
success,    the    conqueror   directing   his    march   south-westward  ^"^'^ '^^^'^^'^^'^* 
from  the  Oxus  towards  the  fertile  district  in  question,  in  which 
he  afterwards  built  the  city  of  Alexandria,  subsequently  called 
Seleucia,  afterwards  Antiochia  Margiana,^  and  now  the  consider- 

"  Lib.  VIL,  cap.  xi. 

*  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  Professor  Wilson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  p.  167,  London, 
184L 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xix.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xx. 
'  Vol.  I.,  p.  173,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIL,  cap.  x. 


318  INVASION  OF  MARGIANA.  [cHAP.  X. 

able  town  of  Merw-el-Rud  on  the  river  Murgh-ab.'    He  marched 
to  the  Ochus  or  Tedjen,  and  crossed  into  the  territory  of  the 
Rock  of         PareetaccE;  in  which  was  the  rock  of  Chorienes,^  a  still  more 
sieged.  formidable  hill  fort  than  that  of  Oxyartes.     The  circumference 

at  the  bottom  was  about  two  miles ;  there  was  only  one  ascent, 
by  a  narrow  and  difficult  winding  approach  of  more  than  a 
mile  long,  and  a  deep  and  difficult  ravine  separated  the  rock 
from  the  only  rising  ground  from  whence  it  might  be  assailed 
with  any  prospect  of  success.  Alexander  determined  to  avail 
himself  of  the  latter,  and  to  effect  a  communication  with  the 
fort.  In  order  to  shorten  the  period  of  the  siege  by  multiplying 
the  hours  of  employment  on  the  proposed  gigantic  undertaking, 
the  army  was  divided,  one-half  working  by  day,  and  the  other 
half  in  three  watches  by  night ;  the  troops  erecting,  under  Alex- 
ander's personal  superintendence,  covered  galleries  one  above 
another,  with  the  protection  of  wooden  towers.  At  first  the 
attempt  was  ridiculed,  but  when  its  gradual  approach  brought 
the  besieged  within  reach  of  the  Macedonian  darts  on  the 
Capitulation  samc  level,  Chorienes  requested  to  see  Oxyartes.^  The  latter 
of  the  fort.  gi^tgrgti  the  place  accordingly,  and  by  dwelling  upon  the  resist- 
less power  and  matchless  generosity  of  Alexander,  Chorienes 
was  induced  to  send  his  submission  before  any  serious  impression 
had  been  made.  As  Alexander  had  previously  crossed  the 
Tedjen,**  this  place  was  probably  situated  a  little  way  from  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  cold  season  being  now  at  hand,  Alexander,  most  unfor- 
tunately for  his  character  and  peace  of  mind,  determined  to 
winter  at  Zariaspa,  M'here,  at  one  of  the  revels  to  which  he  was 
Murder  of  now  Unhappily  addicted,  he  murdered  Clitus.  The  grief  caused 
by  the  fatal  result  of  his  ungovernable  rage  on  this  occasion, 
required  to  be  dissipated  by  new  conquests,  which  were  destined 
to  open  the  little  known  but  wealthy  regions  of  India,  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind. 
B.C.. -527.  Leaving   10,000  foot  and   1,500  horse  under  Amyntas,*  to 

'  Within  a  bow-shot.— Recueil  de  Geographie,  &c.,  tome   V.,  p.  466, 
Paris,  1836,  Edri.si,  ed.  Jaubert. 

-  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxi.  ^  Ibid. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  YII.,  cao.  x.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  xxii. 


CHAP.  X.]  CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  THE  ASPII,  ETC.  3 19 

protect  the   territory  northward  of  the  Ccaucasus,   Alexander 
marched  with  an  army  of  about  120,000  men  ;  and,  in  ten  days 
from  Drepsa  or  Drapsaca,  probably  Anderab   or  Inderab,'  he 
reached  Alexandria  ad  Caucasum,  and  proceeded  to  Ortospana, 
in  crder  to  resume  the  more  direct,    and  easier  route  towards 
Central  India,  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Paropamisus, 
from  which  he  had  diverged  in  pursuit  of  Bessus.     Having 
entrusted  the  Paropamisan   satrapy  to  Tyriaspes,  he  marched  Alexander 
on  Nikfea  and  the  Kophen.     This  appears  to  have  been  the  wards  the' 
Kabul  river,    or  rather   its    northern   branch,   which   directly  ^'^'^"^* 
crossed  Alexander's  line  of  march,  and  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Tagao  and  Punjshir  affluents.     At  the  crossing  place  of 
the  Kophen,  previously  to  its  junction  with  the  southern  branch 
and  flowing  eastward,  Taxiles,  and  other  Indian  princes,  brought 
presents  to  Alexander,  ofi'ering  to  him  the  use  of  their  elephants. 
Hephsestion  and  Perdiccas  proceeded  from  hence  by  the  direct 
route,  and  having,  after  a  siege  of  thirty  days,  taken  the  capital 
of  the  refractory  king  of  the  Peukelaotis^  (possibly  Pe'shawur), 
their  march  was  continued,  in  order  that  they  might  prepare  a 
bridge  of  boats  for  the  passage  of  the  Indus  by  the  main  body.^ 
Alexander  conducted  the  latter  by  a  more  northern  route 
over  diflScult  mountain  paths  towards  the  river  Khoes,^  beyond 
which  he  was  advancing  against  the  Aspii,  the   Thrysei,  and 
the  Arsa^i,^  at  the  head  of  some  cavalry  and  800  heavy-armed 
infantry   (mounted).     He  was  moving   with   his    usual    over- 
confident  daring,  when  the  inhabitants  of  one  of  the  towns, 
probably  the  Aspics,  were  tempted  by  his  small  force  to  meet 
him  in  the  field ;  but  by  a  vigorous  attack  in  which  Alexander  Alexander  is 
was  wounded,   they  were  driven   within   their   twofold  walls,  ^^""" 
which  being  carried,  the  Macedonians,  to  revenge  the  wound 
received  by  the   king,   and   their   brave   resistance,    gave   no 

'  The  position  given  by  Edrisi  of  Anderab  or  Inderab,  with  respect  to  Ba- 
mian  and  other  places  near  the  Paropamisus,  seems  to  coincide  with  Drapsaca. 
— Pp.  475,  477,  tome  V.,  Recueil  de  Voyages  et  Memoires,  &c.,  ed.  Jaubert. 

-  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxii. ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xli. 

^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  ix. 

*  Probably  the  Kama  or  Kooner  river. —Memoir  on  the  Marches  of  Alex- 
ander, by  M.  Court,  Journal  of  As.  Soc,  Bom.,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  306. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxiii. 


320 


CATTLE  SENT  FROM  INDIA  TO  GREECE.  [CHAP.  X. 


The  Aspii  fly 
to  the  moun- 
tains. 


Defeat  of  the 
Indians. 


Alexander 
sends  cattle 
into  Europe. 


quarter  to  the  flying  inhabitants,  and  Alexander  completed  this 
atrocity  by  destroying  the  town.^ 

Intimidated  by  its  fate,  Andaka,^  the  next  place,  surrendered 
on  the  approach  of  Alexander,  who  continuing  his  march  towards 
the  Euaspla  river,  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  of  the  Aspii 
burnt  their  city,  and  fled  to  the  mountains.  Here  a  battle 
followed,  in  which  the  Indian  chief  was  killed,  and  Alexander 
continued  his  march  over  the  rest  of  the  mountains  to  Arigaium, 
which  had  likewise  been  burnt  and  deserted  by  the  inhabitants. 
Alexander  appointed  Craterus  to  rebuild  the  place,  and  en- 
courage the  inhabitants  to  return  and  form  a  settlement  ;^  but 
as  the  spirit  of  the  people  had  survived  their  capital,  it  was 
necessary  to  reduce  a  strong  fort  in  the  mountains  to  which 
they  had  removed  with  their  cattle.  Against  this,  therefore, 
Alexander  marched  his  forces.  Ptolemy  and  Leonatus  com- 
manded two  divisions,  the  third  and  smallest  was  conducted 
by  the  king  towards  the  principal  body  of  the  enemy.  This 
circumstance  led  to  the  victory ;  for  the  Indians  despising  his 
limited  force  came  down  to  meet  him  in  the  plain,  where  skill 
and  science  speedily  overcame  an  irregular  mass,  and  about 
40,000  souls,  with  a  prodigious  quantity  of  cattle,  were  the 
fruits  of  the  victory.*  Finding  the  cattle  of  extraordinary 
strength,  activity,  and  endurance,  with  the  advantage  of  being 
easily  fattened,  Alexander,  notwithstanding  the  difiiculty  of 
transporting  these  animals  not  less  than  2,600  miles  by  land, 
ordered  a  selection  to  be  sent  to  Macedonia  to  improve  the 
European  breed,  and  the  hump  is  found  on  the  cattle  in  Greece 
to  this  day. 

Following  up  the  position  which  he  claimed  as  the  successor 
of  Darius,  the  country  of  the  inofiensive  Assakenes  was  his  next 
object.  Perceiving  that  their  boundary,  the  rapid  Guzsbus  or 
Euaspla  (apparently  the  Lundye  river),  with  a  bottom  com- 
posed of  round  stones,  offered  no  impediment,  and  that  the 
invaders  were  crossing  in  regular  order,  the  enemy  fled  to  their 
towns  without  attempting  to  obstruct  the  passage,  and  Alexander 

'  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxiv.  ;  Diod.  Sic  ,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xli. 

-  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxiii.  ;  or  Alaiilera,  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  x. 

"*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxiv.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  xxiv.,  xxv. 


CHAP.  X.]  MAZAGA  TAKEN,  AND  THE  PEOPLE  PUT  TO  THE  SWORD.  32  1 

with  a  small  force  speedily  encamped  before  the  walls  of  the 
capital.     The  inhabitants  of  Mazaga,  assisted  by  7,000  Indian 
mercenaries,  and  confident  in   superior  numbers,  immediately 
sallied  forth  to  attack  Alexander,  who,  having  led  his  troops 
away  from  the  town,  and  being  pursued  with  little  order,  sud- Defeat  of  the 
denly  faced  about  and  drove  them  within  the  walls  with  loss.  Mazaga. 
Battering  engines  were  then  brought  against  the  walls,    but, 
though  a  practicable  breach  was  made,  three  determined  assaults 
on   different  days  failed  ;  and  in  one  of  these  Alexander  was 
wounded  in  the  leg  and  arm.     The  result  of  a  fourth  attempt 
was  still  doubtful,  when  in  consequence  of  the  death   of  the 
Indian   chief,   the   mercenaries  in  his  pay  sent   a  proposal  to 
Alexander  to  capitulate  ;  and  having  agreed  that  the  town  was 
to  be  surrendered  on  condition  of  passing  into  his  service,  the 
mercenaries  marched  out  and    encamped  on  a  hill  near  the 
Macedonians.     On  the  alleged  ground  that  they  intended  to  Cruelty  and 
desert  from  their  new  engagement  during  the  night,  they  \vere  Alexander' 
surrounded  by  the  Macedonians  soon  after  dark:  and  besides  ^^'^^'"'^^  I^® 

»  _  '  people  of 

committing  the  atrocity  of  putting  all  to  the  sword  in  cold  blood,  Mazaga. 
Alexander  took  possession  of  the  city  with  as  little  scruple,  as 
if  there  had  been  no  capitulation.'  Mazaga,  or  Mazoga,  would 
appear  to  have  been  a  little  way  eastward  of  the  Lundye  river, 
or  its  principal  aflfluent  the  Suvat ;  probably  the  former,  as  it 
flows  nearly  parallel  to  the  Kabul  river,  Mhich  was  his  line  of 
march. 

Against  Bazira  and  Ora,  two  of  their  towns  near  the  Indus, 
which  had  not  been  intimidated  by  the  fate  of  the  capital,  he 
sent  two  of  his  officers.  Aldatus  speedily  took  the  former  ;^  Capture  of 
and  beginning  to  despair  of  being  able  to  defend  their  position  oH]'^^  ^'^^ 
in  the  latter,  although  it  was  stronger,  the  Bizareans,  accom- 
panied by  some  of  the  surrounding  population,  retired  to  the 
celebrated  rock  of  Aornos,  which  was  of  a  pyramidal  form, 
almost  inaccessible,  and  was  deemed  altogether  impregnable. 
As  a  bridge  had  been  constructed  over  the  Indus,  and  the  ter- 
ritory westward  of  that  river  was  now  reduced  to  quiet  subjec- 
tion, Aornos  only  excepted,  Alexander  collected  magazines  for 

'  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxvii. ;  Diotl.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xliii. 
*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxvii. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  x. 
VOL.  IL  Y 


322 


SIEGE  OF  THE  ROCK  OF  AORNOS. 


[chap 


X. 


Blockade  of 
the  rock  of 
Aomos. 


Repulse  of 
Alexander. 


A  causeway 
formed  across 
the  valley. 


a  protracted  blockade,  if  he  should  fail  in  the  assault  of  that 
formidable  fort ;  which,  according  to  tradition,  had  successfully 
resisted  Hercules  the  son  of  Jupiter,  from  whom  as  we  know 
Alexander  claimed  descent/ 

Everywhere  favoured  by  the  reputation  of  his  princely  gene- 
rosity, several  natives  volunteered  to  lead  some  active  men  by 
an  unfrequented  path  to  a  part  of  the  mountain  which  com- 
manded the  fort ;  accordingly  a  chosen  band  under  Ptolemy, 
son  of  Lagus,  moved  that  very  night,  and,  unperceived  by  the 
enemy,  gained  the  indicated  post  by  daybreak.^  This  proved 
to  be  a  detached  hill,  or  rather  a  kind  of  shoulder,  which 
though  separated  by  a  sort  of  valley,  gave  an  easier  access  to 
the  body  of  the  mountain,  than  could  be  obtained  from  the 
country  below.  Accordingly  an  assault  was  made  by  Alexander 
next  day,  but  it  was  repulsed,  notwithstanding  the  diversion 
created  by  Ptolemy's  troops.  That  commander  being  now 
menaced  in  turn,  his  isolated  post,  although  strengthened,  was 
in  a  critical  state,  but  it  was  maintained  notwithstanding,  till 
about  noon  of  the  following  day ;  when  by  means  of  repeated 
attempts,  and  persevering  struggles,  assisted  by  the  feigned 
attacks  made  on  the  fort  at  the  same  time  by  the  force  under 
Ptolemy,  Alexander's  junction  with  the  latter  w^as  effected.^ 
A  general  assault  made  by  their  united  forces  soon  afterw^ards 
having  failed,  the  army  next  day  commenced,  under  Alexander's 
personal  superintendence,  a  causeway,  which  was  to  cross  the 
intervening  hollow.  For  this  purpose  each  man  being  allotted 
100  palisades,  and  all  being  most  diligent,  a  furlong  in  length 
was  nearly  completed  before  night,  and  on  the  fourth  day  a 
body  of  Macedonians  passed  and  occupied  a  kind  of  abutment 
projecting  from,  and  on  a  level  with,  the  mountain  itself.  The 
Indians  sent  to  propose  a  capitulation,  in  order  to  gain  time ; 
but  Alexander,  having  notice  of  their  intention  to  withdraw 
during  the  night,  attacked  and  destroyed  many  of  them  in  their 


'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xi. ;  Arriaii,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxviii.,  xxix. ; 
Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xliv. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxix. ;  Quint.  Curt,  says  IMullinus  or  Eumenes, 
Alexander's  secretary,  was  employed  on  this  service,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xi. 

^  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxix. 


CHAP.  X.]    AORNOS  TAKEN,  AND  MARCH  ALONG  THE  INDUS.  323 

attempt  to  escape.     On  the  same  night  he  took  possession  of 
this  remarkable  rock.' 

Aornos  was  probably  a  general  name  for  a  stockaded  moun-  Supposed 
tain,  such  as  that  already  mentioned  in  Bactria,  and  most  likely  ^t'.'""^ 
Hellenized  from  the  Sanscrit  'Awara,  or  'Awarana,  an  inclosure.^ 
As  it  stood  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the  Indus,^  its  position  should 
be  found  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river,  at  some  distance  above 
Attock  ;*  and  here  there  is  a  spot  called  Akora.     In  conse- 
quence of  a  rising  which  took  place  during  this  daring  opera- 
tion, Alexander  made  a  retrograde  movement  to  Dyrta,  the  Alexander's 
capital  of  the  Assakeni,  but  he  found  the  territory  deserted,  mo™?uent  to 
owing  to  the  news  of  his  late  successes.    Leaving  Nearchus  and  ^^y^^>  ^'^' 
Antiochus  to  endeavour  to  capture  some  of  the  inhabitants,  so 
as  to  ascertain   the  resources  of  the  country,   particularly  in 
elephants,  he  marched  to  the  thickets  bordering  upon  the  Indus, 
in  which  he  recovered  the  elephants  which  had  been  previously 
carried  off  by  the  Assakeni.^     From  these  thickets  some  vessels 
were  constructed ;  and  whilst  part  of  the  troops  were  conveyed 
down  the  river  to  the  bridge  which  his  officers  had  already 
prepared,*'  Alexander  visited  Nysa  and  its  ivy-clad  mound, 
Merus.     This  took  place  at  the  request  of  the  inhabitants,  who 
were  the  descendants  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  or  Sesostris,  from 
whom  they  pretended  to  have  derived  their  regular  government, 
which  at  their  solicitation,  was  now  confirmed."  Alexander  found 
two  large  vessels  prepared,  each  of  thirty  oars,  in  addition  to  many 
smaller,  and  a  bridge  of  boats,  which  had  been  constructed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Attock  by  Perdiccas  and  Hephsestion,  assisted 
by  Mophis.    This  prince,  who  bore  the  title  of  Taxiles,  had,  as  Embnssy  sent 
it  appears,  sent  an  embassy  to  solicit  Alexander's  protection,  aud'^^^^'^^' 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxix.,  xxx. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.   xi. ; 
Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xliv. 

*  P.  192  of  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  H.  H.  Wilson,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

'  Compare  Quint.  Curt  ,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xi.,  with  8trabo,  lib.  XV.,  and 
Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xliv. 

*  M.  Court's  paper  on  Alexander's  Exploit:?,  «S:c.,  Journ.  As.  Soc  B., 
April,  1839,  p.  309. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxx. 

*  Ibid.,  also  lib.  V.,  cap.  vii.,and  Strabo,  lib.  XV. 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  i.,  ii. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  x. 

Y  2 


324 


ALEXANDER  CROSSES  THE  INDUS. 


[chap.  X. 


Alexander 
crosses  the 
Indus. 


presents  wliilst  the  king  was  still  in  Sogdiana.^  On  making  this  request 
in  person,  bringing  at  the  same  time  regal  presents  to  the 
amount  of  200  silver  talents,  3,000  oxen,  10,000  sheep,  and 
30  elephants,^  Alexander  not  only  acceded,  but  promised  to 
invade  the  territory  of  his  rival,  Porus ;  although  for  this 
purpose,  he  must  abandon,  or  at  least  postpone,  his  favourite 
object,  the  descent  of  the  Indus  to  examine  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  ocean  ;  and  for  which  the  necessary  flotilla  was  now  pre- 
pared at,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  Attock. 

Availing  himself  of  the  excuse  of  his  new  alliance,  Alexander 
passed  the  limits  which  as  the  conqueror  of  Darius  he  had  pre- 
viously claimed,  and  marched  to  the  city  of  Taxila ;  which  is 
supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  modern  Manikjala,  situated 
about  forty-five  miles  eastward  of  Attock. 

Here  he  passed  the  remainder  of  the  winter,  and  having 
augmented  the  territory  of  his  ally,  although  as  a  matter  of  pre- 
caution leaving  a  garrison  in  that  place,  he  proceeded  to  fulfil  his 
new  engagements.  Accompanied  by  5,000  Indians,  furnished 
by  Mophis,  and  taking  M'ith  him  on  carriages  the  vessels  used 
in  passing  the  Indus,  which  for  the  convenience  of  transport 
Coenus  had  brought  from  that  river  in  two  or  more  parts,^  he 
marched  to  the  banks  of  the  Hydaspes,  the  Bidaspes  of  Ptolemy. 

?ai?um^'^^  ^"  This  is  uow  represented  by  the  Jailum  or  Behut,  the  second 
stream  of  the  Punjaub,  which  falls  into  the  Chinab  or  Chan- 
drabhaga,  the  Akesines  of  Alexander's  historians.''  The  Jailum, 
during  the  season  of  floods,  carries  a  considerable  volume  of 
water,  flowing  with  great  impetuosity  over  a  rocky  bed,^  which 
is  seldom  fordable  during  the  south-west  monsoon. 

The  sites  of  Bucephala  and  Niksea,  particularly  the  former, 
being  determined  by  Mr.  Masson,  it  may  from  thence  be  con- 
cluded that  Alexander  reached  the  river  between  Derapoor  and 
Jelalpoor.  Here  he  found  a  numerous  army,  consisting  of  in- 
fantry, cavalry,  war  chariots,  and  elephants,  ready  to  dispute  the 
passage.     Porus,   the  king,   was  encamped  near  the   opposite 


INIarch  to  the 


Bucephala  and 
Nikaja. 


"  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVTI.,  cap.  xliv. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  iii.  ^  Ibid.,  cap.  viii. 

*  Tbid.,  cap.  xx.,  iind  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  ii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  ix.  and  x. ;  compared  with  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xiii. 


CHAP.  X.]  PORUS  TAKES  POST  ON  THE  HYDASPES.  325 

bank,  having  placed  strong  posts  under  chosen  captains  to  Porus  pre- 
defend  the  river  at  the  ordinary  fords,  which  at  this  season  the  invaders, 
might  be  considered  impracticable,  for  being  near  the  summer 
solstice,'  the  river  was  almost  full  of  water.  There  was,  besides, 
a  serious  difficulty  to  be  overcome,  in  the  line  of  moveable 
castles,  the  artillery  of  the  Indians,  which  Alexander  was  about 
to  encounter  for  the  first  time. 

Hitherto  rivers  of  even  greater  volume  had  been  crossed  in 
the  face  of  an  enemy  without  hesitation,  but  on  the  present 
occasion,  though  amply  provided  with  boats,  rafts,  and  floats, 
Alexander  was  induced  to  hesitate  ;  and  in  resorting  to  other 
means,  he  has  left  us  one  of  the  best  of  the  many  lessons  in 
military  tactics,  which  have  been  derived  from  this  great  master 
in  the  art  of  war.  As  it  was  not  considered  practicable  to  force 
a  passage  in  the  face  of  an  equal,  if  not  a  superior  force,  the 
invaders  were  compelled  to  resort  to  some  expedient  by  which, 
at  least,  a  considerable  part  of  the  army,  if  not  the  whole,  might 
have  time  to  form  after  gaining  the  left  bank ;  thus,  as  it  is  Alexander's 
termed,  stealing  a  passage  by  resorting  either  to  a  false  attack,  deceive  him. 
or  some  other  expedient,  to  deceive  the  enemy. 

Keeping  the  latter  object  in  view,  Alexander,  for  several 
nights  in  succession,  caused  demonstrations  to  be  made  of  the 
intention  of  crossing,  which  were  repeated  with  unusual  din  and 
clamour,  till  at  length  Porus  was  tired  of  sending  his  elephants, 
and  making  other  preparations  to  repel  the  expected  attempts ; 
and  finding  that  these  alarms  were  not  succeeded  by  any  serious 
attempts  to  cross,  he  gradually  ceased  to  harass  his  troops  by 
such  repeated  and  useless  night  marches.  This  feeling  of 
security  was  increased  by  the  public  declaration  of  Alexander 
that  it  was  his  intention  to  wait  till  the  low  season.^  The  Porus  becomes 
vigilance  of  Porus  being  thus  lulled,  Alexander  determined  to  ^^'^  ^'^'  ^"  ' 
execute  the  project  which  he  had  formed,  by  attempting  to  cross 
from  a  rock,  under  cover  of  a  wooded  island  in  the  river,  about 
150  stadia  above  the  camp.^  He  destined  for  this  service  5,000 
cavalry,  consisting  of  the  companions,  with  some  Scythians, 
Bactrians,  and  mounted  Dahian  archers,  in  addition  to  G,000 
infantry,  formed  of  two  brigades  of  the  phalanx,  with  the  Agrians 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  ix.,  x.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  x. 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  xi.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xiii. 


326 


ALEXANDER  PREPARES  TO  PASS  THE  HYDASPES.     [cHAP.  X. 


Preparations   and  bowmeii.     Craterus  remained  in  the  camp  to  make  a  great 

of  Alexander.        .  ^      ,^  i  ^      j-  p  • 

noise,  and  other  demonstrations  oi  attempting  to  pass  at  a  par- 
ticular time ;  he  was,  however,  ordered  to  cross,  in  case  Porus 
proceeded  with  the  whole,  or  the  greatest  part  of  his  force,  to 
meet  the  king ;  but  to  remain  quiet  if  he  withdrew  only  a  small 
part,  or  none  of  his  troops.  A  chain  of  posts  kept  up  the 
necessary  communications,  and  a  demonstration  was  to  be  made 
by  the  foreign  horse  and  foot  under  Meleager  and  Gorgias ; 
who  were  posted  between  the  camp  and  the  island,  with  orders 
to  pass  over  and  reinforce  Alexander  the  moment  he  was  per- 
ceived to  be  engaged.^ 
Passage  of  the  A  dark  stormy  night,  with  peals  of  thunder,  and  the  usual 
defeat  of  the  accompauimeuts,  in  that  part  of  the  country  during  the  south- 
a  vauce.  ^^^^  monsoon,  of  torrents  of  rain,  prevented  the  enemy  hearing 
anything  that  was  passing  on  the  right  bank,  and  by  daybreak 
as  the  storm  ceased,  the  transports  pushed  across  and  disem- 
barked, as  they  supposed,  on  the  left  bank :  it  proved,  however, 
to  be  an  island,  and  another  still  intervened ;  to  this  they 
passed,  and  finally  they  reached  the  main,  by  fording,  with  the 
water  up  to  the  breasts  of  the  infantry.^ 

The  scouts  had  observed  the  transports  and  the  floats  of 
stuffed  hides  passing  the  first  island,  and  the  alarm  rapidly 
passed  to  Porus ;  who  perceiving  Alexander's  tent  still  in  its 
place,  with  the  main  body  apparently  undiminished,  and  making 
demonstrations,  he  despatched  his  son  with  2,000  cavalry,  and 
120  war  chariots  to  deal  with  what  he  judged  to  be  a  feint, 
intended  to  induce  him  to  quit  his  advantageous  position.  The 
Grecian  troops  had  passed  the  river  by  the  time  the  young- 
prince  approached  the  landing  place,  and  Alexander,  per- 
ceiving the  smallness  of  the  numbers  and  the  unprotected 
state  of  the  latter,  made  an  immediate  attack  ;  in  which  400 
horsemen,  including  the  young  prince,  were  slain.^  Porus, 
on  learning  from  some  of  the  fugitives  the  real  state  of  things, 
and  the  loss  of  his  son,  immediately  marched,  and  took  post  to 
give  Alexander  battle  in  an  open  plain.  His  force  consisted 
of  30,000  infantry,  4,000  cavalry,  300  chariots,  each  with  six 
men,  namely,  two  with  bucklers,  two  archers,  and  two  armed 


Judicious 
arrangement 
of  Porus, 


'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xii. 
*  Ibid.,  cap.  XV. 


Ibid.,  cap.  xii,,  xiii. 


CHAP.  X.]  ATTACK  ON  BOTH  FLANKS  OF  PORUS'  ARMY.  327 

drivers  ;  besides  which  there  were  200  elephants  bearing  huge 
wooden  towers  filled  with  armed  men.'  The  last  were  placed 
in  the  centre  about  100  feet  apart ;  and  a  little  in  the  rear  was 
the  infantry,  so  posted  as  to  cover  the  intervals  between  the 
elephants ;  on  the  wings,  the  cavalry  were  placed  with  the  war 
chariots  in  front,  aligned  with  the  elephants,  and  giving  to  the 
whole  the  appearance  of  a  city,  of  w  hich  the  elephants  seemed 
to  form  the  bastions,  or  rather  towers.^ 

The  preceding  movement,  and  this  skilful  order  of  battle,  and  skilful 
had  anticipated  Alexander's  intention  in  hastening  onward  with  auder, 
a  body  of  horse  to  attack  the  camp  of  Porus,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  manoeuvre  with  his  cavalry  to  give  time  for  the 
phalanx  to  come  up,  and  also  to  prepare  for  a  battle  in  the 
difficult  circumstances  in  which  he  was  unexpectedly  placed. 
The  previous  plans  required  to  be  instantly  changed,  and  in  so 
doing,  Alexander  promptly  adopted  a  course  calculated  to 
neutralize  the  almost  irresistible  power  of  the  chariots  and 
elephants  when  brought  to  bear  in  a  direct  attack ;  this  was, 
to  attack  by  the  flanks,  a  measure  which  would  give  scope 
for  his  numerically  and  morally  superior  cavalry  to  act,  before 
Porus  could  have  time  to  change  his  formation. 

Having  matured  a  plan  likely  to  accomplish  these  objects.  Double  attack 
the  battle  commenced  by  the  main  body  of  cavalry,  under  °^^^*^^^^^'''^* 
Alexander,  making  an  oblique  attack  on  the  enemy's  left  wing, 
which  was  menaced  at  the  same  time  by  the  mounted  archers 
in  front :  Cosnus  with  the  remainder  of  the  horse  was  to  make 
a  similar  movement  against  the  right  of  the  Indian  army :  the 
phnlanx  and  the  rest  of  the  infantry  were  commanded  to  stand 
fast  till  they  saw  that  the  preceding  demonstrations  were  suc- 
cessful. 

Porus,  being  most  apprehensive  about  the  principal  and 
double  attack  in  front,  ordered  the  cavalry  to  move  from  the 
right  by  the  rear,  to  support  his  left,  which  was  menaced ;  and 
the  right  wing  being  weakened  in  consequence,  Ccenus  not  only 
turned  it,  but  pursued   the  Indian  cavalry  towards  the  other 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xv.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xiv.  Ac- 
cording to  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xlv. ;  50,000  infantry,  3,000 
cavalry,  1,000  chariots,  and  130  elephants. 

^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xlvii. 


328  SUCCESS  OF  ALEXANDER.  [CHAP.  X. 

wing.  The  result  of  these  movements  was,  that  the  Indian 
cavalry,  with  inferior  numbers,  had  to  oppose  a  double  front, 
namely,  one  to  the  cavalry  under  Cosnus,  which  had  taken 
them  in  flank  and  rear,  and  another  to  the  rest  of  this  arm 
Successful  led  by  Alexander,  who  at  this  critical  moment  made  a  suc- 
Aie^nder.  ccssful  charge,  and  obliged  the  chief  part  of  the  Indian  cavalry 
to  take  refuge  among  the  elephants ;  the  horses  of  the  latter 
being  accustomed  to  these  formidable  creatures,  whilst  those 
of  Alexander  would  not  dare  to  approach.'  As  Alexander  did 
not  fail  to  improve  this  advantage  by  continuing  to  make  it 
chiefly  a  cavalry  action,  the  victory  may  be  said  to  have  been 
won  from  this  moment ;  although  it  was  still  fiercely  contested, 
and  continued  doubtful  for  a  length  of  time. 

The  Indian    cavalry  had   now  sufficiently  recovered    their 
wonted  courage  to  assume  the  offensive ;  and  at  the  same  time 
the    elephants,  having    changed   front,   were  about  to   charge 
the  Macedonian    cavalry  in  the  rear,   when  the    phalanx    of 
Seleucus  advanced  and  saved  the  cavalry  by  following  these 
The  elephants  animals,  and  in  turn  attacking  them  in  the   rear.     The  latter 
Macedonian     movement  causcd  the  elephants  to  face  about  once  more,  and 
phalanx,         penetrating   the  phalanx    caused    great  confusion  in   diff*erent 
places  in  the  ranks,  which  might  have  been  altogether  fatal,  had 
it  been  followed  up  by  a   charge   of  cavalry ;  but  the  Indian 
cavalry  were  again  met  and  repulsed  by  Alexander,  when  on 
the  way  to  support  the  elephants,^  on  whose  efforts  the  result  of 
the  struggle  chiefly  depended.     Happily  for  Alexander,   the 
Macedonians   were    not    intimidated    by    the    unprecedented 
struggle    in  which    they  were  now  engaged.      Although   this 
mighty  animal  was  irresistible  wherever  his  steps  were  directed, 
his  power  was  at  length  paralysed.     The   steady  resistance   of 
the  unbroken  sections  of  the   phalanx,  and  the  effects  of  the 
missiles  of  the  archers  and  Agrians,  which  were  chiefly  directed 
but  afterwards  to  deprive  the  animals  of  their  guides,  caused  them  to  become 
managea"k".    frantic  ill  consequcncc  of  their  wounds :  some  being  quite  un- 
governable were  equally  formidable  to  friends  and  foes ;  whilst 
others  as  if  by  consent  refused  all  farther  efforts,  bellowing  in 
concert  as  with  uplifted  trunks  they  withdrew  from  the  battle.  ^ 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xvi.,  xvii. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xvii.  ^  Ibid. 


CHAP.  X.]    DIGNIFIED  CONDUCT  OF  PORUS  AFTER  HIS  DEFEAT.     329 

During"  this  period,  Ccdiuis  had  hrokeii  through  the  enemy, 
and  the  whole  Macedonian  cavah'y  being  united,  Alexander 
made  repeated  and  desperate  charges  upon  the  Indian  infantry, 
entirely  breaking  their  ranks  wherever  he  attacked. 

Alexander  enclosed   the  confused  mass,  to  which  the  Indian 
army  was  now  reduced,  by  means  of  his  cavalry,  which  was 
placed  at  intervals,  and  the  phalanx,  with  shield  touching  shield, 
and  pike  protended  ;  and  the  struggle  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  the  opportune  arrival,  at  this  juncture,  of  Craterus,  who,  as  Cratt-rns 
had  been  arranged,  crossed  the  river  with  the   main  body  of  decides  the 
the  army,  probably  including  the  foreign  horse  and  foot.     The  '^"  '^* 
whole  of  the  chariots  and  elephants  were  captured,  and  20,000 
of  the  Indian  infantry,  besides  three-fourths  of  the  cavalry,  fell 
in  this  well-contested  battle :'    12,000  were  killed  and  9,000 
were  made   prisoners ;    the  loss  of  the   Macedonians,   whose 
numbers  greatly  preponderated  towards  the  close  of  the  battle, 
being  only  280  cavalry  and  700  infantry.^ 

Porus,  who  did  not  mean  to  survive,  fought  manfully,  till  at  Dignified  con- 
the  repeated  request  of  Alexander,  and  being  at  the  same  time 
overpowered  by  thirst  and  the  effects  of  a  wound  in  the  right 
shoulder,  he  at  length  consented  to  descend  from  his  elephant.^ 
Both  sovereigns  advanced,  and  the  Indian  king  met  his  dis- 
tinguished enemy  with  that  gallant  bearing  which  he  had  main- 
tained during  an  obstinate  conflict  of  seven  or  eight  hours ; 
and  on  being  asked  how  he  desired  to  be  treated,  he  briefly 
replied  "  As  a  king."  "  That  shall  be  done  on  my  own 
account,"  said  Alexander ;  "  but  do  you  ask  nothing  more  ?" 
"  No,"  replied  Porus,  with  much  dignity ;  "  everything  is  in- 
cluded in  the  first  request."^  Alexander  was  so  much  struck 
by  the  greatness  of  mind  displayed  by  his  defeated,  but  not 
fallen  enemy,  that  he  treated  him  with  marked  honour,  and 
made  some  amends  for  his  unjust  invasion  by  restoring  the 
kingdom,^  and  giving  the  whole  country  between  the  Hydaspes 

'  Compare  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xviii. ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xlv. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xlv. 

'*  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xviii. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  xiv. 

■*  Ibid.,  cap.  xix.  ;  Plutarch  in  Alex. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  xlvi. 


330  PASSAGE  OF  THE  RIVER  AKESINES,  [CHAP.  X. 

Generosity      and  the  Akcsines  (a  large  accession  of  territory),  to  Porus,  who 
ot  Alexander.  g^|'|.gj,^j^j.(js  proved  hiiuself  a  faithful  and  attached  vassal  of  the 
vast  empire  of  Alexander,^ 

Craterus  was  ordered  to  superintend  the  construction  of  a 
city,  called  Niksea,  to  commemorate  this  remarkable  victory, 
and  another  close  to  the  landing-place  near  Jerum,  named  Buce- 
phala,  in  honour  of  his  favourite  horse,  whose  life  terminated 
on  this  occasion  from  the  effects  of  heat  and  over  exertion,^  at 
Lossof  Buce-  the  age,  it  is  said,  of  thirty  years.  Pursuing  his  aggressive  war- 
V  ^^-  fg^YQ^  Alexander  continued  his  march  to  the  river  Akesines,^  the 

modern  Chinab  or  Chandrabhaga,  receiving   as  he  advanced 
the  submission  of  thirty-five  considerable  cities  ;  also  of  the  other 
Porus,  called  the  coward,  and  of  Abissares,  who,  in  addition  to 
forty  elephants,  brought  considerable  sums  of  money.     Having 
Passageof  the  overcome  the  difficulties  of  crossing  the  wide,  rapid,  and  rocky 
Akesmes.        Akesiucs,  in  boats,  on  stuffed  skins,  and  other  rafts,  the  army 
advanced  to  the  river  Hydraotes,  or  Hyarotes  (the  modern 
Iraotu,  or  Ravi,  of  Miihammedan   geographers  *,^  the  Sanscrit 
Iravati  and  Ravi),  which  was  bordered  with  a  thick  forest  of 
trees,  unknown  elsewhere,  and  full  of  wild  peacocks.^     This  was 
passed  with  less  difficulty  than  the  preceding  stream,  and  the 
march  was  continued  in  a  direction  probably  parallel  to  the  Ravi, 
wath  a  view  to  punish  the  Cathseans,  the  Oxydracse,  the  Malli, 
and  two  other  confederate  tribes.    Passing  the  city  of  Pemprama, 
Subjection  of  on  thc  third  day,  Alexander  approached  Sangala,  also  called 
CathJaiis.^"    Sakala  ;  in  whose  environs  he  found  the  warlike  Cathaeans,  and 
some   of  their  confederates,  encamped  within  a  triple   line   of 
waggons  on  a  rising  ground  close  to  the  city.^     The  cavalry, 
and  afterwards  a  body  of  foot  led  by  Alexander,  having  been 
repulsed  by  the  missiles  of  the  Cathceans  from  behind  the  first 
line  of  carriages,  the  phalanx  was  brought  up ;  which  succeeded 
with  nuich  difficulty  in  forcing   the  three  barriers,  and  drove 
their  defenders  into  the  town.     The  latter  was  defended  by 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxi.,  xxiv. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xix. ;  and  Plutarch  in  Alex. 
^  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  i. 

*  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  II.  II.  Wilson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  p.  195.     London, 
1841. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  i.  '  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxii. 


CHAP.  X.]         PROPOSED  CONQUEST  OF  CENTRAL  INDIA.  331 

brick  walls,  and  on  one  side  it  had  tlic  further  protection  of  a 
shallow  lake.  The  Cathseans  attempted  to  escape  by  crossing 
this  piece  of  water  at  midnight ;  but  their  purpose  was  antici- 
pated by  Ptolemy,  M-ho  received  them  with  a  barrier  of  their 
own  waggons,  and  drove  them  back  into  the  town.  Porus 
arrived  at  this  period  with  many  elephants  and  a  re-enforce- 
ment of  5,000  Indians ;  and  the  walls  being  breached,  the  town 
was  carried  by  storm,  17,000  of  the  defenders  being  slain, 
and  70,000  made  prisoners.^  The  Cathsei,  now  the  Kattias,  Origin  of  the 
are  a  pastoral  tribe  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  name 
and  the  particular  use  of  waggons,  is  probably  of  Tartar  or 
Scythian  origin.  They  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  popu- 
lation between  the  Hydaspes  and  Delhi  ;^  and  the  ruins  of 
Haripa  are  supposed  to  represent  the  capital,  Sakala.^  Eumenes, 
the  secretary  of  Alexander,  was  despatched  to  offer  favourable 
terms  to  the  allies  of  the  Cathaeans,  but  the  news  of  the  fall  of 
that  town  had  caused  them  to  fly  in  a  body/  probably  towards 
the  mountains  near  the  sources  of  the  Hydraotes.  Alexander 
pursued  them  for  some  distance,  but  being  too  late,  he  returned, 
laid  Sangala  level  with  the  ground,  and  gave  the  country  round  Sangaia  razed, 
it  to  those  Indians  who  had  willingly  submitted.^  Tempted  by  couquJsts. 
accounts  of  the  rich  tracts  of  Central  India,  whose  inhabitants 
were  said  to  be  wisely  governed  and  highly  civilized,  and 
stimulated  by  the  hope  of  finding  amongst  this  warlike  people 
enemies  worthy  of  being  conquered,  Alexander  determined  to 
proceed  against  the  Gangaridai  and  the  Prasii,  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  Indian  nations. 

Thirsting  for  conquests  in  eastern  India,  and  desiring  after-  The  Greeks 
wards  to  descend  the  Ganges  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  Alexander  nyjjhasis. 
was  approaching  the  Hyphasis,  a  rapid  and  difficult  river,  seven 
stadia  in  width,   and  six  fathoms  deep,^  when  circumstances 
occurred  which  put  a  limit  to  that  victorious  career,  and  those 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxiv. 

*  Burnes'  Travels,  vol.  III.,  p.  130. 

^  III  about  30°  24" :  see  Notes  of  a  Journey  from  Lahore  to  Karachee,  by 
C  Masson,  Journ.  of  As.  Soc.  Bom.,  vol.  V.,  p.  57. 

*  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxiv.  *  Ibid. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  li.  ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  ii. 


332  DISCONTENT  OF  THE  ARMY.  [cHAP.  X. 

conquests,    to  which  no   other  history  offers   anything  like  a 
parallel. 

A  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  had  led  to  the  conspiracy  at  the 
foot  of  the  Paropamisus,  as  well  as  to  the  conspiracies  of  Phi- 
lotas,  and  of  the  band  of  pages  beyond  those  mountains  ;  but 
one  much  more  deeply  rooted  now  manifested  itself,  for  Alex- 
ander learnt  that  discontent  pervaded  the  whole  army,  including 
his  own  friends  and  favourites.  Worn  out  by  fatigue,  wounds, 
and  the  climate  during  the  rainy  season,  and  seeing  no  limits 
to  the  intended  conquests  of  their  prince,  in  a  country  whose 
extent  was  utterly  unknown,  frequent  meetings  had  taken  place 
They  deter-  auioug  the  followcrs  of  Alexander,  who  stimulated  one  another 
cross  the  river,  to  refusc  to  cross  the  Hyphasis  even  if  Alexander  led  the  w^ay.^ 
The  constitution  of  Macedonia,  as  has  been  seen,  gave  to  the 
army  almost  the  authority  of  a  popular  assembly ;  and  the 
principal  commanders,  looking  earnestly  forward  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  their  wealth  and  honours  at  home,  learning  also  that 
they  would  have  to  encounter,  near  the  Ganges,  Xandrames, 
an  Indian  prince,  who  had  blocked  up  the  passes  with 
20,000  horse  and  200,000  foot,  besides  2,000  chariots  and 
3,000  trained  elephants,^  some  of  them  went  so  far  in  their 
meetings  as  to  declare,  that  if  the  king  required  them  to  enter 
into  new  wars,  his  command  should  not  be  obeyed.'^ 
Alexander  Lest  this  feeling  should  lead  to  an  open  rebellion  against  his 

summons  a,i.,ji-  p  •,  li^^ 

council  of  authority,  and  hopmg,  as  on  lormer  occasions,  to  rouse  a  better 
spirit,  Alexander  summoned  a  council  of  the  superior  officers, 
and  made  one  of  those  eloquent  appeals,  Avhich  had  succeeded 
on  every  previous  occasion  :  "  Seeing,"  said  the  king,  "  that 
you  do  not  follow  me  with  your  wonted  alacrity,  I  have  sum- 
moned this  meeting,  either  to  persuade  you  to  advance,  or  that 
you  may  show  me  the  necessity  of  returning."  Seeming  thus 
to  make  it  an  open  question,  he  continued:  "  If  you  complain 
either  of  your  own  labours  or  of  the  conduct  of  your  leader,  there 
is  nothing  more  to  be  said;  but  if  by  these  exertions,  the  river 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxv. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  li. ;  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX,  cap.  ii. ;  Ag-grain- 
mes,  according  to  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  ii. 
^  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxv. 


summons  a 

council 

officers 


CHAP.X.]  ALEXANDERFAILSTO  PERSUADE  HIS  ARMY  TO  ADVANCE.  333 

Hydraotcs  has  become  the  limits  of  our  empire,  which  extends 
westward  to  the  iEgean  sea,  and  northward  to  the  river  Jaxartes, 
why  do  you  hesitate  to  pass  the  Hyphasis,  and  having  added  the 
rest  of  Asia  to  our  conquests,  then  descend  the  Ganges,  and  sail 
round  Africa  to  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  Life,"  added  the  king, 
*'  distinguished  by  deeds  of  valour,  is  delightful,  and  so  is  death 
leaving  an  immortal  name ;  persevere,  therefore,  O !  Mace- 
donians, and  I  promise  to  exceed  the  wishes  of  every  individual, 
and  make  him  the  object  of  envy,"^ 

A  deep  silence  followed,  which  was  at  length  broken  by  Result  of  the 
Coenus,  who,  in  affecting  language,  described  the  past  dangers 
encountered,  the  victories  achieved,  and  the  anxious  longings 
of  the  soldiers  to  turn  homewards  their  weary  steps.^  His 
pathetic  appeal  caused  tears  to  roll  down  the  cheeks  of  the 
veterans,  and  was  even  too  much  for  Alexander  himself,  who 
then  abruptly  broke  up  the  council.  The  next  day  it  was  re- 
assembled, when  the  king  angrily  declared  that  he  would 
advance,  taking  only  those  who  were  willing  to  follow  him, 
adding,  that  the  others  might  return  and  tell  their  families  that 
their  leader  had  been  deserted  in  the  midst  of  his  enemies.^ 

A  profound  melancholy  prevailed  in  the  camp  during  the  Alexander  ap- 
three  next  days,   while  Alexander  was  secluded  even  from  his  tuaiiy  to  his 
most  intimate  friends ;  after  which,  finding  that  the  troops  re-  determi'iies'to 
gretted  his  displeasure,  but  continued  firm  to  their  purpose,  '■^^''■'^• 
Alexander  made  a  virtue  of  necessity  by  yielding  with  a  good 
grace,  taking  that  course  which  was  best  calculated  to  maintain 
his  own  dignity  with  apparent  consistency.     He  sacrificed,  and 
then  announced  to  the  army  that  owing  to  unfavourable  auspices, 
it  was  his  intention  to  return  without  crossing  the  Hyphasis. 
Shouts   of  joy  welcomed    this    intelligence,    and   the   soldiers, 
weeping  aloud,  implored  countless  blessings  upon  his  head,  who, 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxvi. 

*  He  expatiated  on  the  loyalt}-^  of  the  soldiers,  and  on  tlieir  undiminished 
devotion  to  tlie  king,  adding  that  they  were  still  ready  to  expend  their  blood 
in  order  to  render  his  name  more  celebrated  ;  but  he  concluded  by  stating 
that  they  considered  it  reasonable  to  oppose  any  further  advance,  since  they 
had  reached  the  end  of  the  world,  and  were  seeking  an  India  unknown  to 
the  Indians  themselves.  — Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  iii. 

^  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxvii.,  xxviii. 


f 
334     ALEXANDER  RETRACES  HIS  STEPS  TO  THE  HYDASPES.    [CHAP.  X. 

although  invincible  to  others,  had  allowed  himself  to  be  over- 
come by  the  wishes  of  his  followers.^  Twelve  towers  were 
erected,  and  sacrifices  being  offered  on  these  altars  as  testi- 
monies of  gratitude  to  the  gods,  with  the  amusements  of  horse- 
races and  gymnastic  exercises,  Alexander  gave  the  newly- 
acquired  territory  to  the  faithful  Porus,  and  harmony  being 
Alexander  perfectly  rcstored,  he  retraced  his  steps  from  the  Hyphasis  to 
iiydaspi's/  ^  ^^^  Hydraotcs,  and  from  thence  to  the  Akesines,  where  he  found 
the  city,  which  he  had  left  Hephsestion  to  build,  almost  finished. 
Thence  he  continued  his  retrograde  march  to  the  Hydaspes,^ 
where  he  repaired  the  injuries  caused  by  the  floods  to  Niksea 
and  Bucephala.  Here  he  was  reinforced  from  Greece  by 
6,000  horse  and  7,000  infantry  under  Harpalus ;  ^  and  here  an 
embassy  from  Abissares  brought  thirty  elephants  and  other 
presents.  At  the  same  place  part  of  the  army  had  been 
Preparation  of  employed  all  the  summcr  in  constructing  vessels  or  rather  boats, 
the 'iiyda"pes.  2,000  of  which  had  been  built  from  the  neighbouring  forests ; 
these  were  manned  by  Carians,  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  and 
Cypriots,  who  understood  the  equipment  of  such  a  flotilla,  and 
were  assisted  in  its  management  by  the  people  of  the  country. "* 
Although  cruelly  disappointed  by  the  persevering  opposition 
of  the  Macedonians,  Alexander  appears  at  once  to  have  turned 
his  powerful  mind  from  warlike  to  peaceable  objects  ;  and  the 
descent  was  commenced  in  three  divisions,  each  of  which  was 
equal  to  a  modern  corps  d'armee,  being  between  40,000  and 
50,000  men.  One,  under  Craterus,  marched  along  the  right 
bank ;  another,  the  larger,  under  Hephaestion,  moved  in  a 
parallel  line  on  the  opposite  side,  with  200  elephants ;  whilst 
The  fleet  and  Alexander  followed  the  stream  itself,  with  a  chosen  body  of 
the  Hjdaspes.  horsc  and  foot,  ready  to  support  and  strengthen  either  of  the 
others ;  ^  Philip,  the  satrap  of  the  territory  westward  of  the 
Indus,  the  intended  kingdom  of  Porus,  was  to  follow  with  the 
rear  guard  four  days  later.  At  day-break  sacrifice  was  per- 
formed, and  the  troops  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  river 
having  embarked,  libations  were  offered  to  this  stream,  also  to 

'  Arrian,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxix.  *  Ibid. 

■'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  iii.  *  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. 

'  Ibid.,  cap.  ii.  and  iii. 


CHAP.  X.]       MARCH,  AND  DESCENT  ALONG  THE  HYDASPES.  335 

the  Akesines,  which-.it  receives,  and  to  the  trunk  of  the  whole, 
the  Indus ;  when  the  fleet  moved  at  the  sound  of  the  trumpet. 
Nearchus  was  admiral,  Onesicritus  the  pilot  or  master;  and 
the  whole  forest  of  vessels,  having  its  movements  regulated  by 
the  voices  of  the  officers,  moved  majestically  down  the  stream. 
The  war  horses,  seen  through  the  lattice-work  of  the  sides  of 
the  vessels,  and  the  decks  covered  with  warriors,  struck  the 
Indians  with  astonishment  and  admiration.^  In  eight  days  the 
fleet  reached  the  confluence  of  the  Akesines,  where,  owing  to  a 
narrow  channel  and  high  banks,  rapid  and  strong  eddies  are 
formed,  which  were  attended  with  some  inconvenience  on  this 
occasion.  Being  unaccustomed  to  such  difficulties,  the  boat- 
men in  alarm  suspended  their  exertions  as  they  approached  this 
narrow  part  of  the  river ;  and  before  they  regained  their  Difficulties 
courage  two  of  the  galleys  or  long  vessels  fell  aboard  of  one 
another,  and  sunk  with  the  greater  part  of  their  crews ;  but  the 
shorter  and  round  vessels  were  more  fortunate." 

When  this  difficulty  was  passed,  and  the  eddies  were  less 
violent,  Alexander  brought  his  fleet  to  the  right  bank,  and 
having  made  an  excursion  to  the  westward  to  punish  the  Sibse, 
the  Sivi  or  Saivas,  he  recrossed  the  Akesines,  and  caused 
Nearchus,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  fleet,  to  descend  to  the 
country  of  the  Malli,  keeping  three  days  in  advance  of  the 
army.^  The  latter  having  in  the  meantime  been  joined  by  the 
corps  under  Craterus,  Hephsestion,  and  Philip,  the  advance 
took  place  as  before  in  three  divisions,  in  order  to  be  prepared 
for  an  enemy.  That  under  Hephsestion  was  five  days  in 
advance  of  Alexander,  and  the  third  under  Ptolemy  brought 
up  the  rear  at  three  marches  distance  to  collect  the  stragglers ;  They  reach 
the  whole  were  to  rendezvous  at  the  confluence  of  the  Hydraotes  of  the  Hy-^°'^ 
with  the  Akesines."  tkSLl^^ 

The  exterior  as  well  as  the  interior  sides  of  the  lower  parts 
of  these  rivers  were  occupied  by  the  Malli,  of  whom  a  trace  is 
supposed  to  be  found  in  Multan,  or,  as  it  is  still  called,,  Malli- 
than,  the  place  of  the  Malli  ;^    and,  having  learnt  that  this 

'  Arrian,  lib,  VI.,  c.  iv.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  iv.  and  v. 

*  Ibid.  ■•  Ibid.,  cap.  v. 

*  Burnes'  Travels,  vol.  iii.,  p.  114. 


336  CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  THE  MALLI.  [cHAP.  X. 

people  were  about  to  join  the  Oxydracse,  or  Suclrakas,  in  order 
to  oppose  him,  Alexander  determined  to  anticipate  the  junction 
of  these  formidable  tribes.  Accordingly,  on  approaching  the 
desert  on  their  frontier,  which  had  been  considered  an  effectual 
barrier,  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  equestrian  archers, 
with  half  the  auxiliary  horse,  the  targeteers,  archers,  &c.,  and 
making  a  lengthened  march  throughout  most  of  that  day  and 
the  succeeding  night,  by  the  direct  and  unexpected  route  of  the 
Desert  march  wildcmess,  he  fouud  the  Malli  so  little  prepared,  that  their 
Mal^L^"^*^  ^  principal  city  was  easily  taken.  Two  thousand  of  the  Malli 
who  took  refuge  in  the  castle  were  put  to  the  sword  ; '  and 
those  belonging  to  another  city  in  the  vicinity  having  fled,  they 
were  pursued  during  the  night;  some  were  overtaken,  and 
killed  on  the  banks  of  the  Hydraotes  about  daylight  next 
morning ;  -  whilst  others  crossed  the  river,  and  took  refuge  in 
a  strongly  fortified  town.  The  latter  place,  however,  was  pre- 
sently carried  by  assault,  and  all  being  either  killed  or  taken, 
Alexander  continued  his  cruel  and  exterminating  war,  by  lead- 
ing his  army  against  a  city  and  castle  of  Bramins,  in  which 
some  of  the  Malli  had  been  encouraged  to  take  refuge  ;  both 
were  stormed,  with  the  loss  of  5,000  of  the  Malli.^ 

The  next  object  was  the  most  populous  city  of  the  Malli, 
which  was  found  deserted  by  the  inhabitants,  who  to  the  number 
of  50,000  occupied  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Hydraotes.  The 
river  was  now  fbrdable,  and  Alexander  was  scarcely  mid-stream 
at  the  head  of  his  cavalry  when  the  Indians  retreated  before 
him.  But  he  was  on  the  point  of  paying  the  penalty  of  this 
rash  enterprise,  for,  on  seeing  that  he  was  not  supported  by 
infantry,  the  Malli  halted,  and  several  vigorous  charges  made 
by  Alexander  having  been  repulsed,  he  was  forced  to  practise 
the  Parthian  warfare  in  order  to  maintain  his  ground.  This 
gave  the  necessary  time  for  the  infantry  to  come  up  and  dis- 
perse the  Malli,  who  fled  into  an  adjoining  strong  city.  Thither 
he  pursued  them  with  his  cavalry,  and  prevented  their  escape 
till  the  infantry  came  up,  when  he  regularly  formed  the  siege  * 

'  Arriai),  lib.  VI.,  cap.  vi.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  vii.  '  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  viii.  — A  city  of  the  O-xydracse,  according  to  Quint.  Curt., 
ib.  IX.,  cap.  iv. 


CHAP.  X.]      EXTERMINATING  WARFARE  AGAINST  THE  MALLI.         337 

of  the  place  ;  but  here  the  career  of  the  matchless  Alexander 
had  almost  terminated.  Resting  for  the  remainder  of  the  day, 
the  next  morning  the  city  was  attacked ;  and  this  having  been  Assault  of 
carried,  some  of  the  army  proceeded  to  undermine  and  others 
to  scale  the  walls  of  the  citadel.  Alexander's  impatience  ill 
brooked  delay,  and,  seizing  a  ladder,  he  mounted  it,  protected 
by  his  shield,  being  closely  followed  by  Peucestas,  bearing  the 
sacred  buckler,  and  Leonatus ;  Abrias,  a  soldier  receiving 
double  pay  for  merit,  mounting  nearly  at  the  same  time  by 
another  ladder.  Alexander,  having  fixed  his  shield  on  the 
crest  of  the  Avail,  drove  some  of  the  defenders  headlong  from 
the  battlements,  and  others  being  slain  with  his  sword,  a  footing 
was  gained  on  the  wall,  which  Leonatus  and  the  two  others, 
by  great  efforts,  also  succeeded  in  obtaining,  just  as  the  over- 
loaded ladders  broke  down  in  consequence  of  the  eagerness  of 
the  Hypaspists  to  share  the  peril  of  their  intrepid  leader.  By 
this  time  Alexander's  splendid  armour  and  matchless  daring 
had  caused  the  enemy  to  make  him  the  object  of  every  missile 
that  could  be  brought  to  bear  from  the  neighbouring  towers  Perilous  ' 
and  w^alls ;  when,  after  a  moment's  consideration,  balancing  Alexander, 
between  his  guards  on  one  side,  who  implored  him  to  throw 
himself  backward  into  their  extended  arms,  and,  on  the  other, 
the  chance  of  appalling  the  barbarians  by  the  boldness  of  the 
deed,  he  leaped  down  into  the  citadel,  placing  his  back  against 
the  wall  that  he  might  the  more  readily  defend  himself. 
Determined  either  to  conquer  or  die  gloriously,  he  slew  some 
with  his  sword,  amongst  whom  was  the  Indian  governor,  and 
wounding  others  with  stones,  he  maintained  his  ground,  being 
presently  assisted  by  his  three  followers,  who  leaped  down  and 
fought  valiantly  to  save  him.^  Abrias  was  killed  by  an  arrow ; 
another  arrow  pierced  the  breastplate  of  Alexander,  and 
w^ounded  him  so  severely,  that  at  length  he  fell  forward  on  his 
shield  from  loss  of  blood.  He  was,  however,  defended  on  one 
side  by  Peucestas  with  the  sacred  shield,  and  on  the  other  by 
Leonatus ;  but  both  of  these  being  severely  wounded,  the  fate 
of  the  king  became  more  and  more  hopeless,  and  it  was,  in 
fact,  on  the  point  of  being  decided,  when  some  of  the  j\Iace- 
'  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  ix. 
VOL.  II.  Z 


338 


ALEXANDER  S  PERILOUS  SITUATION. 


[chap.  X. 


of  Alexander. 


donians  reached  the  spot,  and  encircled  their  beloved  general 
Dacring  rescue  at  the  very  instant  when  life  seemed  to  be  extinct.  Some  had 
effected  an  entrance  by  scaling  the  ramparts  with  the  assistance 
of  iron  pins  driven  into  the  face  of  the  walls,  others  effected 
the  same  object  by  hoisting  one  another  to  the  top,  a  larger 
body,  by  forcing  a  gate,  reached  the  inside ;  and  the  assailants 
having  glutted  their  revenge  by  putting  every  creature  to 
death,  they  bore  off  the  king  upon  his  sliield,  not  knowing 
whether  he  was  still  alive  or  dead.^ 

After  the  difficult  operation  of  cutting  out  the  head  of  the 
arrow,  there  was  a  gradual  improvement ;  and  in  the  course  of 
seven  days  Alexander  was  able  to  occupy  a  tent  on  two  boats 
lashed  together  for  this  purpose ;  in  this  state  he  was  conveyed 
down  the  river  to  the  camp  and  rendezvous  of  the  army,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Hydraotes  and  Akesines.  Finding  that  the 
report  of  his  death  had  produced  lamentation  and  despondency 
throughout  the  army,  he  first  showed  himself  on  a  couch,  and 
subsequently,  by  a  still  greater  effort,  he  appeared  on  horse- 
back, when  he  was  received  with  enthusiastic  cheers  by  the 
soldiers,  who  raised  their  hands  to  heaven,  with  tears  of  grati- 
tude gushing  from  their  eyes." 

During  his  tedious  convalescence,  the  Oxydracse  and  some 
unsubdued  portions  of  the  Malli  sent  their  submission,  with  an 
excuse  from  the  former  for  being  tardy,  and  the  latter  for  their 
protracted  resistance.^ 

Passing  through  the  territory  of  the  Oxydracse  as  far  as  the 
Indus,  he  ordered  a  town  with  docks  to  be  constructed  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Akesines  with  that  river,  and  then  dropped 
down  to  the  royal  palace  of  the  Sogdi.  From  thence  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  rich  dominions  of  king  Musicanus,  who  submitted, 
but  afterwards  gave  some  trouble,  as  did  Sabbas  or  Sambus,** 
the  prince  of  the  territory,  now  represented  by  Sinde ;  and, 
finally,  Alexander  halted  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  Delta, 
where  he  prepared  to  carry  out  his  project  for  commercially 
connecting  Europe  with  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia. 


His  conva- 
lescence ;  he 
reviews  the 
armj-. 


Alexander 
readies  the 
Delta  of  the 
Indus. 


'  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  x.,  xi. 
'  Ibid.,  cap.  xiii. 


"  Ibid.,  cap.  xii.,  xiii. 
■*  Ibid.,  cap.  xvi.,  xvii. 


(  339  ) 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MARCH  OF  ALEXANDER  FROM  THE  INDUS  TO  SUSA  AND  BABYLON  *, 
AND  VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS  TO  THE  FORMER  CITY. 

Preparations  for  the  return  of  the  Army  and  Fleet. — Projected  Trade  with 
India  as  the  basis  of  the  intended  Commerce. — Alexander  abandons  his 
purposed  Conquesfs  in  Eastern  India. — Descent  of  the  Indus  and  despatch 
of  Forces  under  Craterus  and  Hephaestion.  —  Alexander  crosses  the 
Desert. — Tlie  Difficulties  of  the  March. — He  reaches  Kirman. — Slow 
descent  of  Nearclms. — Halt  at  Karachee. — Advance  to  the  River  Arabius, 
and  along  the  coa<st  of  the  Oritae. — Voyage  to  Cape  'Arabaii,  the  Town 
of  Mosarna,  and  the  extremity  of  the  Coast  of  the  Ichthyophagi. — The 
Fleet  reaches  Cape  Jask  and  Harmozia. — Nearclius  meets  Alexander. — 
Voyage  continued  to  Diridotus  or  Teredon. — Ascent  of  the  Pasitigris  to 
Agines  and  Susa. — Ancient  and  modern  Distances  of  the  Voyage. — Games 
and  Sacrifices  at  Susa. — Asiatics  and  Europeans  to  be  united  by  Marriao-es 
and  other  means. — Discontent  of  the  Army. — The  general  employment  of 
Asiatic  Mercenaries. — Former  project  of  Commerce. — Geography  of  the 
Karxin  and  Kerkhah. — Alexander  ascends  the  Tigris  to  Opis. — Bunds  and 
Dikes. — Mutiny  at  Opis. — Alexander  goes  to  Susa. — Advance  across  the 
Zagros  into  Media. — Visit  to  the  Nisaean  Plains. — March  against  the 
Cossoci  and  to  Babylon. — Alexander's  preparations. — Reinforcements  of 
vessels  and  troops. — His  gigantic  projects,  and  Death. — Digression  on  tlie 
Course,  Risings,  Flooding,  &c.  of  the  Indus. 

Although  the  attention  of  the  historians  of  Alexander  has 
been  given  almost  exclusively  to  his  stirring  campaigns,  yet 
some  circumstances,  incidentally  mentioned  by  them,  go  far  to 
show  that  the  daring  achievement  now  about  to  be  noticed  had 
been  projected  by  him  previously  to  making  the  march  of 
9,265  miles,  which  we  have  just  followed  from  ancient  Tyre  to 
the  river  Hyphasis.'     The  first  step  in  establishing  the  great 

'  Tyre  to  Thapsacus 376  miles. 

Thapsacus  to  Susa     ......  806  „ 

Susa  to  Beghram 3,535  ,, 

Beghram  to  the  Jaxartes  .....  865  „ 
Return  to  Beghram,  including  various  marches 
during  the  campaigns   against  the  Sogdians, 

Hill  fort  of  Oxyarfa,  Aspii,  &c.  &c.        .         •  2,997  „ 

Beghram  to  the  Hyphasis           ....  686  „  ' 


9,265 
Z   2 


340         KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  EAST  BEFORE  ALEXANDER.    [CHAP.  XI. 


The  produc- 
tions of  India 
early  known 
in  the  West, 


Alexander 
acquainted 
with  them. 


line  of  commercial  intercourse  between  the  inhabitants  of  the 
far  east  and  those  of  the  west  seems  to  have  been  the  construc- 
tion of  the  city  at  the  foot  of  the  Amanus,  bearing  the  name  of 
Alexander,  and  the  next  consisted  in  building  the  Egyptian,  or 
second  Alexandria,  the  gigantic  project  having  no  doubt  been 
matured  as  the  conqueror  passed  through  Phoenicia.  A  faint 
light  only  had  previously  been  thrown  upon  the  geography  of 
India ;  yet  the  rich  productions  of  that  extensive  peninsula  were 
tolerably  well  known,  having  been  sought  for  ages  as  the 
choicest  objects  of  trade  in  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Egypt. 
From  the  booty  of  Gaza,  Alexander  sent  specimens  of  the  arts 
and  productions  of  the  East  as  presents  for  his  mother  and 
favourite  sister,  besides  the  balls  of  frankincense,  myrrh,  and 
other  aromatics,  already  mentioned'  as  having  been  sent,  with 
a  note  from  him  to  his  preceptor,  Leonidas ;  ^  from  which  it 
may  be  inferred  that,  during  his  boyhood,  the  king  had 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  countries  yielding  those  pro- 
ductions.^ Nor  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  inquiring  mind  of 
Alexander  was  early  directed  to  the  sources  of  the  wealth 
which  had  made  the  rock  of  Tyre  the  richest  mart  in  the  world- 
The  archives  at  Jerusalem  must  also  have  shown  that,  more 
than  fifteen  centuries  anterior  to  the  fall  of  the  cities  of  Gaza 
and  of  Tyre,  a  rich  land  trade  passed  through  this  very  terri- 
tory from  distant  countries  ;  and  that  upwards  of  six  centuries 
anterior  to  the  visit  of  Alexander  a  route  was  opened  by  sea 
with  the  same  countries.  There  were  other  sources  also  from 
which  information  might  be  derived  in  addition  to  the  parti- 
culars collected  from  Jews  and  Arabs,  for  the  expeditions  of 
knowkVe  ^'^  Scsostris,  Scmiraniis,  and  Darius  Hystaspes  would  necessarily 
furnish  additional  knowledge  of  the  regions  of  the  East,  more 
particularly  during  the  reign  of  the  last  sovereign,  when  Scylax 
descended  the  Indus,  and  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the 

'  Chap.  IX.,  p.  282. 

^  Plutarch  in  vita  Alex.,  p.  356. 

^  Among  these  may  be  reckoned  the  sweet  wood  or  cinnamon,  the  hakym 
nama  of  the  Singalese ;  while  of  manufactured  goods  he  may  have  seen  the 
hmsine  siridon,  or  hyssus,  fine  linen  or  muslin  (Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap. 
Ixxxvi.,  and  lib.  VII.,  cap.  clxxxi.),  and  the  produce  of  the  cotton  plant,  the 
karpas  of  Esther  (chap.  I.,  v.  6). 


CHAP.  XI.]  KNOWLEDGE  OF  INDIA  FKOM  CTESIAS.  341 

Arabian  Gulf  or  Red  Sea.'  Alexander  had,  moreover,  access 
to  the  work  of  Ctesias,  who  describes  the  manners,  customs, 
and  productions  of  India ;  and  he  must  have  learned  much 
from  the  Persians,  who  were  conterminous  with,  and  claimed 
part  ofi  the  territory  in  question. 

With  the  preceding  sources  to  guide,  and  a  geographical  A  commerce 
establishment,  that  of  his  engineers,  to  follow  out  the  inquiry  probabiy^con- 
in  detail,  it  is  not  going  too  far  to  presume  that  the  commerce  AkSder^^ 
as  well  as  the  conquest  of  India  formed  part  of  Alexander's 
original  project.     The  plan  of  the  conquest  no  doubt  gradually 
became  more  mature  as  Alexander  advanced ;  so  that,  although 
the  subjection  of  the  territory  near  the  Indus  and  the  descent 
of  that  river  might  have  been  the  objects  at  first  proposed,  yet 
fresh  information  on  the  spot  would  have  caused  the  extension 
of  the  plan,  had  not  the  army  refused  to  undertake  the  intended 
campaign  into  the  provinces  near  the  Ganges. 

Thwarted  in  his  purpose  of  descending  this  great  river,  and 
making  it  the  boundary  of  his  empire,  Alexander  at  once  gave 
way  as  if  to  reason,  and  reverted  to  his  previous  plan,  for  which 
vessels  had  already  been  prepared,  not  only  on  the  Indus,  but 
also  on  one  or  two  of  its  affluents,  particularly  in  the  country 
of  the  Xathri.^ 

The  tranquil  descent  of  the  Akesines,  as  has  been  shown.  His  intention 
was  interrupted  by  the  campaign  against  the  Malli  and  their  tiiie'^ind^.'"^ 
allies  the  Oxydracse,  and  again,  after  the  submission  of  both 
these,  by  other  tribes  who  were  not  disposed  to  be  guided  by 
the  renoMii  of  the  western  conqueror,  and  who  required  to 
feel,  ere  they  could  appreciate,  the  power  of  Alexander.  The 
chief  of  one  of  these  tribes,  namely,  Musicanus,  who  governed 
the  rich  country  of  that  name,  and  also  that  of  the  Brahmins, 
having  been  crucified  at  the  capital,^  and  Oxycanus  having 
submitted,  Alexander  was  free  to  renew  his  descent,  and  give 

'  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xliv. 

*  Somewhere  on  the  Cliin-ab,  or  Akesines,  as  the  boats  were  floated  along 
this  stream. 

^  Probably  the  ruins  of  Alore,  near  Bukhur. — Bnrnes,  vol.  III.,  p.  138, 
of  Royal  Geographical  Journal;  and  Ariana  Antiqua,  by  Professor  Wilson, 
p.  203. 


342  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  HOMEWARD  MARCH.       [cHAP.  XI. 

all  his  thoughts  to  the  accomplishment  of  his  extensive  com- 
binations by  land  and  water. 

With  regard  to  the  land  operations,  in  order  to  husband  the 
resources  of  the  country  by  having  several  lines  of  march, 
Craterus  was  despatched  with  the  elephants,  three  brigades  of 
the  phalanx,  and  with  the  inefficient  persons,  to  take  a  central 
line  through  the  countries  of  the  Drangse  and  Arachosians  to 
Kirman.  Previously,  however,  to  the  march  of  this  body  of 
troops,  Alexander  sailed  down  the  western  branch  of  the  Indus 
with  some  of  the  most  suitable  of  his  vessels,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  difficulties  caused  by  the  high  tides,  which  were  now 
greatly  increased  by  the  S.  W.  monsoon  causing,  on  the  reflux, 
a  violent  rush  of  water  called  a  bore,  he  passed  the  island  of 
He  sails  on  Cillutas,  near  Karachee  :  having,  with  two  or  three  vessels  only, 
the  indianSea.  pj.Qcee(jg(j  about  200  Stadia  into  the  open  sea,  and  sighting 
another  island,  he  returned  and  then  landed,  and  after  offering 
sacrifices  to  Neptune,  he  ascended  to  Pattala  and  gave  orders  for 
the  construction  of  a  haven  and  docks.^  He  then  passed  down 
the  lefl  or  eastern  branch,  and  with  some  biremes  and  triremes 
sailed  into  the  ocean :  returning  from  thence  he  examined  the 
coast  on  horseback,  and  ordered  another  harbour  to  be  con- 
structed on  one  side  of  a  spacious  lake ;  but  having  found  the 
western  branch,  especially  its  estuary,  more  suited  for  naviga- 
tion, he  returned  once  more  to  Pattala  to  superintend  the  con- 
struction of  the  basin  and  other  works  there. 
Nearchus  ap-  Depending  upon  the  zeal  and  fidelity  of  Nearchus,  who  was 
command  the  ^^  conduct  the  expedition  by  sea  as  soon  as  a  change  of  mon- 
expedition  by  gQQ^  would  permit,  the  army  was  put  in  motion  about  the 
beginning  of  September  ;  Hephsestion  leading  the  bulk  of  the 
forces  by  a  more  inland  route,  whilst  the  king  at  the  head  of 
the  targeteers,  the  archers,  and  most  active  troops,  kept  nearer 
the  coast ;  sinking  wells  occasionally  for  the  use  of  the  fleet 
being  the  main  object. 

Taking  a  westerly  direction  from  the  bifiircation  of  the 
Indus,  Alexander  appears  to  have  first  touched  the  sea  near 
the  estuary  of  the  river  Arabius,  a  little  way  eastward  of  Son- 

'  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xix.,  xx. 


sea. 


CHAP.  X[.]         COUNTRIES  OF  THE  ARABITiE  AND  ORITiE.  343 

meciny.     The  people,  the  Arabitae,  made  their  escape  into  the 
interior,  and  as  the  Orita?,  a  free  people  originally  from  India,  Alexander's 

A  1  ^         1         •  1        ^         pursuit  of  the 

followed  the  same  prudent  course,  Alexander,  leavmg  the  toot  Oritse. 
to  follow  at  more  leisure,^  divided  his  horse  into  several  parties 
that  they  might  cover  more  space  as  they  advanced,  and  pro- 
ceeded in  pursuit ;  many  of  the  fugitives  were  in  consequence 
either  slain  or  taken  prisoners."  Being  joined  at  the  next 
halting  place  by  the  corps  under  Hephsestion,  the  army  ad- 
vanced to  Rambacia.  At  this  large  village,  which  was  con- 
sidered the  capital,  Leonatus  was  left  with  a  force  to  keep  the 
Oritse  in  order,  also  to  construct  a  city,  and  collect  provisions 
to  assist  the  fleet,  and  here  he  remained  till  Nearchus  arrived 
at  the  port  of  Kokala.^ 

The  united  forces  afterwards  entered  the  desert  country  of  Productions  of 
the  Horites,*  now  the  Urhu,  and  doubtless  once  the  Oritse,  district.^ 
keeping  more  into  the  interior.  This  country  produces  a 
number  of  myrrh-trees  much  taller  than  elsewhere,  also  spike- 
nard, and  a  thorn  with  such  thick-set  prickles  that  hares  are 
caught  by  the  down  as  birds  are  taken  with  birdlime.^  With 
the  assistance  of  the  camel  a  tract  of  this  kind  may  be  traversed 
with  moderate  difficulty,  but  when  deprived  of  this  invaluable 
animal  a  forbidding  wilderness,  scantily  supplied  with  water/ 
becomes  really  formidable  to  an  army :,  and  accordingly  the 
march  from  the  borders  of  the  Oritee,  probably  by  Kedje  or 
Chodda,"  to  Bunpur  and  to  Pura  or  Pareg,  was  attended  with 
many  difficulties  and  great  privations ;  not  so  much  from  the 
nature  of  the  country,  as  because  Apollophanes,  the  satrap  of 
Gedrosia,  had  shamefully  neglected  his  duty  in  providing 
supplies  which,  although  thinly  peopled,  Gedrosia  might  have 
furnished.  The  supplies,  together  with  the  camels,  horses,  and 
mules,  which  were  brought  by  Stasanor  for  the  use  of  the  army, 
arrived  after  the  completion  of  the  march  across  the  desert. 

'  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxi.  "  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  xxi.,  xxii.,  and  Ind.,  chap,  xxiii. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  x. 

*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxii.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  x. 

*  For  a  description  of  these  desert  tracts,  see  vol.  I.,  pp.  78,  79  ;  and  for 
those  of  Mekran  and  Baluchistan,  vol.  I.,  pp.  178,  179,  184. 

^  See  vol.  I,  p.  179. 


344        ALEXANDER  CROSSES  THE  DESERT  OF  GEDROSIA.    fCHAP.  XI. 


Firmness  of 
Alexander. 


Distress  of  the  The  historian  tells  us  that  the  beasts  of  burthen  first  perished, 
desert!"  then  the  sick  or  weakly  persons,  and  lastly  a  portion  of  the 
army^  which,  as  might  be  expected  under  such  circumstances, 
had  become  disorganized.  The  influence  of  the  oflicers  had 
ceased,  and  even  the  semblance  of  Alexander's  authority  was 
nominally  preserved,  by  seeming  to  be  ignorant  of  those  irre- 
gularities which  could  not  be  remedied;  and  the  soldiers 
suffered  as  much  from  excess  when  supplies,  particularly  of 
water,  chanced  to  be  abundant,  as  from  scarcity. 

Alexander  met  these  diflaculties  with  his  usual  greatness  of 
mind ;  and  it  was  on  one  trying  occasion  that  the  well-known 
circumstance  occurred  of  pouring  into  the  sand  the  helmet-full 
of  brackish  muddy  water,  which  by  great  exertions  they  had 
collected  for  the  use  of  the  king.  The  succeeding  portion  of 
the  march  from  Pareg  was  accomplished  without  difficulty  to 
Kirnian,  where  Craterus  joined  the  king ;  after  making  the 
prescribed  detour  by  Arachosia  and  through  Drangiana,"  fol- 
lowing the  valley  of  the  Helmand  to  the  borders  of  lake  Zerrah, 
and  thence  in  a  south-westerly  direction  to  the  capital  of  the 
province. 

The  previous  campaigns  must  have  made  Nearchus  ac- 
quainted with  the  affluents  of  the  Indus,  and  his  stay  at  Pattala, 
as  well  as  the  explorations  by  Alexander,  would  naturally  give 
him  similar  information  regarding  the  trunk  itself;  which  in  all 
probability  was  almost  as  well  known  at  that  time  as  it  is  at 
present,  when  the  source  and  much  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
stream  have  still  to  be  explored. 

Nearchus  was  to  commence  his  voyage  after  the  change  of 
the  monsoon,  taking  with  him  the  largest  and  most  suitable 
vessels,  leaving  the  others  on  the  Indus,  where  from  the  use  of 
boats  it  is  evident  that  navigation  of  some  kind  must  previously 
have  existed  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  Alexander  was  aware  that 
the  Persian  Gulf  communicated  with  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
that  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers  Eulseus  and  Euphrates  might 
be  reached  by  the  fleet. 

Why  it  is  not  stated,  but  instead  of  delaying  a  couple  of 
months  for  the  favourable  season,  the  two  admirals,  after  burn- 
'  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  x.  ==  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  228. 


The  Indus 
known  in 
Alexander's 
time. 


CHAP.  X[.]  THE  FLEET  REACHES  PORT  ALEXANDER.  345 

ing  some  of  the  vessels  which  were  not  required/  quitted  the 
station  near  Pattala  early  in  October,  and  descended  the  Slow  passage 
western  arm  of  the  river  with  unaccountable  slowness,  con-  river, 
sidering  that  the  stream  had  been  previously  explored  by 
Alexander  himself  In  fact  only  nine  miles  were  made  during 
the  last  six  days  as  the  fleet  approached  Coreatis,  a  place  still 
within  the  estuary  ;  where  the  freshness  of  the  air,  the  mixture 
of  sweet  with  bitter  water,  and  the  surprising  periodical  eff'ects 
of  the  tide,  were  experienced,  of  which  such  a  natural  and  lively 
description  is  given  by  Quintus  Curtius.- 

Early  on  the  seventh  day,  however,  by  cutting  a  canal  of 
five  stadia  through  the  mud  along  the  western  side  of  the 
entrance,  the  vessels  passed  into  the  open  sea  without  being  The  ships  gain 
forced  to  encounter  the  heavy  surf  on  the  bar.  Once  clear  ^^^  ^^^^  ^*^^' 
of  this  difficult  river,  the  fleet  made  150  stadia  (from  Coreatis) 
to  the  sandy  island  of  Krokola^  at  the  commencement  of 
the  territory  of  the  Arabii.^  The  island  opposite  to  Karachee 
appears  to  correspond  with  this  station,  being  about  fourteen 
miles,  following  the  sinuosities,  from  the  Pili  mouth  of  the 
Indus.  The  modern  Karachee  is  situated  on  a  large,  commo- 
dious, and  safe  inlet,  capable  of  containing  vessels  of  two  or 
three  hundred  tons  burthen,  and  it  has  a  considerable  trade 
with  Kach'h,  Bombay,  and  the  Malabar  coast.  The  houses  of 
the  town  are  chiefly  composed  of  mud  and  sandstone,  forming 
very  narrow  streets ;  the  country  immediately  around  is  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  and  the  water  is  brackish;  but  corn  is 
brought  from  Haider-abad,  and  rice  from  Kach'h  and  the  coast 
of  Malabar.^  Thence,  after  remaining  one  day,  the  ships  pro- 
ceeded on  their  voyage,  having  the  mountain  Irus  on  their  right 
hand,®  and  a  low  flat  island  on  their  left;  and  going  through  the 
narrow  passage  thus  formed  they  came  to  a  safe  haven,  which, 
being  both  large  and  commodious,  was  named  Port  Alexander. 
Opposite  to  the  mouth  of  this  haven,  at  the  distance  of  two 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  Ivii.  ^  Lib.  IX.,  cap.  ix. 

^  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxi.  *  Arrian,  Ind.,  can.  xxi. 

*  Lieut.  Kemptliorne,  Indian  Navy,  vol.  V.,  p.  263,  of  Royal  Geographical 
Journal. 

*  In  the  interior,  w  estward  and  northward  oi  Karachee,  there  are  several 
mountain?,  one  of  which  no  doubt  represents  Irus. 


346  ISLAND  OF  BIBACTA  :    MOUTH  OF  THE  ARABIUS,   [CHAP.  XI. 

The  island  stadia,  there  is  an  island  called  Bibacta/ partly  sheltering  it ; 
and  as  the  Etesian  winds  (the  S.  W.  monsoon)  grew  very  bois- 
terous, blowing  directly  on  the  shore,  Nearchus  landed  his  men, 
when  surrounding  the  camp  with  a  stone  wall,  as  a  protection 
from  the  barbarians,  he  remained  twenty-four  days^  awaiting 
the  termination  of  the  monsoon ;  having  in  all  likelihood  found 
supplies  which  had  been  provided  by  Alexander. 

The  sheltered  anchorage  at  the  western  side  of  the  inlet  or 
bay  of  Karachee,  between  Cape  Tent  and  Munoora  Point,  seems 
to  answer  to  Port  Alexander,  which  is  sheltered  by  a  sandy 
island,  possibly  Bibacta,  and  the  passage  thither  at  high  tide 
inside  of  the  sandy  island  opposite  to  the  present  town  coin- 
cides with  the  description  of  Nearchus.  The  next  station  of  60 
stadia,  after  the  wind  abated,  was  the  desolate  island  of  Domas,^ 
probably  one  of  those  near  the  entrance  of  the  inlet ;  and  the 
succeeding  voyage  was  round  Munoora  Point  to  the  country  of 
Saranga ;  from  whence  it  is  300  stadia  to  the  commodious  haven 
of  Morontobara,*  probably  the  estuary  of  the  Bahur  river,  some 
distance  northward  of  Cape  Monze. 

Having  with  some  difficulty  gone  through  the  narrow  rocky 

entrance  of  this  harbour,  the  fleet,  with  the  assistance  of  the 

tide,  passed  through  a  narrow  channel  between  an  island,  pro- 

Ariivai  r.t  the  bably  Chulua,  and  the  main,  and  made  70  stadia;   120  stadia 

Arabius.         more  brought  the  vessels  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Arabius, 

where  was  found  a  large  and  safe  harbour,  but  no  fresh  water.* 

Sonme'ciny,  a  small  fishing  town  governed  by  a  sheikh,  marks 

p  V  rt  •  fth  ^^^^^  situation.     The    people   are    hospitable    but  poor,    living 

people.  chiefly  on  rice  and  dried  fish.     The  inlet  has  water  for  vessels 

of  one  or  two  hundred  tons,  and  is  sheltered  from  all  winds; 

but  there  is  an  extensive  bar  at  the  entrance  which  can  only  be 

passed  by  vessels  of  small  burthen  at  high  water.^     This  river 

separates  the  last  part  of  the  country  of  the  Arabitse  from  the 

Oritse :  these  last  are  clothed  and  armed  like  the  Indians,  but 

'  Bibaga,  Pliny,  lib,  VI.,  cap.  xxi.  -  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxi. 

'^  Perhaps  the  Torallibus  of  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxi. 
*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxii.  ^  Ibid. 

"  Lieut.  Kempthorne,  Indian  Navy,  vol.  V.,  p.  264,  of  Royal  Geographical 
.Journal. 


CHAP.  Xr.]  THE  FLEET  REACHES  THE  COAST  OF  THE  ORITiE.  347 

their  customs  and  manners  appear  to  be  different  from  those  of 
their  neighbours.' 

Sailing-  about  200  stadia  along  the  coast  of  the  Oritai,  the 
fleet  anchored  near  the  island  of  Pagala,  and  from  thence  430 
stadia  more  brought  it  to  Kabana,  where  the  anchorage  being  The  fleet 

vj.i  1  ii.1*  J.  v'l  encounters  a 

bad,  three  vessels  were  lost  durmg  a  storm  which  was  encoun-  storm  at 
tered.    From  hence  200  stadia  were  made  to  Kokala,  probably  ^'*^^"^- 
the  existing  Mahee  Makace,  and  the  port  of  Rambacia  or  Alex- 
andria,^ the  capital  of  the  Oritai  country,   where  Alexander 
ordered  a  colony  to  be  established.^     Here  were  found  supplies 
which  had  been  left  by  Alexander,  also  the  corps  under  Leo- 
natus,  who  had  defeated  the  Oritse  and  their  allies  with  the  loss 
of  6,000  men."*     At  this  place  the  fleet  was  refitted,  and  those 
men  who  were  unwilling  to  bear  the  fatigue  and  exertions  of  the 
voyage  were  replaced  by  others  sent  by  Leonatus  f  for  as  the 
perils  of  the  sea  were  more  dreaded  than  those  of  the  land,  no 
doubt  the  latter  was  the  favourite  service.     After  a  rest  of  ten  Arrives  at  the 
days  the  voyage  was  resumed,  and  having  the  benefit  of  the    °™*^'''^^- 
N.  E.  or  favourable   monsoon,  the  fleet  made  500  stadia  in 
one  day  to  the  river  Tomerus,^  probably  the  Hingol  river, 
whose  estuary  forms  a  kind  of  lake  near  the  shore."     Here  the 
landing  was  opposed ;  but  the  natives  being  defeated,  and  many 
of  them  captured,  the  fleet  remained  six  days  refitting  among 
the  shaggy  and  wild-looking  barbarians,^  who   occupied  low 
huts  supported  by  fish-bones.     Another  stage  of  600  stadia 
brought  it  to  Malana  or  Hormarah  (Ras  Malm),  the  western 
limits  of  the  Oritse,  now  the  Urhu  tribe,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  Gedrosia,  as  well  as  the  territory  of  the  Ichthyophagi.'' 
A  stage  of  60  miles  brought  the  fleet  to  Bagasira,  a  haven 
capable  of  receiving  it,  and  having  the  village  of  Pasira  at 
about  60  stadia  from  the  shore.'"     The  bay  is  now  known  by  Tiie  bay  of 
the  name  of  'Arabah  or  Hormarah  :  it  is  deep  and  commodious,  '^•■^^^^• 
with  good  anchorage,  well  sheltered  except  from  the  southward 

'  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxv.  *  Pliiy?  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. 

^  Arrian,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxi.  ^  Ibitl.,  cap.  xxiii. 

*  Ibid.  '^  Tonderan.— Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. 

^  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxiv.  "  Ibid.,  cap.  xxv. 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  XXV.,  xxvi.  '"  Ibid. 


348         THE  FLEET  ARRIVES  AT  KALAMA  AND  KARNINE.    [CHAP.  XI. 

and  eastward.^  Rather  a  large  fishing  village  (once  Pasira)  is 
situated  on  a  low  sandy  isthmus,  forming  another  bay  on  the 
western  side  of  the  promontory,  now  Cape  'Arabah.  The 
people,  who  are  Baluches,  have  little  trade  and  are  very  poor, 
Dwellings  of  living  chiefly  in  huts  of  cajan^  sticks,  covered  with  date-tree 
leaves ;  they  are  hospitable,  and  have  some  goats,  fowls,  and 
dried  fish,  but  melons  are  the  only  thing  grown.^ 

After  halting  one  day,  the  fleet  sailed  round  the  adjoining 

high  and  rugged  promontory,  and  having  gained  200  stadia  it 

came  to  Kolta,  whence  departing  at  day-light  it  made  600 

The  fleet        stadia  morc  to  the  village  of  Kalama,  where  were  found  some 

Kaiamaand    datcs   and   grccu  figs.     Here  there  was  an  island  about  100 

Karnine.        Stadia  froui  the  shore,  called  Karnine,   where  Nearchus  was 

hospitably  entertained,  receiving  presents  of  cattle  and  fish.    But 

the  former,  says  Nearchus  (probably  sheep),  eat  fishy,  not  much 

unlike  sea-fowl,  being  fed  upon  fish,"*  there  being  no  grass  upon 

the  island.     Ashtola,  a  desolate  island  of  about  five  miles  in 

circumference,  and   twelve   miles  from  the  coast  of  Mekran, 

represents  this  station:   it  is  inaccessible  except  at  one  place 

where  there  is  a  sandy  beach,  being  surrounded  by  cliffs  rising 

abruptly  about  300  feet;  latterly  it  was  a  rendezvous  of  the 

Jawasimi  pirates.^ 

Making  200  stadia  from  Karnine,  the  fleet  put  to  shore  on 
the  coast  of  Karbis,  not  far  from  the  inland  village  of  Cysa  or 
Kysa,  where  were  found  some  small  boats  belonging  to  poor 
fishermen  who  had  fled,  but  no  corn.  From  thence,  sailing 
round  a  high  rocky  promontory,  now  Passense,  running  150 
stadia  into  the  sea,  the  fleet  came  to  the  safe  fishing  haven  of 
A  Gedrosian    Mosama,  whcrc  was  obtained  a  Gedrosian  pilot,  who  engaged 

pilot  obtained.  ... 

to  conduct  them  safely  to  the  coast  of  Carmania,  with  which 
doubtless  this  port  had  commercial   intercourse.''     Under  the 

'  Lieut.  Kempthorne,  Indian  Navy,  vol.  V.,  pp.  264,  265,  of  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Journal.  ^  Cytisus  cajau.     Ibid. 
=*  Ibid. 

*  In  many  places,  both  here  and  in  Arabia,  the  cattle  are  fed  entirely  on 
dried  fish  and  dates  mixed  together. — Lieut.  Kempthorne,  Indian  Navy, 
vol.  v.,  p.  270,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal.     Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxvi. 

*  Ibid  ,  and  vol.  V.,  p.  266,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
"  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxvii. 


CHAP.  XI.]     THE  FLEET  REACHES  THE  COAST  OF  GEDROSIA.  349 

guidance  of  the  Gedrosian,  the  fleet  made,  in  one  stage  of  750 
stadia,  the  coast  of  Balonius,  and  from  thence  another  of  400 
stadia  brought  it  to  Barna,  a  village  with  palm  and  other  fruit 
trees,  also  myrtles  and  various  flowers.  In  another  stage  of 
200  stadia  it  reached  Dendrobosa,  and  400  stadia  onward  the 
haven  of  Kophas  or  Kophanta.  This  was  probably  the  bay 
westward  of  Ras  Gwadel ;  and  it  appears  to  have  been  a  large 
fishing  station,  where  the  people  had  slight  boats  with  paddles, 
which  were  used,  says  Arrian,  as  diggers  do  their  spades.' 

Making   800  stadia   from   thence,  the  fleet  anchored  near  The  fleet 
Kyiza,  which  being  a  barren  rocky  coast,  it  proceeded  onward  Kyiza^^  ^ 
without  landing ;  and  having  by  fraud  surprised  a  small  town, 
situated  on  a  hill,   probably  at  or  near  Gwutter  bay,  there  was 
obtained  a  small  supply  of  corn,  and,  what  was  more  common, 
some  meal  made  of  dried  fish  ground  to  powder.^     Thence  the 
fleet  proceeded  to  the  rock  or  island  of  Bagia,  probably  Ras- 
Briefs,  and  onward,  1,000  stadia  from  thence,  to  the  commodious 
haven  of  Talmoua,  where  the  crews  were  permitted  to  land. 
This  seems  to  coincide  with  the   existing  bay  of  Charbar  or  Taimona  pro- 
Choubar,  in  which  there  is  a  walled  town  of  the  former  name,  presJn?Bay 
subject  to  the  Imam  of  Mask  at,  and  having  an  extensive  trade  °^^^^^^'^''' 
with  different  parts  of  India,  which  is  chiefly  carried  on  by 
Banian  merchants.     It  contains  about  1,500  inhabitants,  living 
in  meanly-built  houses,  chiefly  mud,  with  flat  roofs.    The  streets 
are  narrow  and  dirty,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  some  date  groves, 
also  a  few  fields  producing  corn  and  vegetables.^ 

At  400  stadia  from  thence  the  fleet  came  to  the  ruined  city 
of  Kanasis,  where  there  was  found  a  well  and  some  palm  trees; 
and  sailing  all  night  and  the  day  following  along  a  barren  coast 
to  Kanates,  it  anchored,  the  crews  being  unable  to  land  for  the 
usual  purpose  of  cooking  and  refreshing  themselves :  it  then 
made  750  stadia  to  the  country  of  the  Traesi,  which  contained  The  fleet 
some  poor  villages,  with  a  little  corn  and  some  dates,  and  here  ?^nt?y^onhe 
the  followers  of  Nearchus  captured  or  plundered  seven  camels/  ^^^^^ 

'  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxvii.  -  Ibid.,  cap.  xxviii. 

"  Lieut.  Kemptliorne,  Indian  Navy,  vol.  V.,  p.  271,  of  Royal  Geographical 
Journal, 

*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxix. 


350         THE  FLEET  GAINS  THE  MOUTH  OF  THE  ANAINHS.      [cHAP.  XI. 

The  next  stage  of  300  stadia  brought  the  fleet  to  Dagasira, 
a  town  frequented  by  herdsmen,  and  in  another  of  1, 100  stadia 
it  reached  the  extreme  limits  of  the  Ichthyophagi.  According 
The  coast  of  to  the  prcscut  voyagc  this  coast  extends  10,000  stadia;  Strabo 
Sfa^f**^^"'  gives  it  only  7,400  stadia,  and  the  distance  on  the  charts  is  but 
449  miles.  At  present,  as  in  the  time  of  Nearchus,  fish,  both 
fresh  and  reduced  to  meal  when  dry,  forms  a  large  part  if  not 
the  whole  sustenance  of  the  people,  as  well  as  of  their  cattle.^ 

On  reaching  Badis,  a  port  of  Moghostan,  towards  the 
southern  extremity  of  Kirman,  which  appears  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  town  of  Jask,  near  the  well-known  cape  of  that 
name,  Nearchus  found  stores  of  vines  and  corn,  with  plenty  of 
fruit  trees,  except  olives.  Passing  Bambarak,  or  Kove  Mubar- 
rack,  named  by  Nearchus  the  second  mount  of  Semiramis, 
and  having  made  800  stadia,  the  fleet  anchored  opposite  the 
Arabian  promontory,  called  Maceta,^  now  Coomza,  and  the 
adjoining  small  island  of  Bas  Musendom.  Next  day  the  fleet 
The  fleet  entered  the  Gulf  of  Persia ;  and  going  along  the  northern  shore 
Persian  Gulf,  by  Ncoptaua,  now  Karroon,^  a  fishing  village,  it  made  800 
stadia  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Anamis,^  where  uncertainty  as 
to  his  voyage,  and  the  chief  difiiculties  in  accomplishing  it, 
were  at  an  end. 

More  powerful  incentives  to  a  great  undertaking  can  scarcely 
be  imagined  than  those  which  influenced  Nearchus.  After 
being  selected  in  preference  to  all  others  by  the  king,  he  re- 
ceived instructions  in  person  to  carry  out  an  enterprise  which 
the  monarch  had  previously  destined  for  himself,  as  the  last 
and  greatest  object  to  complete  his  vast  undertakings,  and 
there  was  from  time  to  time  during  the  voyage  the  animating 
incitement  of  endeavouring  to  keep  pace  with  the  parallel 
movement  of  the  king.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  difficulties 
were  sufficient  to  outweigh  all  these  considerations,  and  deter 
almost  any  other  commander.     The  vessels  could  only  carry  a 

'  Lieut.  Kempthorne,  Indian  Navj^,  vol.  V.,  p.  270,  of  Royal  Geograpliical 
Journal ;  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxix. 
*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxii. 

"  Vol.  V.  of  Koyal  Geograpliical  Journal,  p.  273. 
■'  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxiii. 


v. 


CHAP.  XI.]    NATURE  AND  DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  UNDERTAKING.     351 

limited  vSiipply  of  provisions,  for  four  or  five  days  at  most;  and 
the  want  of  more  than  sitting  space  for  the  rowers,  rendered  it 
absolutely  necessary  that  they  should  have  daily  opportunities 
of  taking  refreshment  on  shore ;  and  supplies  even  of  water 
were  very  doubtful. 

But  notwithstanding  these  serious  considerations,  the  admiral  Boldness  ot 
did  not  hesitate  to  venture  into  an  unknown  sea,  rowing  from  comlucting" 
one  headland  to  another  of  a  strange  coast,  which,  in  case  of  "'^ '^■"y^se- 
the  requisite  supplies  being  obtained,  might  or  might  not  con- 
duct the  fleet  to  its  destination  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Owing,  as  has  been  seen,  to  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
seasoUvS,  Nearchus  was  exposed  for  some  weeks  to  the  S.  W. 
monsoon,  at  a  period  when  the  coast  is  even  now  considered 
impracticable.  But  he  hauled  up  at  one  moment,  and  per- 
severed at  another,  till  he  joined  Leonatus  on  the  coast  of  the 
Oritae.  Subsequently  all  assistance  ceased,  and  all  communi- 
cation with  the  army,  so  much  so  as  to  induce  a  suspicion  that, 
being  no  longer  under  the  eye  of  Alexander,  the  voyage  had  The  voyage 
become  in  some  measure  predatory;  but,  how^ever  this  may  havrbeen"in 
have  been,  trusting  to  his  own  resources  in  digging  wells  and  p^""' predatory. 
collecting  provisions,  the  admiral  conducted  his  fleet  to  Har- 
mozia,  a  city  situated  in  an  agreeable,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  olive,  a  fruitful  country.  Here  there  was  abundance, 
instead  of  the  scanty  supplies  previously  obtained  with  such 
difficulty ;  and  to  his  great  surprise  Nearchus  learnt  from  a 
Greek,  who  had  strayed  to  the  coast,  that  the  king  was  at 
Salmonte,^  at  no  great  distance  from  thence.  It  is  difficult  to 
account  for  the  conduct  of  the  admiral  on  this  occasion,  for 
having  ascertained  fi-om  the  prefect  that  the  intelligence  was 
correct,  instead  of  either  going  in  person  or  immediately  send- 
ing a  report  to  the  king,  Nearchus  hauled  up  his  fleet  on  the 
banks  of  the  Anamis  or  ISIinnow,  and  secured  it  by  constructing 
a  double  rampart  with  a  deep  ditch,  which  could  be  filled  from 
the  river.  During  these  defensive  preparations,  the  prefect 
proceeded  to  the  camp  of  Alexander,  and  Nearchus  was  ordered 
to  report  his  voyage  in  person ;  when,  after  a  journey  of  five 
days  on  foot,  he  and  his  followers  arrived  with  untrimmed 
'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  Iviii. 


352       NEARCHUS  MEETS  ALEXANDER  :  MARCH  RESUMED.    [CHAP.  XI. 


Nearchus  re- 
ceived by 
Alexander. 


The  fleet 
arrives  at 
Ormuz. 


The  admiral 
visited  by 
Mazanes, 


beards,  and  were  scarcely  recognizable,  owing  to  their  soiled 
clothing  and  their  sun-burnt,  swarthy,  and  emaciated  bodies. 
They  found  Alexander  and  the  army  enjoying  a  luxurious  rest 
after  the  difficulties  of  the  desert  march. 

The  reception  of  the  admiral,  according  to  his  own  narrative, 
was  most  flattering ;  for  it  is  said  that  with  tears  of  joy  Alex- 
ander declared  that  the  preservation  of  the  fleet  was  more 
acceptable  than  the  conquest  of  Asia  itself,  and  that  Nearchus 
should  not  be  exposed  to  any  fresh  toils  and  hazards.^ 

The  latter  circumstance,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  forti- 
fications round  the  fleet,  and  the  despatch  of  messengers  to 
bring  Nearchus  to  the  camp,  would  imply  that  all  had  not  been 
right  during  this  remarkable  undertaking ;  but,  whether  Near- 
chus avoided  communication  with  the  king,  fearing  to  be 
questioned  concerning  the  events  of  his  voyage,  or  from  other 
motives,  the  request  that  he  might  be  allowed  to  preside  over 
the  fleet  till  it  reached  Susa  was  granted.  Nearchus  being 
despatched,  offered  sacrifices  at  Harmozia  to  Jupiter  the  pre- 
server, and  on  the  1st  January,  325  B.C.,  proceeded  by  Organa, 
now  Ormuz."  The  fleet  made  300  stadia  to  another  island 
(Oaracta),^  larger,  well  inhabited,  and  fully  800  stadia  in 
length :  and  at  this  place  arrived  Mazanes,  the  governor,  who 
offered  his  services,  probably  by^  command  of  Alexander,  to 
share  and  control  the  authority  of  the  admiral.  From  thence 
the  fleet  sailed  200  stadia  along  the  southern  shore  to  another 
port  on  the  same  island.  Passing  an  island  sacred  to  Neptune, 
now  called  Angar  or  Angam,^  the  fleet  encountered  a  storm, 
and  was  much  exposed  on  what  is  now  Bassadore  bank,*^  till 
with  great  difficulty  the  ships  got  into  deep  water:  it  then 
made  400  stadia  to  another  island,  probably  the  Little  Tomb. 
From  hence,  leaving  Pylora,  now  Polior,  on  the  left  hand,  the 
fleet  arrived  at  Sidoddne,  a  small  town,  probably  represented 
either  by  Duaii  or  the  fishing  village  of  Mogoo, '  both  situate  in 


'  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxv.  ^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  229. 

"  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii.  *  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxvii. 

'•'  INIore    properly  Hinjiini  or  Hanjam,  vol.   V.,  p.  279,  of  Koyal   Geo- 
graphical Journal. 

«  Ibid.,  p.  280.  "  Ibid. 


CHAP.  XI.]  THE  FLEET  REACHES  THE  PORT  OF  SITAKUS.  353 

a  bay  of  the  same  name,  and  now,  as  in  the  time  of  Nearchus, 

only  afFordinp:  fish  and  water.     From  thence  the  fleet  sailed  The  fleet 

T  1  p  m        •  r^  r~i  rounds  Cape 

300  stadia  to  the  promontory  of  Tarsias,  now  Cape  Certes  or  Certes,  and 
Has  Jerd ;  and  from  thence  it  made  300  stadia  to  Cata,^a,  a 
barren  rocky  island  at  the  extremity  of  Carmania,  which  is 
sacred  to  Mercury  and  Venus ;  probably  Kenn  or  Keis,  an 
island  next  in  importance  to  Kishm.^  Proceeding  onward  40 
stadia  the  fleet  came  to  a  place  upon  the  Persian  shore  called 
Has,  now  Chiroo,  opposite  to  which  was  the  island  of  Caican- 
drus,  which  forms  a  haven,  now  the  channel  inside  of  Inderabia, 
or  Hinderabi,  an  island  almost  without  cultivation."  Nearchus 
next  arrived  at  an  inhabited  island  where  he  says  pearls  are 
found,  now  Busheab ;  and  40  stadia  from  this  station  the  fleet 
entered  a  convenient  harbour  supposed  to  be  that  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  same  island.^  From  thence  the  fleet  sailed  to 
Ochus,  a  high  mountain  promontory,  probably  Kas  Nabend,  arrives  at  the 
where  it  found  a  safe  haven  inhabited  by  fishermen,  now  called  soioo. 
the  bay  of  Alsaloo. 

Proceeding  onward  400  stadia  the  fleet  reached  Apostani,  a 
harbour  in  which  they  found  many  ships  at  anchor,  and  where 
there  was  a  village  60  stadia  from  the  shore.^  This  haven  is 
probably  represented  by  the  bay  of  Congoon,  on  the  western 
side  of  Cape  Berdistan  or  Verdistan ;  the  next  station,  called  a 
noted  bay,  with  many  villages  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,^  seems 
to  be  that  formed  between  Monsaly  island  and  Has  Monsaly. 
Thence  the  fleet  passed  on  about  600  stadia  further,  and 
anchored  at  the  mouth  of  the  brook  of  Areon  in  the  country 
of  Gogana,  which  most  likely  is  represented  by  the  existing 
small  town  of  Cogoon.  The  next  station,  about  800  stadia 
from  thence,  was  Sitakus,  where  the  fleet  found  plenty  of  corn 
and  other  supplies  which  the  king  had  provided  for  their  use ; 
and  being  a  safe  harbour,  the  ships  remained  twenty-one  days  The  ships  refit 
to  repair  and  refit.*     This  station  no  doubt  is  represented  by  ^ow  Ab^' 

Shehr. 

'  Vol.  v.,  p.  279,  of  Royal  GeographicalJournal ;  and  see  above,  vol.  I., 
p.  230. 

*  Lieut.  Keinptliorne,  vol.  V.,  p.  281.  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal, 
^  Ibid.  ■*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxviii. 

*  Ibid.  «  Ibid. 

VOL.  n.  2  A 


354 


XEARCHUS  REACHES  THE  RIVER  AROSIS.  [CHAP.  XI. 


Sitakus  or       the  well-knowii  port  of  Abii  Shehr  or  Bushire,^  which  being  the 
"^  ^^^'         only  safe  haven  on  this  part  of  the  coast,  was  on  this  account 
chosen  for  this  important  object  by  Alexander  himself 

Advancing  from  thence,  the  fleet  made  750  stadia  to  Hierates, 
a  place  well  inhabited,  and  having  a  canal  called  Heratemis,  in 
which  the  fleet  was  accommodated  f  probably  the  present  Bander 
Eeicht.  Sous  Poshoon,  or  Cape  Bang,  appears  to  represent 
the  peninsula  of  Mesambria,  near  the  river  Podargus  ;  and 
Cool-baud-creek  seems  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  another  station, 
at  about  200  stadia  distance,  called  Taoce,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Granis ;  at  which  there  is  a  palace  of  the  Persian 
monarch  200  stadia  from  the  coast.^  Two  hundred  stadia  on- 
ward, the  fleet  reached  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eagonis,  where 
it  found  a  safe  haven,*  possibly  one  of  the  two  Khdrs,  a  little 
way  eastward  of  Eas  el  Tombe ;  and  from  thence  it  made 
400  stadia  to  the  mouth  of  the  Brizana  river.^  From  this 
spot,  most  likely  Bander  Delem,  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
tide,  the  fleet  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arosis,  which  being 
the  largest  river  met  by  Xearchus,  and  having  the  Persian 
territories  on  one  side,  with  those  of  Susiana  on  the  other,  is 
doubtless  represented  by  the  Tab  or  Indian.^ 
Intricacy  of  The  difliculties  previously  encountered  in  navigating  the  low 
the  coast  "of  alluvial  coast  of  Susiana  greatly  increased  from  hence,  and  are 
made  prominent  in  the  narrative  of  the  admiral,  who  mentions 
the  use  of  huge  posts,  and  pieces  of  timber,  to  guide  the  vessels 
through  these  intricate  channels  J  We  also  perceive,  and  it  may 
also  be  inferred,  that  a  separate  independent  government  pre- 
vailed in  this  territory,  like  that  of  the  Sheikh  of  Chaab  at 
present.* 

About  500  stadia  from  the  estuary  of  the  Arosis,  the  fleet 
anchored  at  the  mouth  of  a  lake  called  Kataderbis,  which  was 
well  stored  with  fish,  and  had  a  small  island  called  Margastana 
lying  opposite.     The  fishing  inlet  called  Khor  Miisa,   and  the 

'  See  above,  vol.  I,,  p.  209.  *  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xxxix. 

=*  Ibid.  ••  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.  "  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  202. 
^  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xli. 

*  The  Susians  live  according  to  tlieir  own  laws. — Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xl. ; 
see  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  202. 


Susiana. 


CHAP.  XI.]  NEARCHUS  REACHES  DIRIDOTIS.  355 

island  of  Derail,  as  well  as  the  narrow  channels,  appear  to  cor- 
respond ;  and  the  distance  on  the  map,  of  thirty  miles  by  the 
windings,  is  nearly  three-fifths  of  that  given  by  Nearchus,  or 
about  the  general  pro])ortion  between  the  positive  and  the  com- 
puted distances  of  this  part  of  the  voyage. 

From  Kataderbis  the  fleet  advanced  through  narrow  channels  Termination 

n       ^^^  ,.  11,  •         •         -1      of  the  voyage. 

in  the  same  direction  for  600  stadia,  no  doubt  experiencing  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  keeping  clear  of  the  Alio  Meidan  bank, 
and  not  daring  to  put  into  any  port  for  the  crews  to  refresh 
themselves.  Keeping  off  the  shore  that  night  and  all  the  next 
day,  it  made  300  stadia,  or  900  in  all,  and  from  Kataderbis'  it 
came  to  a  small  village  in  the  Babylonian  territories  named 
Diridotis  (Teredon) ;  and  thus  was  completed  one  of  the  most 
daring  voyages  on  record.  The  port  at  which  they  had  arrived 
was  not  unknown,  being  frequented  by  the  Arabian  merchants 
who  transported  thither  their  frankincense  and  other  spices  for 
sale.  The  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  Babylon 
was  estimated  at  3,300  stadia,  or  330  miles  f  by  the  Euphrates 
itself  it  would  be  about  354  miles,  or  nearly  74  more  than  by  the 
Pallacopas,  which  is  280  miles,  including  the  distance  along  the 
Euphrates  from  its  second  or  lower  head  to  Hillah.  The  fleet, 
in  following  the  windings  of  the  channel,  might  be  carried  much 
beyond  the  Shatt  el  'Arab,  which  is  easily  missed,  and  thus  it 
might  have  reached  the  supposed  mouth  of  the  Pallacopas  oppo- 
site to  the  island  of  Boobian.  It  is  probable  that  the  channel 
westward  of  the  latter  was  the  passage  used  by  the  vessels  pass- 
ing from  Gerrha  to  Teredon.  The  site  of  the  latter  city,  the  Teredon  sup- 
supposed  work  of  Nebuchadnezzar,^  is  presumed  to  be  at  Jebel  jebei  Sanlm. 
Saucim,  a  gigantic  mound  near  the  Pallacopas  branch  of  the 
Euphrates.  This  spot  is  about  23  miles  S.S.AV,  of  Basrah,  13 
or  14  S.  by  W.  of  Zobeir,  and  nearly  18  miles  N.W.  of  the  sup- 
posed estuary  opposite  the  island  of  Boobian,  near  the  Khdr 
'Abd-ullah  ;  but  at  the  time  in  question  the  latter  may  have  been 
near,  or  even  have  touched  Jebel  Sanam. 

At  Diridotis,  Nearchus  received  a  messenger  bringing  news 
of  the  approach  of  Alexander,  wherefore  the  fleet  steered  soine- 

'  Arrian,  Tnd.,  cap.  xli.  °  Ibid. 

'  Eusebius,  from  Abydenus,  apud  Grotium,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi. 

2  A  2 


356  NEARCHUS  ASCENDS  TO  SUSA.  [CHAP.  XI. 

what  backward  in  order  that  it  might  sail  by  the  river  Pasitigris 
to  meet  the  army.^ 

We  are  told^  that,  keeping  the  comitry  of  Susa  on  their  left 
hand,  they  passed  through  the  lake  by  which  the  Tigris  empties 
itself,  and  thence  600  stadia  onward  to  a  village  of  the  Susians 
called  Agines,  which  is  500  stadia  from  Susa.^  Now  the  latter 
The  Pasitigris  territory  would  have  been  equally  on  the  left,  whether  Diridotis 
the  K^niu^  ^  wcrc  situatcd  on  the  Pallacopas  or  on  the  Shatt  el  'Arab,  and 
there  would  have  been  the  same  necessity  for  the  fleet  "  to  steer 
somewhat  backward,"  in  order  to  enter  the  Pasitigris  ;  whose  posi- 
tive geography,  if  this  river  be  represented  by  the  river  Kariin, 
will  be  found  to  correspond  with  the  movements  of  the  fleet. 

The  bed  of  the  lake,  once  formed,  according  to  Polybius, 
by  the  Choaspes,  Eulgeus,  and  Tigris,  may  still  be  traced."* 
It  extended  over  most  part  of  the  country  lying  between  Diri- 
dotis and  Agines  (Ahwaz),  and  its  waters  were  discharged  by 
the  separate  channels  of  the  Euphrates,  or  rather  by  the  Shatt 
Former  bed  of  el  'Arab  and  Karun.  The  old  bed  of  the  Kariin  exists  below 
the  site  of  the  lake ;  and,  no  doubt,  served  the  fleet  in  ascend- 
ing to  the  latter,  whose  waters  appear  to  have  terminated  600 
stadia  from  Agines,^  or  about  the  existing  village  of  Ismaili ; 
where,  in  fact,  the  ground  becomes  a  little  more  elevated. 
Agines  itself  is  stated  to  be  500  stadia  from  Susa,  and  the  sup- 
posed site  of  Ahwaz  is  42  miles  from  thence  by  the  air  line,  and 
47  miles  along  one  of  the  ancient  beds  of  the  Shapiir,  following 
its  supposed  course  from  Susa  till  it  met  the  Kariin  at  Ahwaz.® 
On  receiving  fresh  news  of  the  king's  approach,  which  seems 
to  have  occurred  after  ascending  the  lower  part  of  the  Pasitigris, 
Nearchus  continued  his  voyage  to  the  bridge,  newly  built  for 
The  fleet  the  king's  forces  to  pass  towards  Susa,  where  he  met  part  of  the 
Siia?  "^  °  army.  In  obedience  to  orders,  Nearchus''  proceeded  to  wait 
upon  the  king  at  Susa,  probably  going  by  land,  as  the  passage 
of  the  fleet  is  not  mentioned ;  but  being  afterwards  at  the  city, 

'  Arrian,  Intl.,  cap.  xlii.  *  Ibid.  ^  Ibid. 

*  Ainsworth's  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  p.  19i.     Parker,  1838. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  193;  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xlii. 

«  See  above,  vol.  I.,  pp.  198,  199. 

^  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  v.,  and  Ind.,  cap.  xlii. 


■f<..¥ 


CHAP.  Xr.]  ALEXANDER  ADVANCES  FROM  KIRMAN.  357 

it  must  have  ascended  either  by  the  ancient  Shapiir  or  Shawer 
river,  or  else  by  the  canal  of  the  Shatt  el  ]\Iaktiiah  (cut  river), 
which  once  connected  the  rivers  Kerkhah  and  Kariin.^ 

The  distances  given  by  the  admiral  in  his  account  of  the  Comparative 

„  ,       ^     ,  ,  .  .  .  ^.distances. 

voyage  irom  the  Indus,  only  approxnnate  in  two  portions  oi 
the  coast,  and  those  the  shortest,  namely,  along  the  Arabitae 
and  Oritse.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the  voyage  they  do  not, 
however,  by  any  means  correspond  with  those  determined  by 
maps  laid  down  from  the  recent  surveys. 

Carefully  following  the  sinuosities,  the  distances  are : — 

Geographical  „     ,.        Nearchus 

Miles.  ■        gives 

From  the  Pettee,  mouth  of  the  Indus,  to  1     ^ ,         ,  ^„  ,  ^^^        ,  ^^^ 

c,         -    '      J  ..       •        A     u-  }  104  to  108,  or  1.080        1,000 

bonmeany  and  the  river  Arabius        .  j  '  '  ' 

From  Sonmeany  to  Cape  Malin,  on  tlie  ]   ,  ^„         , ,  ^  ,  ,  ^^        ,  ^^^ 

^  .,                :  '  108  to  110,  or  1,100        1,600 

Ontaean  coast )  ' 

From  Cape  Malin  to  Cape  Jask,  on  the  )   ^  ._  .  .^  ,  ,^^      ,^^„^ 

.    f*i     T  u*i        1      •  M47  to  449,  or  4,490      10,000 

coast  of  the  Ichthyophagi        ...  J  '  '  ' 

From   Cape   Jask  to  Cape  Nabon,   the  ]   ,^^         ,^-  ,  ^^^        „  ^„ 

.     /,.    .,      fn  •  MOO  to  40^;,  or  4,020       3,700 

ancient  limits  oi  Carmania      ...   J  '  '  ' 

From    Cape   Nabon    to    the   Indian    or  1    ^ „   ^ 

.       .    ^  ,    e^      .  [  298  to  300,  or  3,000       4,400 

Arosis,  on  coast  oi  i^ersis         ...   J  '  ' 

From  tlie  Arosis  to  the  Pallacopas  or  i 

coast  of  Susiana,  following  the  Khors    1112  to  115,  or  1,150        2,000 

and  passages  in  and  out     ....    J  

14,840     22,700 

It  thus  appears  that  the  actual  length  of  the  voyage  is  but  Length  of  the 
about  two-thirds  of  the  estimate  of  Nearcbus ;  and  taking  this  Nearchi?s^ 
proportion  from  Cape  Malin  to   the  Pallacopas,  and  allowing 
ten  stadia  to  the  geographical  mile,  the  stations  mentioned  may 
in  general  be  traced. 

It  appears  that  so  soon  as  Nearchus  was  despatched  to  com- 
plete his  great  enterprise,  Alexander  moved  westward,  where 
his  presence  was  urgently  required  to  put  an  end  to  the  mis- 
government  and  irregularities  which  had  sprung  up  in  his 
absence.  The  main  body  was  committed,  with  the  elephants,  to 
HephcBstion,  with  directions  to  march  by  the  longer  but  more 
convenient  route  along  the  coast,  that  is,  in  a  south-south-westerly 
direction  to  Laristan,  passing,  according  to  tradition,  through 

'  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  195,  199. 


358 


ALEXANDER  PROCEEDS  TO  SUSA. 


[chap.  XI. 


Alexander 
■visits  Pasa- 
garda. 


Orsines  put  to 
death  for  mis- 
government. 


Alexander 
determines 
to  abolish 
national  dis- 
tinctions. 


Benarooz  and  Beruz.^  Alexander,  at  the  head  of  some  mfantry, 
a  few  bowmen,  and  the  companion  cavalry,  crossed  the  hills  by 
a  direct  line  to  Pasagarda.  Finding  that  the  tomb  of  the  great 
Cyrus  (Mader-i-Soleiman)^  had  been  plundered  during  his  ab- 
sence,-of  the  cups,  scimitars,  jewels  and  other  valuables,  with 
the  exception  of  the  golden  coffin,  w^hich  the  robbers  had  not 
been  able  to  carry  off,^  Alexander  left  Aristobulus  to  restore 
everything  to  its  former  state,  and  build  up  the  door  M^th  solid 
masonry,  and  proceeded  to  Persepolis  and  Pasargada,  whose 
melancholy  ruins  caused  him  much  regret.  Here  the  misgovern- 
ment  was  speedily  remedied  by  putting  Orsines  to  death  for 
oppression  and  misconduct;  and  Peucestas  was  appointed  to 
succeed  to  the  satrapy,  as  a  reward  for  his  faithfiil  services  in 
defending  Alexander's  life  at  the  most  critical  moment  among 
the  Malli.^ 

After  a  short  delay  Alexander  continued  his  march,  most 
likely  along  the  route  by  which  he  had  originally  advanced, 
through  the  Susian  rocks  to  the  bridge  over  the  Kariin  or  Pa- 
sitigris,  going  from  thence  to  Susa.  Here  he  was  speedily 
joined  by  Xearchus  and  Oncsicritus,  and  in  all  probability  by  the 
vessels  also,  for  there  is  little  doubt  that  their  crews  were  present 
when  sacrifices  were  ofiered  for  the  safety  of  the  fleet  and  army: 
these  were  ,as  usual,  accompanied  by  the  exhibition  of  various 
kinds  of  sports,  to  commemorate  the  accomplishment  of  the 
voyage,  and  a  scarcely  less  extraordinary  march^  through  the 
desert. 

The  fate  of  Orsines  awaited  the  satrap  Abulites  and  his  son, 
on  the  accusation  of  the  Susians  for  plundering  their  temples 
and  oppressing  the  people."  Like  many  other  satraps,  they  had 
thus  acted  under  the  belief  that  Alexander  would  not  return  to 
have  a  day  of  reckoning,  and  exercise  control  over  those  whom 
he  had  placed  in  authority.  But  Alexander  was  not  only  de- 
termined to  punish  the  guilty,  whether  Macedonians  or  those  of 
other  nations,  with  impartiality,  but  also  to  make  a  strong  effort 


'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  228.  *  Ibid.,  p.  209. 

^  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxx.  *  Ibid. 

*  Arrian,  Ind.,  cap.  xlii.,  and  Exp.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii.,  xxiv. 

"  Ibid.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxx. 


CHAP.  XI.J      PROPOSED  CONSOLIDATION  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  .359 

to  settle  the  governnicut  of  his  vast  empire.  The  basis  assumed, 
was  at  once  novel  and  difficult,  being  the  removal  of  na- 
tional distinctions,  and  of  the  assumption  by  the  Greeks  of 
superiority  over  conquered  nations.  Whilst  in  Egypt,  he  formed 
the  project,  which  he  was  now  about  to  put  in  execution,  of 
bringing  the  people  of  his  vast  empire  to  coalesce  as  one  nation, 
enjoying  equal  rights  and  privileges,  though  differing  in  religions, 
language,  and  manners;  and  marriages  were  to  be  part  of  the 
means  of  accomplishing  this  great  object.  Alexander  had  al- 
ready availed  himself  of  the  Macedonian  custom  of  taking  a 
wife  from  another  state ;  and  as  the  Greeks  were  more  than 
likely  to  be  influenced  by  his  example,  he  married  Barsine  or  He  marries 
Statira.  He  disposed  of  many  noble  maidens  to  Hephaestion, 
Nearchus,  Craterus,  and  others  ;  and  about  10,000  of  his  people 
appeared  to  receive  their  brides  at  a  public  wedding,  including 
that  of  the  monarch.  This  was  celebrated  in  the  Persian  man- 
ner, with  five  days'  festivities ;  and  not  only  were  dowries 
bestowed  upon  all,  but  Alexander  took  this  opportunity  of 
paying  the  debts  of  his  soldiers,  to  the  amount,  it  is  supposed,  of 
five  millions  sterling.^     This  was  followed  by  the  distribution  Distributes 

£.1  1  1  .        .1  •      ,•  f. honorary  re- 

01  honorary  crowns,  and  some  changes  in  the  organization  oi  compenses. 
the  army ;  the  object  of  which  will  presently  be  seen,  and  for 
which  the  Epigoni,  and  the  levies  trained  in  the  Grecian  disci- 
pline, afforded  ample  materials. 

The  partial  use  of  the  Persian  language  in  the  army,  and  the 
adoption  of  the  Macedonian  dress  by  Asiatics,  gave  umbrage  to 
the  European  soldiers;  and  even  the  exercise  of  justice  towards 
barbarians  was  a  serious  ground  of  complaint  with  the  Macedo- 
nians. But,  as  will  be  seen,  Alexander  was  prepared  to  meet 
the  discontent  which  had  been  for  some  time  ready  to  break  out 
in  the  army. 

The  grand  project  of  opening,  or  rather  extending,  the  exist-  Reorganiza- 
ing  commerce  with  eastern  countries,  was  only  second  to  the 
projected  change  by  which  the  conqueror  purposed,  quietly,  to 
substitute  for  the  Macedonian  army  a  more  general  organization 
of  troops  to  be  raised  amongst  the  most  warlike  nations  then 
under  his  dominion. 

'  Arriaii,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  iv.,  v. 


tion  of  the 
army. 


360  TRADE  WITH  INDIA  CONTEMPLATED.  [cHAP.  XI. 

The  employment  of  mercenary  troops  had  long  prevailed 
both  in  Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  the  extension  of  this  system 
was  in  fact  adopted  by  Alexander  soon  after  his  career  of  con- 
quests commenced.  The  Agema,  it  will  be  remembered,  did 
good  service  at  the  Issus,  as  well  as  in  the  subsequent  struggle 
Mounted  at  Arbcla.  To  these  the  mounted  archers  and  other  levies  were 
to  the  army,  added ;  for  the  practice  of  the  principal  nations  in  Asia,  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  had  gradually  overcome  the  prejudices 
entertained  in  the  outset  by  Alexander  against  that  species  of 
troops.  But  we  are  nowhere  informed  at  what  period,  during 
the  retrograde  march  from  the  Hyphasis,  the  more  sweeping 
change  was  planned.  It  has  just  been  seen  that  it  was  first 
developed  at  Susa,  where  it  was  based  upon  a  wide  system  of 
intermarriages,  when  his  own  union  with  Statira  gave  him  an 
additional  claim  to  the  throne  of  Darius. 
Proofs  that  a  The  Other  part  of  his  plan,  trade  with  India,  undoubtedly 
India  was  Originated  at  a  still  earlier  period — having  been  contemplated 
pkted!'°"^^™"  when  the  Egyptian  Alexandria  was  ordered  to  be  constructed ; 
and  the  project  itself  must  have  been  matured  to  a  certain  extent 
during  his  stay  in  Egypt_,  since,  in  offering  sacrifices  to  the  gods 
at  Cillutas  on  the  Indus,  Alexander  announced  that  it  was  in 
conformity  to  directions  given  him  by  the  oracle  of  Amnion.^ 
This  circumstance  also  demonstrates  that  a  visit  to  the  shores 
of  the  eastern  ocean  had  then  been  contemplated.  The  prayer 
offered  that  his  fleet  might  prosperously  make  the  voyage  from 
the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  &c.,^  affords  another  argu- 
ment ;  and  the  desire  expressed  as  he  passed  through  Pasargada 
and  Persepolis  to  examine  the  two  last  rivers,^  completes  the 
chain  of  circumstances. 

Alexander  commenced  the  intended  voyage  by  going  on 
board  the  fleet,  which  lay  ready  at  Susa,  with  his  targeteers,  the 
Agema,  and  some  part  of  the  auxiliary  horse :  with  these  he 
Alexander  Sailed  down  the  river  Eulseus,  leaving  the  greater  part  of  his 
Euiseus.  forces  to  march  under  Ilephfpstion.  When  not  far  from  the 
mouth  of  this  stream,  he  left  those  ships  which  were  out  of 
order,  and  taking  the  best,  he  sailed  out  into  the  ocean  ;  after- 

'  Aniaii,  lib.  A''!.,  cap.  xix.  *  Ibid. 

"  Tbid.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  i. 


CHAP.  XI.]  ALEXANDER  ENTERS  THE  TIGRIS.  361 

wards,  having  entered  the  Tigris,  he  was  joined  by  Hephsestion 
and  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  which  for  this  purpose  passed  through 
a  canal  (now  the  Hafar)  cut  from  the  river  he  had  descended.' 

A  reference  to  the  maps  Nos.  10  and   11   will  at  once  show 
that  if  the  river  here  mentioned,  namely,   the  Eulaeus,   were  The  EuLtus 
represented  by  the  modern  Kerkhah,   into  which  Alexander  modem'  '"^ 
might  have  passed  his  fleet  from  Susa,  by  means  of  a  canal,  the  ^'*'"""- 
stream  would  at  once  have  carried  the  vessels  into  the  lower 
part  of  the  Tigris,  without  the  necessity  of  entering  the  latter 
river  from  the  ocean,  and  the  whole  of  the  equipment  would 
have  been  ready  to  ascend  the  latter  stream  without  the  neces- 
sity of  entering  it,  as  it  is  stated,  through   a  canal.^     These 
objections  do  not,  however,  apply  to  the  Kariin  Proper,  into 
which  it  will  be  seen  from  the  map,  that  the  fleet  could  have 
passed  by  two  different  channels,  namely,  either  by  a  canal  from 
Susa  into  the  river  Kerkhah,  and  from  thence  by  the  Maktiiah 
canal  into  the  Kariin,  or,  more  directly,  along  the  river  Shapiir. 

Presuming  that  it  was  the  latter,  Alexander  would  have  been 
carried  along  this  stream  from  the  walls  of  Susa  into  the  Kariin 
near  Agines ;  and  following  this  river,  then  probably  known 
first  as  the  Eulceus,  and  afterwards  as  the  Pasitigris,  the  fleet 
would  pass  through  the  lake,  and  again  into  the  lower  river,  or 
old  Kariin,  which  no  doubt  was  the  principal  stream,  although 
sending  a  bifurcation  westward.  Along  the  latter,  Alexander 
sent  the  smaller  and  damaged  vessels  towards  the  Hafar  canal, 
and  descended,  with  those  which  were  more  efficient,  along  the 
greater  arm.  On  reaching  the  sea  through  the  estuary  of  the 
Kariin  or  Pasitigris,  he  turned  westward,  and  ascended  the  Shatt 
el  'Arab  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  Hafar,  from  whence, 
being  rejoined  by  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  he  proceeded  to  the  spot 
where  Hepheestion  and  the  rest  of  the  army  were  encamped. 
From  thence  the  united  forces  ascended  along  the  trunk  of  the 
Tigris  as  far  as  the  city  of  Opis;  whose  site  may  be  looked  for  Opis  probably 
a  little  below  the  ruins  of  Samarrah,  or  in  about  34°  5'  N.  L. :  of  Samarrah!'^ 
but  Arrian  gives  no  particulars  of  this  voyage,  except  that 
Alexander  commanded  all  the  weirs  and  other  obstructions, 
which  had  impeded  his  ascent,  to  be  removed,  and  the  channel 

'  Arriaiu  lib.  VII.,  cap.  vii.  ^  Ibid. 


362 


STATE  OF  THE  TIGRIS  :    SUBAQUEOUS  WALLS.       [CHAP.  XI. 


EEFects  of 
removing  the 
river  walls. 


Thirteen 
Macedonians 
seized  and 
executed. 


to  be  cleared.^  No  doubt  the  bunds  or  dykes,  which  at  intervals 
raise  the  water  to  a  higher  level  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation, 
are  alluded  to,  and  some  of  these,  such  as  those  still  to  be  seen 
below  Opis,  on  the  affluent  of  the  'Adhim,^  and  others  higher  up 
in  the  Tigris,^  which  run  from  side  to  side  of  the  river,  might 
have  been  mistaken  for  defensive  works  ;  but  this  could  scarcely 
have  been  the  case  with  the  ordinary  irrigating  walls,  since  they 
overlap  and  leave  a  passage  in  the  centre  to  accommodate  boats 
or  rafts ;  and  through  these,  no  doubt,  the  fleet  of  Alexander 
passed  on  this  occasion. 

The  removal  of  these  walls  would  have  been  favourable  to 
navigation ;  but  in  other  respects  it  was  detrimental,  and  par- 
ticularly so  by  diminishing  the  productions  of  the  country,  to 
the  increase  of  which  the  skill  and  industry  of  the  Assyrians 
had  been  so  successfully  directed.* 

Here  unfortunately  a  blank  occurs  in  the  narrative  of  Arrian 
and  other  historians  respecting  the  first  part  of  the  march  from 
Opis,  and  even  the  cause  of  its  being  undertaken.  It  is,  how- 
ever, tolerably  clear  from  the  history  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  that 
the  movement  into  Media  instead  of  being  homeward,  brought 
things  to  a  crisis  by  causing  a  decided  outbreak,  the  whole  army 
mutinously  calling  out  to  be  discharged,  and  adding,  in  derision, 
that  Alexander  might  enlist  another  Father  Amnion  for  his 
future  campaigns.  Although  Alexander  could  not  have  been 
quite  unprepared  for  this  conduct,  never  were  his  intrepidity  and 
presence  of  mind  so  conspicuous  as  on  this  trying  occasion  ;  for, 
descending  from  the  tribunal,  he  rushed  into  the  crowd,  followed 
by  those  immediately  round  his  person,  and  seizing  thirteen  of 
the  ringleaders,  he  caused  them  to  be  executed  on  the  spot.* 
This  being  done,  Alexander  returned  to  the  tribunal,  where  he 
made  an  eloquent  address  to  the  troops,  then  terrified  into  a 
state  of  sullen  silence  and  astonishment.  He  recounted  what 
they  had  been,  and  the  glorious  conquests  of  the  world  which 
made  them  what  they  then  were,  having  himself  no  other  dis- 


'  Arrian,  lib.  VII  ,  cap,  vii.  *  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  30. 

^'  Ibid.,  p.  21.  "  Sequel,  chap.  XIX. 

'  Compare  Arrian.   lib.   VII.,  cap.   viii.,  with   Died.   Sic,   lib.   XVII., 
cap.  Ixiv.,  and  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  iii. 


CHAP.  XI.]  ALEXANDER  FORMS  AN  ASIATIC  ARMY.  363 

tinction,  after  leading  them  over  plains  and  mountains,  lands 
and  seas,  than  the  purple  robe  and  diadem :  he  added,  in  con- 
clusion, that  all  were  welcome  to  return,  and  relate  at  home, 
that  after  sharing  in  all  these  glories  they  had  deserted  their 
king,  leaving  him  to  the  care  of  the  barbarians,  whom,  with  him, 
they  had  conquered. 

After  thus  expressing  himself,   he  hastily  retired,    and  for  Persian  nobles 
three  days  remained  secluded  in  his  palace;  but  not  idle,   for  commands ?n 
at  the  expiration  of  that  time,   being  still  without  concessions  ^^^  ^™y* 
from  the  army,  he  summoned  the  Persian  nobility  to  the  palace, 
and  as  the  30,000   Epigoni,   and  a  similar  number  of  other 
trained  Asiatics,  all  in  the  prime  of  life,  furnished  ample  means, 
he  proceeded  to  execute   the   plan  which  had   been  gradually 
formed,  of  dispensing  with  the  services  of  the  Macedonians,  and 
admitting  the  Asiatics  to  those  common  rights  which  had  been 
hitherto  denied  by  their  conquerors.     Accordingly  he  selected 
for  the  command  of  the  several  bodies  of  his  army,  chiefs  from 
the  different  provinces  of  Persia,   who  assumed  the  rank  and 
distinctions  of  the  Greeks.     In  addition  to  the  Persians  already 
admitted  into  the  royal  companion  cavalry,  he  formed  a  body 
of  royal  companion  infantry,  and  another  of  noble  Persians,  who 
were  called  Argyraspides,  from  their  silver  shields.     But  the  The  Argyras- 
most  galling  circumstance  was  the  renewal  of  the  Persian  body- 
guard called  royal  kinsmen,  who  alone,   in  former  times,   had 
the  privilege  of  saluting  the  king  of  kings.     This  produced  the 
most  decided  effect ;  for  after  remaining  two  days  under  arms,   • 
the  troops  hurried  in  a  body  towards  the  gates  of  the  palace, 
and  having  piled  their  arras  to  show  the  nature  of  their  appli- 
cation, they  loudly  implored  the  king  to  come  forth,  and  declared 
their  readiness  to  give  up  the  surviving  ringleaders.     The  king's 
victory  being  thus  complete,  a  reconciliation  followed,   with  a  Alexander 
public  banquet  for  Greeks  and  Asiatics  ;  and  the  establishment  hlsTiacedo-^ 
of  a  separate  force  under  Asiatic  officers,  henceforth  enabled  °^^^  soldiers. 
Alexander  to  preserve  a  balance  between  his  old  and  new  sub- 
jects, in  conformity  with  the  plans  which  he  intended  to  carry 
out. 

A  selection  was  now  made  of  the  Macedonians  and  others 
who  were  incapacitated  for  active  service,  more  than  10,000  of 


364  ALEXANDER  ADVA^'CES  INTO  MEDIA.  [cHAP.  XI. 

whoMi  were  sent  home  under  Craterus ;  this  favourite  and  dis- 
tinguished veteran  being  appointed,  in  order  to  remove  the  diffi- 
culties caused  in  the  home  government  by  the  imperious  and 
ambitious  conduct  of  Olympias. 

Unfortunately,   the   succeeding  part   of  Arrian's  history  is 
deficient,  and  Qaintius  Curtius  equally  fails.    Diodorus  Siculus, 
however,  partly  supplies  the  blank,  at  least  from  Susa  onward ; 
but  we  are  quite  left  to  conjecture  the  route  by  which  Alex- 
ander proceeded  from  Opis  to  that  capital.     It  is  clear  ^  that 
the  meeting  and  subsequent  despatch  of  the  invalids  took  place 
at  Opis,  whither  the  vessels  had  ascended.     The  circumstance 
of  the  fleet  being  on  the  spot,  and  at  one  of  the  heads  ^  of  the 
Alexander      famous  Nahrawan,  and  water  communications  being  the  par- 
Nahrawdn  ^  ticular  objcct  of  Alexander,   it  is  not  impossible,   as  already 
into  the  hinted,^  that  Alexander,  with  some  of  the  flotilla  which  came 

Choaspes.  '  ' 

from  the  Indus,  may  have  passed  along  the  canal  in  question 
into  the  ancient  Choaspes;  and  this  is  the  more  probable,  since 
it  is  stated  that  part  of  the  fleet  which  afterwards  assembled  at 
Babylon  had  been  brought  thither  from  the  Persian  sea  by 
the  river  Euphrates.'* 

For  some  cause  or  other,  his  presence  having  been  called  for 
in  Media,  Alexander  marched  thither  from  Susa ;  taking  the 
Route  to  Susa.  easier  but  longer  route,  which  for  some  time  skirts  the  southern 
side  of  the  Zagros,  he  passed  through  the  villages  of  Charras 
and  Sittacene  in  four  days  to  Sambana.  At  this  place,  which 
appears  to  be  represented  by  the  ruins  of  Samarrah,  once  the 
capital  of  iMasabadan,^  Alexander  halted  seven  days,  and  in 
four  marches  reached  Celona?,  a  Boeotian  colony,  which,  in  the 
time  of  the  expedition  of  Xerxes,  settled  at  this  place,  now 
Sirwan,  or  Keililn.®  After  halting  some  days,  the  army 
^  resumed  its  march  towards  Baghistane  (the  place  of  gardens), 
a  very  fine  country,  producing  everything  required  for  the 

'  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  viii.  to  xi. 

*  At  Kaim.     See  vol.  I.,  pp.  27,  28. 
^  Ibid. 

*  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xix. 

*  Died.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  Ixvii.,  and   Major  Rawlinson,   vol.   IX., 
p.  59  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

"  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  Ixvii..  and  Geographical  Journal,  pp.  55,  56. 


CHAP.  XI.]  ALEXANDER  SUBDUES  THE  COSS.EANS.  365 

necessity  or  jDleasure  of  man.'  As  this  place,  the  well-known  visits  Bag- 
Bisutiin,  was  passed  by  Semiramis  on  her  way  to  Chaone  or 
Kangawar,  it  would  naturally  attract  Alexander's  attention, 
who  turned  a  little  out  of  his  "way  for  the  purpose  of  visiting 
it,"  taking,  probably  for  convenience,  the  route  by  the  gates  of 
Zagros,  and  the  high  table-land  of  Kirrind,'  to  the  city  in 
question. 

From  thence  he  passed  into  the  neighbouring  province, 
which  it  is  said  formerly  reared  1 50,000  horses ;  but  Alex- 
ander, who  spent  a  month  there,  found  about  60,000  only  in 
these  celebrated  pastures,  which  probably  are  represented  by 
the  grazing  grounds  of  Khawah  and  Alishtar.*  In  seven 
marches  from  the  misnamed  Nisaean  Plains,  Alexander  reached 
the  Median  Ecbatana,  Hamadan,  where  Hephsestion  died, 
during  the  gymnic  sports  and  carousals  which  usually  took  place 
after  any  considerable  undertaking.^ 

Alexander  was  now  about  to  return  to  the  intended  seat  of 
his  empire ;  and  in  order  to  alleviate  the  grief  arising  from  the 
loss  of  his  friend,  writes  Plutarch,  he  undertook  an  expedition 
against  the   Cossseans ;   and,  dividing  his  army  into  two  corps, 
notwithstanding  the  difficulties   of  their  mountainous  country 
and  their  strongholds,  the  warlike  inhabitants  were  subjected  in 
forty  days,  and  Ptolemy,   the  second  in  command,  was  left  to 
complete  the  task,  by  erecting  forts,  to  deter  the  people  from 
living,  as  before,  by  plundering  their  neighbours.^     The  prin-  The  principal 
cipal  seat  of  this  ancient  people  seems  to  have  been  the  rock  cosl^ans  at 
fort  of  Khorram-abad,  once   Diz  Siyah,  or  Kiih  Siyah,  which  Khorram- 
originated  the  title  of  Cossoean.' 

From  these  mountains,  Alexander  continued  at  a  slow  pace 
his  march  to  Babylon,  and  was  met  on  the  way  thither,  as  well 
as  subsequently  to  his  arrival,  by  envoys,  whom  the  fame  of 
his  exploits,  and  apprehension  of  his  power,  had  brought  thither 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVII.,  cap.  Ixvii.  *  Ibid. 

^  Ibid.,  and  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  IX.,  pp.  48,  49,  and  112;  and 
above,  p.  116-118. 

*  Geo.  Journal,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  100,  101.       *  Diod.  Sic,  lib,  XVIL,  cap.lxvi. 

'  Compare  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  iv.,  with  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII., 
cap.  XV.  ;  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIL,  cap.  Ixix.  ;  Strabo,  lib.  II.,  p.  795. 

^  See  vol.  I.,  p.  206,  and  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  IX.,  p.  99. 


366 


VAST  PROJECTS  OF  ALEXANDER 


[chap.  XI. 


Alexander 
proposes  to 
circumnavi- 
gate Araliia 
and  Africa. 


Babylon  se- 
lected as  the 
seat  of  the 
empire. 


from  Africa,  Europe,  Phoenicia,  and  almost  every  other  part  of 
the  world ;  and  he  entered  the  city  to  receive  them,  notwith- 
standing the  adverse  warnings  and  predictions  of  the  Chal- 
deans,' who  may  have  feared  that  the  desolation  predicted  by 
Jeremiah  would  follow  his  visit.^ 

In  the  pride  of  success,  new  and  enlarged  projects  of  con- 
quest and  undertakings  by  sea  were  contemplated  by  Alexander; 
Africa  and  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  were  to  be  circumnavigated, 
as  well  as  subjected,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  explored ;  new  cities 
were  to  be  built  in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  the  former  to  be 
peopled  with  Asiatics  and  the  latter  with  Europeans ;  the 
wandering  Arabs  were  to  be  brought  into  order,  the  river 
Euphrates  to  be  navigated  from  Thapsacus,  as  the  Eula^us 
had  been  to  Susa,  and  the  Tigris  to  Opis,  as  well  as  the  canal 
between  those  cities;  and,  finally,  a  great  port  was  to  be 
formed  at  the  destined  capital  of  the  world.  The  first  object 
was  entrusted  to  Nearchus,  the  second  to  Heraclides,  who  was 
to  construct  vessels  in  order  to  explore  the  waters  of  the  Cas- 
pian, and  ascertain  whether,  as  stated  by  Herodotus  a  century 
before,  it  really  was  an  inland  sea.^  Miccalus  was  to  bring 
seamen  from  Phoenicia,  as  well  as  vessels  from  Thapsacus,  to 
animate  the  promising  maritime  commerce  of  Persia,  &c.,  but 
the  remainder,  or  the  fourth  part  of  his  new  and  vast  under- 
takings, he  reserved  for  himself* 

As  a  central  spot  between  India,  Egypt,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  capital  of  Darius  Hystaspes  was  selected  as  the 
seat  of  the  intended  empire ;  but  as  an  extended  commerce 
and  the  improvement  of  Babylonia  were  contemplated,  a  haven 
was  ordered  to  be  constructed  at  the  seat  of  government, 
capable  of  containing  1,000  long  galleys,  which  in  the  first 
instance  were  to  be  employed  in  punishing  the  Arabs,  who  had 
not  even  solicited  his  friendship,  and  were  contented  with  their 
wild  independence. 

Archias  being  sent,  explored  the  Arabian  coast  to  Tylos,  and 

'  Compare  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIT.,  cap.  Ixx.,  Ixxi.,  with  Quint.  Curt..,  lib.  X., 
cap.  iv.,  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xv.,  xvi.,  and  Plutarch,  vita  Alexander. 

*  .Jeremiah,  chap.  XXV.,  v.  12.  ^  Lib.  L,  cap.  cciii.,  cciv. 

*  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xix.,  xx. 


CHAP.  XI.]    ALEXANDER  IMPROVES  THE  PALLACOPAS.        367 

his  successor,  Aiidrosthenes,  is  supposed  to  have  made  his  way 

round  the  peninsula  to  the  Red  Sea.'     Alexander  himself  was 

employed  in  the  same  way  nearer  home,  having  in  the  first 

instance  sailed  down  the  river  Euphrates,  and  then  ascending 

the  Pallacopas  he  entered  Arabia,  where  he  built    a  city,  and  A  city  built  in 

placed  in  it  those  Greeks  Avho  were  disabled.^     A  canal  was  the  disabled 

cut  to  prevent  injury  from  inundations  during  the  floodings  at 

the  summer  solstice ;  but  being  defective  in  its  construction,  too 

great  a  proportion  of  water  found  an  exit  by  this  channel  at 

other  times  of  the  year. 

After  having  by  personal  examination  ascertained  the  cause 
of  the  defect,  Alexander  determined  to  confer  a  lasting  benefit 
on  the  Babylonians  by  giving  them  the  means  of  commanding 
this  outlet,  and  of  regulating  at  pleasure  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  great  river.^ 

As  the  original  head  of  the  Pallacopas  was  above  Babylon, 
it  probably  commenced  in  a  bend  where  there  is  a  small  river 
called  Hawasin,  on  the  right  bank,  which,  no  doubt,  was  in  the 
precincts  of  the  ancient  city.  Nearly  five  miles  higher,  where  the 
river  makes,  as  it  approaches  Suda  island,  a  sharp  bend  south- 
ward, is  the  canal  called  Hindiyeh,  going  to  Mesjid  'All  and 
onward,  parallel  to  the  Euphrates.  As  this  cut  is  nearly 
twenty-three  miles  below  the  Kuthah,  it  clearly  corresponds 
with  the  separation  described  by  Abii-1-feda  as  taking  place 
six  fiirsangs  from  that  river,^  running  through  Kiifah,  and  from 
thence  into  the  marshy  country  below,  the  ancient  Paludes 
Babyloniae. 

As  the  first  opening  had  been  cut  through  a  light  and  oozy  Defects  of  the 
soil,  10,000  men  were  usually  employed  for  three  months  ^  ^°"  * 
annually,  and  sometimes  ineffectually,  to  stop  this  outlet  when 
the  water  was  required  in  the  main  channel.  The  new  cut 
was  through  firm  and  rocky  ground,  probably  at  the  spot  above 
indicated  (Hindiyeh),  from  whence  it  was  carried  into  the  old 
channel,  the  former  inlet  to  which  was  effectually  closed.  Sub- 
sequently, after  steering  his  own  galley  through  the  marshes, 
Alexander  caused  another  head  to  be  cut  above  them,  from  the 

'  Arrian,  Exp.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xx.  "  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  X.,  cap.  iv. 

^  Arrian,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxi. 

*  Another  copy  has  seven. — Abii-1-feda  ;  ]MS.  translation  by  Mr.  Eassam. 


368  DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER.  [CHAP.  XI. 

river  below  Babylon  to  the  bed  of  the  Pallacopas,  probably 

near  the  city  which  he  ordered  to  be  built.     At  Manawiyah, 

nine  or  ten  miles  above  Diwaniyah,  there  are  the  remains  of  a 

canal,  possibly  of  the  one  in  question,  which  is  adapted  to  carry 

the  stream  clear  of  the  marshes. 

A  fxeet  col-  Of  the  fleet  which  Alexander  was  collecting,  some  of  the 

Alexander  on  vessels  wcrc  brought,  as  we  have  seen,  from  the  river  Tigris 

t  e    uphrates.  ^^^^  Susiaua ;  souic  wcrc  transported  from  Phoenicia  to  Thap- 

sacus,  in  order  that  they  might  descend  the  Euphrates;  and 

the  rest  were  built  of  cypress  wood  on  the  spot. 

On  returning  from  the  exploratory  voyage  above  mentioned, 
which  probably  took  place  during  the  floods  of  the  succeeding 
season  after  his  arrival,  Alexander  found  that  a  second  embassy 
had  arrived  at  Babylon,  with  golden  crowns,  sent  as  presents 
from  the  Grecian  republics,  and  also  with  large  reinforcements 
from  Greece,  Lydia,  and  Caria,  to  supply  those  who  were 
lately  discharged.  Peucestas  also  arrived  with  20,000  Persians, 
besides  a  body  of  Cossseans  and  Tapurians.^  The  leading 
object  of  Alexander's  studious  care,  the  formation  of  the  fleet, 
was  now  far  advanced ;  and  but  little  was  wanting  to  unite  his 
subjects  on  the  Indus,  the  Euphrates,  and  the  Nile,  by  the 
powerful  interests  of  commerce,  when  he  was  cut  off"  in  the 
prime  of  life,  after  an  unexampled  career  of  glory.  A  fever, 
He  dies  of  a  caught  in  the  marshes  of  Lamliim,  cut  short  those  great  pro- 
[rthemaiShcs.J^^^^'  which  Only  could  have  been  planned  by  the  vast  and 
capacious  mind  of  this  mighty  conqueror,  who  had  never 
known  anything  like  failure  in  his  plans,  or  a  defeat  in  either  a 
battle  or  a  siege. 

Some  account  of  the  great  river  which  had  been  navigated 
by  Alexander,  and  was  also  one  of  his  chief  objects  of  interest, 
Sources  of  the  will  uot  here  be  out  of  place.  The  Indus,  or  Sindus,"  has  its 
springs  in  two  great  arms  towards  the  southern  borders  of 
Tibet,  on  the  slopes  of  the  great  range  which,  more  westward, 
is  known  as  the  Buliit  Tagh,  or  Cloudy  Mountains,^  and  here  as 
the  Himalaya.'* 

The  water-shed  of  tiiis  parent  range  seems   to  be  on   the 

'  Arrian.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxiii.  *  niny?  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xx. 

^  See  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  161. 

*  A  part  of  the  Caucasus,  called  Paropamisus. — Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xx. 


CHAP.  XI.]  SOURCES  OF  THE  INDUS.  369 

northern  side,  and  is  marked  by  the  two  contiguous  sacred  Sources  of  the 
lakes,  Mepang:,  or  Manas  Sorowar,  and  Rawan  Rhud ;  from 
which  mountain  basin,  or  its  vicinity,  come  four  noble  rivers, 
viz.,  in  a  western  direction,  the  great  river  Sanpoo,  or  Brahma- 
pootra ;  the  Gogra,  or  Ganges,  flowing  south-east ;  the  Sutlej, 
running  south-westward  ;  and  the  Indus. 

The  last,  called  also  the  Singzing-kampa  or  Eckhung-choo 
river,  apparently  commences  a  few  miles  north-westward  of  the 
lake,  with  which  it  may  have  a  communication.  About  seventy 
miles  onward  it  receives  the  other  branch,  the  Sing-he-tsiu,  The  Sing-he- 
and  continues  to  flow  in  the  same  direction,  for  about  200  addi-  branch, 
tional  miles,  to  the  town  of  Leh,  or  Li.  A  little  beyond  this 
place  it  receives  the  Seechoo,  or  Lingtee,  a  considerable  tributary 
coming  from  the  south-south-east ;  and  again,  about  sixty  miles 
onward  in  the  same  direction,  it  receives  another  river  on  the 
opposite  side,  which  flows  first  southward  from  the  Kara  Korum 
mountains  in  Tibet;  then,  by  a  bold  sweep  westward,  and  after- 
M'ards  southward,  it  enters  the  main  stream ;  but  little  more  is 
known  than  its  bare  name,  the  Shayuk. 

About  sixty  miles  onward,  the  united  waters  take  a  western  The  Indus 
direction  for  a  like  distance,  and  then  bend  southward  as  this  Himalaya 
great  stream  breaks  through  the  Indian  Caucasus,  or  Himalaya.  ^^°^^' 
Here,  taking  the  name  of  the  Sinde,  it  inclines  a  little  to  the 
west,  passing  Kaspatyrus  to  Attock ;  just  short  of  which  place 
it   receives    the    only   considerable   stream    coming   from    the 
western  side,  namely,  the   Kabul  river.'     When  clear  of  the 
mountains  near  Attock,  the  river,  which  is  of  a  considerable 
breadth  and  contains  a  great  volume  of  water,  washes  for  about 
seventy  miles  the  abutments  of  the  Afghan  mountains  on  one 
side,  and  the  great  plain  on  the  other,  as  far  as  the  village  of 
Maree.     Having  passed  the  Salt  range  near  this  place,    the 
great  river  separates  for  a  time  into  three  and  sometimes  four 
channels,  which,  after  continuing  parallel  at  a  short  distance 
from  one  another,  reunite  near  the  town  of  Xowakot,  in  about 

32°  10'  :n'.  L. 

Continuing  a  southerly  course,  nearly  parallel  to  the  Hala  its  course 
mountains,  and  having  a  small  part  of  the  great  plains  inter-  ^°"^  "^^^  ' 
'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  170. 
VOL.  II.  2  B 


370  COURSE  OF  THE  INDUS.  [CHAP.  XI. 

vening  on  the  right  side,  the  Sindus,  or  Indus,  passes  Dera 
Isinael  Khan  and  Kakuree,  where  it  is  1,000  yards  broad  and 
twelve  feet  deep.  From  thence  it  flows  southward  by  Leia  to 
Dera  Ghazee  Khan,  and  onward  to  Mittun,  just  short  of  which 
place  it  is  joined  by  the  united  waters  of  the  Panj-ab,  which 
give  it  a  south-western  direction,  after  having  enriched  the 
,  large  and  fertile  tract  of  country  bearing  that  name.^  The 
principal  of  the  streams,  the  Sutlej,  or  ancient  Hesidrus,  comes 
from  Lake  Rawan  Ehud,  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  parent 
stream,  and  after  flowing  to  the  west,  along  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  Himalaya,  breaks  through  this  range  in  a  south-v/esterly 
direction :  it  continues  to  flow  through  a  mountainous  country 
Joined  by  the  to  Hurrekcc,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  river  Beas,  the  upper 
Hurrekee.  part  of  the  Celebrated  Hyphasis,  which  flows  south-westward 
from  the  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  to  the  point  of  junction. 

After  receiving  this  stream  near  Hurrekee,  the  Sutlej  con- 
tinues the  previous  course,  passing  a  little  westward  of  Fero- 
zepiir,  and  so  on  to  Fulehpur,  Bhawulpilr,  and  Ooch.  Latterly, 
however,  this  stream  has  been  better  known  as  the  Ghara  than 
by  the » previous  name  of  the  Sutlej.  The  Beas,  Beeah,  or 
Bypasa,  no  doubt  represents  the  Hyphasis  of  Alexander,  which 
appears  to  have  had  a  separate  channel  to  the  northward, 
flowing  usually  at  the  distance  of  about  twenty  miles,  and 
nearly  parallel  to  the  present  channel,  from  the  neighbourhood 
Junction  of  of  Hurrekcc,  till  it  falls  into  the  present  bed.  This  takes  place 
and  the  just  bcforc  its  juiictiou  with  the  Chinab,,  whose  trunk  brings 

thither  the  united  waters  of  the  other  three  rivers  of  the 
Panj-ab.  The  Chinab,  once  the  Akesines,  and  the  largest  of 
the  streams,^  appears  to  have  its  source  in  78°  E.  L.,  from 
whence  it  flows  north-westward  along  the  southern  slopes  of 
the  Himalaya,  till,  at  Kishtawar,  on  the  borders  of  Kashmir, 
it  takes  a  south-western  direction,  nearly  dividing  the  territory 
of  Lahore  as  it  flows  by  Jumbo,  Vezir-abad,  Jelalpiir,  to  Lai 
Kango  and  Trumoo  ferry,  where  it  receives  the  western  river, 
the  Jailum,  or  Hydaspes.  This  considerable  arm,  which, 
according    to   Pliny,   is    the    recipient   of  the   other   stream,'' 

'  Burncp,  vol.  III.,  p.  139,  of  Royal  Geographical  Jotirnal. 
-  Ibid.,  p.  147.  *  Lib.  VI.,  cap.  xx. 


Chinab. 


CHAP.  XI.]  THE  SUTLEJ  AND  CIIINAB  RIVERS.  371 

appears  to  be  formed  by  three  branches  coming  through  Affluents  of 
Kashmir,  namely,  the  Suti,  which  springs  north  of  the  *''*' ^^'°'^^" 
Himalaya,  and  the  Pir  Panj-ab,  and  the  Jailum,  or  Behut, 
both  of  M'hich  rise  southward  of  that  range.  The  last  passes 
through  Kashmir  itselfj  at  some  distance  westward  of  which  it 
receives  the  Sutf,  and,  bending  southward,  is  joined  by  the 
Pir-Panj-ab,  ten  or  twelve  miles  short  of  Jailum,  and  the  sup- 
posed site  of  Bucephala.^  From  hence,  inclining  a  little  west- 
ward, the  Behui,  or  Bedusta,  and  also  the  Jailum,  or  Hydaspes, 
flow  to  the  battle-ground  of  Nika^a  (near  Jelalpiir),  from 
whence  they  run  for  a  time  to  the  south-west,  and  again  south- 
ward into  the  Chinab,  at  the  ferry  already  indicated. 

Preserving  the  latter  name,  the  trunk  takes  a  south-westerly  Meets  the 
course  for  nearly  sixty  miles,  till  it  meets  the  last  of  the  so-  ?ear  sSee. 
called  five  rivers  a  little  below  Biralee.  This  stream,  the 
ancient  Hydraotes,  and  now  the  Ravi,  appears  to  rise  on 
the  borders  of  the  district  of  Lahoul.  It  flows  westward  to 
Chuniba,  where  it  takes  a  south-west  course  by  Noorpiir, 
Lahore,  and  onward,  by  an  exceedingly  tortuous  course,  to  the 
point  of  junction  already  mentioned.  Preserving  the  name 
of  the  central  branch,  it  flows  south-westward,  passing  near 
Alultan,  and,  having  afterwards  received  the  Ghara,  the 
Chinab  takes  the  name  of  the  Panj-nud,  till  this  appellation, 
as  well  as  its  Avaters,  are  lost  in  those  of  the  Indus. 

With   the  accession  of  the  Panj-ab  tributaries,   the  Indus  Magnitude  of 
presents  a  great  body  of  water  as  it  flows  onward,  its  breadth  receiving  ^he^ 
often  exceeding  1,000  yards,-  with  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet  and  pJnP^Sf  ^^® 
upwards;    and  it  forms  several   islands    in   its   south-western 
course  from  Mittun  to  the  bend  at  Duturna,  below  Bukkur 
and  Ravi.      Below  these  towns,   and  near  to  Larkhanu,   the 
bifurcation  of  the  Narra  takes  place ;  the  branch  continues  at 
first    nearly   parallel    to    the    great   stream,    both    afterwards 
inclining    more    westward,    and    again    southward,    and    they 
reunite  at  Sehwan,  once  Sindomana,^  below  Lake  Manchur, 

'  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xx. 

-  Memoir  on  the  Indus,  by  Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  vol.  III.,  p.  135,  of 
Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  138. 

2  B  2 


372 


THE  BAGAR  AXD  HAJAMARI  BRANCHES.  [cHAP.  XI. 


The  Indus 
flows  near 
Haider-abiid. 


It  enters  the 
sea  by  six 
mouths. 


after  forming  a  succession  of  islands  on  the  main  stream, 
which  is  frequently  three-quarters  of  a  mile  broad,  with  a 
current  of  about  two  miles  and  a  half  per  hour."'  Here  the 
Indus  takes  a  south-easterly  direction  as  far  as  Sallarah,  from 
whence  it  flows  southward,  passing  near  the  western  side  of 
Haider-abad,  and  on  to  Banna,  but  sending  previously  the 
Feleili  branch  through  the  former  city,  and  thence  south-south- 
eastwards  by  Kotri  to  the  sea  at  the  Kdre  mouth.  Banna  may 
be  considered  as  the  apex  of  the  existing  delta,  one  side  being 
formed  by  the  Pinyari  or  Goongroo  river,  which  runs  south- 
south-eastward  by  Maghribi  to  its  estuary,  called  the  Sir ;  and 
the  other  is  the  main  river,  which  during  its  onward  course 
sends  out  five  branches  on  the  western,  and  a  short  one,  namely, 
the  Mall,  near  its  termination,  on  its  eastern  side.  One  of  the 
former,  which  is  now  usually  dry,  runs  westward  from  T'hat'hah 
(Tattah)  till  it  meets  the  Garah  river,  which  flows  from  that 
place  to  the  vicinity  of  Karachee.  The  next,  called  the  Bagar, 
is  sent  out  a  little  below  T'hat'hah,  and  it  has  a  south-western 
course  till  it  falls  into  the  sea  by  six  mouths,  which  are  open, 
and  more  or  less  navigable,  during  the  season  of  floods.  These, 
taking  them  from  west  to  east,  are  the  Piti,  now  almost  closed, 
the  Dub'hu,  the  Khan,  the  Pintiyani,  the  Juwah,  and  the 
Richel ;  the  third  is  the  Titiyah,  which  quits  the  trunk  thirty- 
five  miles  from  the  sea,  and  runs  south-eastward,  with  a  channel 
of  thirty  yards  wide,  and  a  stream  about  two  feet  deep  only,  in 
the  dry  season.  It  terminates  in  the  Richel  river,  below  the 
villages  of  Kdteri  and  Be'man-Jo-poro.  The  fourth  is  the 
Hajamari,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  upper  part  of  the  Siyahan  river, 
which  is  the  most  winding  and  intricate,  yet  presenting  more 
facilities  for  navigation  than  any  of  the  other  branches.  It 
quits  the  parent  stream  about  twenty-two  miles  direct  distance 
from  the  sea,  and  makes  a  tortuous  course  to  Bander  Yikkar, 
or  Bciri  Gora,  which,  although  a  miserable  place,  has  consider- 
able trade.  It  subsequently  makes  a  winding  course,  as  before, 
in  the  general  direction  of  west-south-west,  to  its  funnel-shaped 
estuary,  which  is  twenty  miles  from  thence.     There  are  only 

'  Memoir  on   tlie  Indus,  by  Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  vol.  IIT.,  p.  132,  of 
Royal  Geographical  Jonrnal. 


CHAP.  XI.]        CHANGES  IN  THE  ESTUARY  OF  THE  INDUS.  373 

seven  and  a  half  feet  water  on  the  bar  at  high  tide,  but  nowhere 
within  it,  is  there  less  than  twelve  feet  as  far  as  Vikkar. 

The  fifth  river  is  the  Iv'hediwari,  which  diverges  sixteen  The  K'hedi- 
miles  below  the  preceding  branch,  and  reaches  the  sea  after  an 
irregular  west-south-western  course.  The  entrance  of  the 
K'hediwari  is  formed  by  a  channel  of  four  miles  long,  and 
from  600  to  800  yards  broad,  with  a  depth  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  feet  at  high  tide ;  and  about  three  miles  within  the 
bar  it  receives  the  Ad'hiyarf,  coming  from  the  parent  stream, 
over  which  it  has,  in  consequence,  some  advantages.  Revert- 
ing to  the  latter,  after  sending  out  the  Bagar,  it  flows 
south-south-westward  to  its  estuary,  the  Kiikewari  mouth, 
which  is  about  fifty-five  miles  from  thence  by  the  stream  and 
forty-eight  in  a  direct  line.  It  takes  the  name  of  Wanyani 
below  Hajamari,  and  that  of  Manija  as  it  approaches  the  The  Maniji 
estuary.  At  present  there  is  but  one  entrance,  which  varies  ^^^^  ' 
from  1,100  yards  to  one  mile  and  a  half  wide,  with  two 
channels,  the  preferable  of  which  is  500  yards  broad  at  the 
outer,  and  130  yards  wide  at  the  interior  side:  it  has  a  depth 
of  from  twelve  feet  to  three  fathoms  and  a  half,  and  a  current 
in  the  dry  season  of  less  than  three  miles  and  a  half  per  hour, 
which  is  increased  to  seven  miles  and  one-tenth  at  the  maximum 
during  the  freshes.  The  Hajamari  and  the  K'he'diwari  are, 
however,  the  only  other  mouths  which  may  be  entered  during 
the  dry  season. 

But  at  no  very  distant  period,  the  mass  of  the  waters  of  the  Changes 
Indus  appear  to  have  passed  along  the  Bagar  channel,  from  tikeVpiace^at 
which  four  beds,  now  dry,  appear  to  have  carried  a  portion  of  the  Uuius^^^ 
the  stream   south-eastward   across  what  is   the   existing  main 
channel,  and  onward  to  the  sea,  discharging  at  the  Wari,  the 
Kajah,   the  Riidah,   and   the   Kha'i    mouths.      Besides   these 
alterations,  the  fact  of  extensive  changes  having  occurred  is 
placed  beyond  doubt  by  a  large  vessel,  the  Fateh  Jang,  once 
carrying  forty  guns,  being  found  near  the  village  of  'Ali-abad,' 
besides  the  embedded  hull  of  a  gun-brig  near  Sikkar; "  both 

'  Vol-  VIII.,  p.  348,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
*  Ibid.,  vol.  X.,  p.  530. 


374 


FLOODING  OF  THE  INDUS. 


[chap.  XI. 


Rise,  and  de- 
crease of  the 
Indus. 


being  at  some  distance  from  any  of  the  existing  arms.  But  a 
great  and  rapid  river,  bringing  dovm  three  cubic  inches  of 
alluvium  to  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  on  a  flat  open  coast,  ^  is  suf- 
ficient to  account  for  these  remarkable  alterations,  and  for  the 
circumscribed  width  of  the  present  delta.  The  1,000  stadia 
mentioned  by  Arrian,-  if  taken  from  the  higher  ground  near 
the  Piti  mouth,  would  reach  to  the  coast  of  Kach'h  in  about 
69°  E.  L.,  from  whence  it  is  a  like  distance  to  Haider-abad ; 
possibly,  therefore,  the  apex  of  the  Delta  and  the  port  of 
Pattala  may  have  been  somewhere  near  that  city. 

The  Indus  begins  to  rise,  and  increases  gradually,  from  the 
23rd  of  March,  but  is  subject  to  a  slight  decrease  occasionally 
up  to  Julv,  during  which  month,  and  the  early  part  of  the 
following,  there  is  no  decrease ;  and  on  the  7th  of  August  it  is 
at  the  highest,  the  maximum  total  rise  being  15  feet  2-8  inches. 
During  the  rest  of  the  month,  and  most  of  the  following,  the 
fall  is  tolerably  regular,  with  an  increase  occasionally,  till  the 
22nd,  when  there  is  a  second  maximum  rise  of  13  feet  11*5 
inches ;  after  which  it  is  on  the  decrease,  with  a  good  deal  of 
regularit)',  to  the  23rd  of  JMarch. 
Times  of  ap-       The  delta  of  the  Indus  is  exposed  to  gales  in  February,  but 
delta  from  the  it  may  bc  approachcd  occasionally  till  the  middle  of  March,  or 
^^^'  even  towards  the  end  of  April, ^  and  of  late,  by  steamers,  up  to 

June,  but  Avith  much  difficulty,  being  then  flooded  for  some  miles 
inward  at  high  tide.  About  100  vessels  are  profitably  employed 
in  fishing  on  this  coast,  but  almost  entirely  from  the  beginning 
of  October  to  the  middle  of  March,  during  which  period  there 
is  neither  difficulty  nor  danger  on  the  coast  of  Sinde.^  Land 
and  sea  breezes  prevail  alternately,  at  this  period,^  with  cold 
■weather;  and  the  tides  are  everywhere  extremely  irregular.^ 

'  The  Ind'is  conveys  to  the  sea  annually  10,503,587,000  cubic  feet  of 
mud. — Commander  Carless,  vol.  YIII.,  p.  356,  of  Royal  Geograpliical 
Journal. 

*  Lib.  VI.,  cap.  xx. 

'  Commander  Carless,  vol.  VIII.,  pp.  331,  332,  of  Royal  Geograpliical 
Journal. 

■*  During  the  months  of  June,  July.  August,  and  part  of  September,  the 
communication  between  Bombay  and  Sinde  may  be  said  to  be  cut  off. 

*  Commander  Carless,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  331,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 


CHAP.  XI.]         BOATS  AND  NAVIGATION  OF  THE  INDUS.  3/5 

The  boat  in  use,  called  a  dilndi,  is  well  adapted  for  the  Construction 
navigation  of  the  river  and  the  transport  of  goods.  The  shape  the  lujus!^  °° 
is  peculiar,  being  without  a  keel,  flat-bottomed ;  and  both  the 
bow  and  stern,  which  are  perfectly  flat,  rise  from  the  water  at 
an  angle  of  about  30°,  to  suit  the  shelving  banks  of  the  river. 
It  is  rigged  with  a  square  sail  aft,  and  a  lateen  sail  forward, 
and  is  steered  by  means  of  a  large  triangular  rudder,  hung  over 
the  slanting  stern :  the  largest  are  eighty  feet  long,  and  carry 
sixty  tons,  drawing  only  four  feet  water.  For  want  of  better 
materials,  the  boats  of  the  Indus  are  formed  of  innumerable 
small  pieces  of  wood,  fastened  by  bamboo  pegs,  and  they  are 
consequently  liable  to  accidents ;  but  any  great  deviation  from 
the  principle  of  their  construction  would  not  be  an  improve- 
ment.^ Between  Bukkur  and  Mittun,  the  boat  most  in  use, 
called  a  zohruy,  is  built  of  the  talee  tree,  of  an  oblong  square 
shape,  flat-bottomed,  and  rounded  at  the  extremities.  Some 
exceed  eighty  feet  in  length  and  twenty  in  width,  with  only 
one  mast.' 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Alexander,  this  great  stream  and  its 
tributaries  have  been  navigated  by  the  above  kind  of  flat  boat, 
in  one  of  which  the  late  enterprising  Burnes  ascended  at  the 
favourable  season  to  Lahore,  a  distance  of  nearly  950  miles,  in 
sixty  days.^ 

The  ordinary  trade  is  carried  on  at  a  moderate  rate,  namely.  Trade  on  the 
twelve  or  thirteen  shillings  for  15  cwt,  from  Bander-Vikkar  °'^"^' 
to  Shikarpiir.  The  distance  is  about  390  miles,  chiefly 
through  a  delta,  which,  owing  to  the  changes  constantly  taking 
place  at  its  estuary,  is  beset  with  difficulties.  But  the  river 
has  now  become  known  by  the  careful  surveys  of  Commander 
Carless  and  Lieutenant  Wood,  of  the  Indian  Navy ;  and,  fol- 
lowing the  steps  of  the  late  Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  a  steamer 
has  ascended  as  high  as  Yezir-abad,  on  the  Chinab,  a  distance 
of  about  1,000  miles;  while,  on  another  occasion,  the  Meanee 
steamer  reached  Ferozepiir,  on  the  Sutlej,  and  more  recently 

'  Commander  Carless,  vol.  VIII.,  p.  355,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
*  Sir  A.  Burnes,  vol.  III.,  p.  135,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 
^  Vol.  III.,  p.  113,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 


376 


MARCHES  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  [CHAP.  XI. 


Manner  of 
conveying 
troops  to 
Haider-tibad. 


the  capital  (Lahore)  :  troops,  also,  are  constantly  conveyed 
by  steamers  to  reinforce  or  relieve  our  stations  near  Ha'ider- 
abad.  This  is  sometimes  effected  by  crossing  the  bar  with 
one  of  the  river  steamers  to  meet  the  larger  one  outside,  but 
more  generally  by  marching  from  Karachee  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  Bagar,  there  to  embark.  But  this  difficulty,  and  also 
the  passage  of  the  bars,  might  be  avoided,  by  cutting  a  canal 
from  Karachee  to  some  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  Indus :  this 
would  require  but  a  moderate  amount  of  labour,  and  would 
greatly  facilitate  our  growing  commerce  on  the  river. 


Adverting  to  what  has  been  said  on  page  252,  a  careful 
computation  of  the  routes  of  the  army  has  given  the  following 
approximative  tables  of  the 

Marches  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


Miles. 


European  Routes. 

Pella  to  Widdin,  below  Lom,  on  the  Danube 

Back  a^ain  to  Pella 

From  Pella  to  Thebes 

From  Thebes  to  Dia 

From  Dia  to  the  Hellespont 

Total  .      .      . 

Routes  in  Lesser  Asia. 

From  the  Hellespont  to  the  Graniciis 

The  Granicus  to  Ilium 

Ilium  to  Sardis 

Sardis  to  Ephesus 

Ephesus  to  Halicarnassus 

Halicarnassus  to  Alindae  and  Makri  . 
Makri  to  Xantlius  and  Telmissus 

Telmissus  to  Mount  Climax 

Mount  Climax  to  Salagassus 

Salagassus  to  Celsene 

Celaene  to  Yerma,  probably  Gordium 

Gordium  to  Ancyra 

Ancyra  (higli  route)  to  the  Camp  of  Cyrus  . 
Tlie  Camp  of  Cyrus  to  Tarsus      .... 
Tarsus  into  Rugged  Cilicia  and  back 
Tarsus  to  Myriaudros  and  back  to  the  Issus 

Total  .      .      . 

Carried  forward 


CHAP. 


XI.] 


MARCHES  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


377 


Broutrht  forward 

Routes  in  Si/ria. 

From  the  Issus  by  Aradus  to  Tyre    . 

Tyre  to  Jaffa 

Jafi'a  to  Jerusalem 

Jerusalem  to  Gaza 

Gaza  to  Pelusium 

Total  .      .      . 

Routes  in  Africa. 

Pelusium  to  Memphis 

Memphis  to  the  Sea    ....... 

The  Sea  to  Paraetonius 

Paraetonius  to  the  Temple  of  Ammon 

Ammon  to  Memphis 

Total  .      .      . 

Routes  through  Syria  and  Mesopotamia. 

Memphis  to  Pelusium  and  Gaza  .... 

Gaza  to  Tyre 

Tyre  to  Aradus 

Aradus  to  Antioch 

Antioch  to  Tliapsacus 

Thapsacus  to  Haran,  Mardin,  and  Eski  Mdsul 

Eski  Mosul  to  Arbela 

Arbela  to  the  Tigris,  at  the  Great  Zab   . 

The  Great  Zab  to  Opis 

Opis  to  Babylon 

Babylon  to  Susa 

1  "otal  .      .      . 

Persian  Routes. 

Susa  to  the  Pasitigris 

The  Pasitigris,  north-eastward  to  M;il-Amir 
The  Uxian  city  to  Kal'eh  Sefid    .... 

Kal'eh  Sefid  to  Persepolis 

Persepolis  to  Ecbatana  (Hamadan)    . 
Hamadan,  by  Rliagai,  to  the  Caspian  Gates  . 
The  Caspian  Gates  to  Hecatompylos . 

Hecatompylos  to  Zadracarta 

During  the  campaign  of  the  Mardi  and  Reten 

Tlience  to  Zadracarta  

Zadracarta  to  Susia  in  Aria 

Susia  in  Aria  to  Herat 

Herat  to  Prophthasia  (now  Peshawarun) 
Peshawarun  to  U'lan  Robat,  or  Sliahri-Zohak 

U'lan  Robat  to  Kabul 

Kabul  to  Beghram 

Total  .      .      . 

Carried  forward 


Miles. 


273 
86 
32 
53 

136 


125 
146 
145 
172 
334 


261 

134 

122 

120 

140 

280 

85 

52 

130 

88 

230 


45 

87 
188 

84 
480 
286 
215 
115 
375 
115 
550 
130 
192 
460 
198 

35 


Miles. 
2_fiH'2 


580 


922 


1,642 


3,555 


9,581 


378 


MARCHES  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  [CHAP.  XI. 


, 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Brought  forward 

9, 

581 

Routes  in  Bactriana. 

Beghram  to  Inderab 

110 

Inderab,  or  Drepsa,  to  Balkh,  Bactra  or  Zariaspa 

216 

Zariaspa  to  Karshi,  or  ISautaka 

204 

iN^autaka  to  ]\Iaracanda,  or  Samarkand     . 

115 

Samarkand  to  tlie  River  Jaxartes. 

166 

March  into  the  Fergana  district 

140 

Second  campaign  to  Gaza,  Cyropolis,  and  Eschata 

250 

Eschata  to  Polytimetus  River  and  Zariaspa  . 

450 

Zariaspa  to  Maracanda  and  Nautaka 

312 

Kautaka  to  Kurghan-Tippa 

245 

Kurghan-Tippa  to  Merw-el-Rud        .      .      .      • 

310 

Merw-el-Rud  to  the  Rock  of  Oxjartes     . 

380 

The  Rock  of  Oxyartes  to  Zariaspa     .... 

580 

Zariaspa  to  Beghram 

326 

Total  .... 
Routes  West  and  East  of  the  Indus. 

Q 

804 

o 

J  \J\Jx. 

Beghram  to  Kabul  and  Attock 

375 

Attock  to  Taxila 

45 

Taxila  to  the  Hydaspes 

55 

The  Hydaspes  to  tlie  Hydraotes    ..... 

125 

The  Hydraotes  to  Sakala  and  the  Hyphasis  . 

86 

Tlie  Hyphosis,  back  to  the  Hydaspes 

180 

The  Hydaspes  to  the  confluence  of  the  Akesines 

250 

The  Akesines  to  the  Malli,  and  back  to  theHydraotes 

210 

Descent  of  the  Hydraotes  and  Indus  .... 

860 

Total  .... 
Routes  in  I' ran. 

2 

,186 

From  the  Indus  to  Susa 

1,250 

Susa  to  the  Sea 

219 

The  Sea  to  Opis 

590 

Opis  to  Susa 

308 

Susa  to  Baghistan 

280 

Baghistan  to  Hamadan 

110 

40  days*  campaign  against  the  Cossseans 

360 

Hamadan  to  Babylon 

340 

Total  .... 

3 

457 

TCU  1 

19 

,028 

(    370     ). 


CHAPTER  XIL 

THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  ALEXANDER,  FROM  323  B.C.  TO  246  B.C. 


State  of  the  Empire  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  Death. — Threatened  Hos- 
tilities.— Arrangements  for  the  Succession. — The  various  Governors  retain 
their  situations. — Roxana  puts  Statira  and  her  Sister  to  Death. — Eumenes 
enters  Cappadocia.  —  Death  of  Perdiccas.  —  Defeat  and  Blockade  of 
Eumenes. — Invasion  of  Phoenicia,  and  March  towards  Babylonia. — The 
Army  of  Eumenes  escapes  from  an  Inundation,  and  enters  Susiana. — 
Eurydiceand  Philip  put  to  Death  by  Olympias. — Campaigns  in  Susiana. — 
March  through  the  Cossaean  Mountains. — Campaign  in  Media. — Drawn 
Battle,  and  Death  of  Eumenes. — Antigonus  settles  the  minor  Govern- 
ments.— Combinations  against,  and  Preparations  of  Antigonus. — Antigonus 
marches  into  Asia  Minor. — Demetrius  Defeated  near  Gaza. — The  Kaba- 
theaus,  and  Expeditions  of  Antigonus  against  Petra. — Roxana  and  her 
son  Alexander  murdered  by  Cassander. — Barsine,  Hercules,  and  Olympias 
put  to  Death. — Antigonus  and  the  other  successors  of  Alexander  assume 
regal  titles. — Expeditions  of  Antigonus  and  Demetrius:  they  proceed 
against  Egypt,  and  are  repulsed. — Demetrius  besieges  Rhodes,  and  fails 
in  repeated  Attacks, — Sieges  of  Fortresses  in  ancient  and  modern  times. — 
Seleucus  extends  ins  Empire  into  India. — His  Treaty  with  Sandrocottus, 
and  March  into  Asia  Minor. — Forces  assembled  under  Seleucus  and 
Antigonus  near  Ipsus. — Result  of  the  Battle.— Subdivision  of  Alexander's 
Empire  into  four  great  Kingdoms. — Demetrius  is  taken,  and  dies  in 
Captivity. — Death  and  Character  of  Seleucus. — Accession  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. — Prosperity  of  Egypt  under  this  Monarch. 


The  voyage  of  Nearchus,  and  especially  the  preceding  cam-  a  knowledge 
paigns  of  Alexander,  had  made   eastern  Persia  and   the  ad-  ,ived  ftom" 
joining  countries  practically  known  to  the  Greeks ;   but  the  ^Im^^vms^ 
knowledge  thus  acquired  of  these  regions  would  have  speedily 
passed  away,  had  it  not  been  preserved  by  the  subsequent  wars : 
it  was  at  the  same  time  turned  to  account  by  the  commercial 
relations  which   in  consequence   sprang  up.     The  protracted  and  the  wars 
contests  for  dominion  which  followed  the  mitimely  death  ofsois. 
Alexander  must,  however,  claim  immediate  notice,  since  they 


380 


ARIDiEUS  REGENT  OF  ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE.     [cHAP.  XII. 


Tlireatened 
hostilities. 


Joint  regal 

power 

arranged. 


The  several 

governors 
retain  their 


Tloxana  puts 
her  rivals  to 
deatli,  and 
gives  birth  to 
a  sou. 


took  place  in  the  kingdoms  lying  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Indus,  which  had  submitted  to  the  power  of  the  conqueror. 

Alexander  appears  to  have  anticipated  these  fearful  struggles, 
for  in  bequeathing  his  colossal  empire  to  him  who  should  prove 
the  bravest,  he  added,  that  his  generals,  in  fighting  one  with 
another,  would  offer  ample  funereal  sacrifices  to  his  manes.^ 

Scarcely  had  a  reign  of  unparalleled  conquests  terminated 
with  these  words,  when  Perdiccas,  to  whom  the  king  had  con- 
fided his  signet,  commenced  operations  at  the  head  of  the 
cavalry,  by  surrounding  the  phalanx,  which  was  then  under 
Meleager,  in  Babylon. 

Bloodshed,  however,  was  for  the  moment  averted  by  the 
prudent  efforts  of  Eumenes,  the  late  king's  secretary ;  and  as 
no  individual  could  expect  support  from  his  competitors  for 
power,  all  agreed  to  the  proposal  that  Arida?us,  the  natural 
brother  of  Alexander,  should  share  the  regal  office  jointly  with 
the  expected  son  of  Boxana;  an  infirmity  of  mind  to  which  the 
former  was  subject,  and  the  prospective  infancy  of  the  latter, 
having  united  all  suffrages  in  their  favour.  It  was  at  the  same 
time  decided  that  a  magnificent  procession  should  convey 
Alexander's  remains  into  Africa,^  and  that  Taxiles  and  the 
other  Asiatic  chiefs  should  retain  their  satrapies,  as  part  of  the 
intended  empire ;  ^  while  its  western  portions  were  severally  to 
continue  under  Ptolemy,  Antigoims,  Eumenes,  and  others. 
It  was  also  determined  neither  to  construct  the  pyramidal 
monument  to  Philip,  nor  the  six  splendid  temples  which  were 
to  have  been  raised,  nor  even  the  thousand  long  ships  which 
had  been  intended  to  command  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean; 
and  thus  the  ample  funds  which  had  been  expressly  left  by 
Alexander  for  these  purposes,  became  available  for  other 
objects.  With  the  decision  to  make  these  changes  regarding 
the  intentions  of  the  late  king,  the  momentary  unanimity  of  his 
captains  terminated. 

Boxana,  shortly  after  endeavouring  to  secure  the  regal  suc- 
cession by  putting  to  death  Statira  and  Drypetis,  the  daughters 
of  Darius,  gave  birth  to  a  son,  in  whose  name,  jointly  with  that 


'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIII.,  cap.  i. 
'  Ibid. 


Ibid.,  cap.  ii. 


CHAP.  XII. j  PERDICCAS'  DEFEAT  AND  DEATH  IN  EGYPT.       381 

of  Aridcuus,  now  called  Philip,  the  government  was  nominally 
carried  on  ;  the  real  power,  however,  was  exercised  by  lloxana, 
assisted  by  Perdiccas. 

After  quelling  an  insurrection  in  Greece,  and  another  in  Eumencs  con- 
Thrace,  Perdiccas  turned  his  attention  towards  Cappadocia ;  in  CitppaUoda. 
when,  the  strongholds  of  Isaura  and  Laranda  being  taken,  and 
Ariarathes,  the  king,  crucified  by  his  orders,  he  entrusted  the 
government  of  that  kingdom  to  Eumenes.  Leaving  him  to 
prosecute  the  war,  Perdiccas  proceeded  to  invade  Egypt,  now 
become  a  consolidated  kingdom.  Eumenes,  in  the  mean  time, 
being  appointed  generalissimo  of  Caria,  Lycia,  and  Cappadocia, 
had  organized  an  army,  with  which,  in  the  first  instance,  he 
defeated  and  killed  Craterus,  and  ten  days  later  he  gained  a 
more  signal  battle  over  Neoptolemus.' 

But  these  successes  were  not  sufficient  to  turn  the  scale  in  invasion  of 
favour    of    his    chief,    Perdiccas,    whose    unjust   attack    upon  murder 'of 
Ptolemy,  in  Egypt,  terminated  in  his  defeat,  after  which  he  P^''^^*=*="^' 
was  put  to  death  by  his  own  troops.     Antipater,  who  was  now 
chosen  sole  protector  of  the  kingdom,  with  sovereign  power, 
proceeded  to  make  the  following  allotment  of  the  provinces, 
*:he  details  of  which  are  calculated  to  show  the  vastness  of  the 
empire. 

Ptolemy  retained  Egypt,  and  Laomedon  Syria ;  Philoxenus  Antipater  dis- 
had  Cilicia ;  Amphimachus  obtained  Mesopotamia  and  Arbi-  provinces  of 
litis ;  Babylon  fell  to  Seleucus,  the  commander  of  the  troops  p|^ 
called  companions ;  and  Susiana  to  Antigonus.^     With  regard 
to    the    eastern    portion    of    the    empire,    Peucestas   received 
Persia;  Tlepolemus,  Carmania;  Stasander,  Aria  and  Drangia; 
Philip,    Parthia ;    Stasanor,   Bactria  and   Sogdia ;    Syburtius, 
Aracosia;    Oxyartes  had   the   region   of  Paropamisus,   while 
Pithon   had   Media   and   the   tract   eastward   from   thence   to 
India,  in  which  region  Porus  and  Taxiles  retained  their  former 
possessions.     In  Western  Asia,  Nicanor  received  Cappadocia ; 
Phrygia  Major,  and  the  tracts  near  the  coast,  were  given  to 
Antigonus,    Caria    to    Cassander,    Lydia    to    Clitus,    Lesser 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.   XVIII.,   cap.    xi.,  compared   with    Plufarcli,    in  vita 
Eumen. 

-  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIIl.,  cap.  xiii. 


the  new  em- 


pire. 


382    EUMENES  IS  BLOCKADED  IN  THE  CASTLE  OF  NORA.  [CHAP.  XII. 


Antigonus  de- 
feats Eumenes 
in  Cappadocia. 


B.  C.  31S. 


Eumenes 
assumes  the 
offensive  in 
PhoBuicia. 


13.  C.  317. 

Eumenes 
inarches  alonj 
tlie  Tigris, 
and  encamps 
near  the  Hiii. 


Phrygia  to  Aridseus.  Cassander  was  appointed  general  of  the 
horse,  and  the  command  of  the  household  troops  was  given 
to  Antigonus,  with  orders  to  prosecute  the  war  against 
Eumenes,  who,  on  account  of  his  fidelity,  was  now  reputed  a 
public  enemy.^  The  latter  lost  no  time  in  preparing  to  defend 
himself;  and  Antigonus  immediately  marched  into  Cappadocia, 
where  he  gained  a  decided  and  well-contested  victory  over 
Eumenes.  Defeated,  but  not  discouraged,  the  latter  retreated 
into  Phrygia,  where  he  defended  the  castle  of  Nora~  so  suc- 
cessfully, that  Antigonus,  although  at  the  head  of  60,000 
infantry  and  19,000  cavalry,  was  glad  to  grant  him  very 
favourable  terms.  The  faithful  Eumenes  now  received  the 
appointment  of  commander  of  the  king's  forces  in  Asia,^  and 
immediately  commenced  extensive  preparations  for  the  coming 
campaign.  By  unremitting  exertions  he  collected  about  15,000 
men ;  and  hoping  to  maintain  the  royal  cause,  he  hastened  to 
take  the  bold  step  of  commencing  operations  on  the  side  of 
PhcEnicia,  which  was  at  the  moment  invaded  by  Ptolemy;  but 
finding  himself  deprived  of  the  expected  support  of  the  king's 
fleet,  in  consequence  of  its  recent  defeat  on  that  coast,  and 
having  besides  to  contend  with  the  forces  of  Antigonus,  who 
had  followed  him  thither,  he  placed  the  river  Euphrates  be- 
tween his  troops  and  those  of  his  antagonist,  and  then  took 
post  at  the  neighbouring  city  of  Carrhae. 

The  inactive  season  was  employed  in  preparations  for  the 
approaching  campaign ;  and  amongst  other  appeals  to  the  sup- 
posed adherents  of  the  royal  cause,  embassies  were  sent  to  the 
satrap  of  Media,  and  to  Seleucus,  the  governor  of  Babylonia. 

Early  in  the  spring,  in  consequence  of  the  equivocal  answer 
of  the  latter,  Eumenes  marched  against  him  at  the  head  of 
20,000  men,  hoping  to  seize  the  treasures  of  Susa,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  receive  reinforcements  from  the  upper  satrapies. 
With  these  objects  in  view,  he  appears  to  have  advanced  along 
the  Tigris,  till  he  encamped  on  its  banks  at  about  300  stadia 
from  Babylon.  The  distance  here  given''  nearly  corresponds 
with  that  between  the  city  and  the  Tigris  at  the  bifurcation  of 


'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XVIII.,  cap.  xiii. 
Ibid.,  cajj.  xvii. 


Ibid.,  cap.  .\vi. 

Ibid.,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  iv. 


CHAP.  XII.]       EUMENES  CARRIES  THE  WAR  INTO  BABYLONIA.        383 

the  Hai,  near  which  he,  no  doubt,  intended  to  cross  the  prin- 
cipal stream. 

Whilst  collecting  boats  for  this  purpose,  it  appears  that  Perilous  situa- 
oeleucus  cut  a  dyke,  probably  that  oi  the  canal  in  question  menes'  army. 
which  crosses  this  part  of  Mesopotamia.  The  country  was  in 
consequence  so  rapidly  inundated,  that  it  was  only  by  occupying 
some  elevated  ground,  and  by  the  speedy  use  of  boats  at  the 
same  time,  that  Eumenes  saved  his  troops  from  destruction, 
and  gained  the  left  bank,  leaving  his  baggage  behind.'  The 
latter  was,  however,  recovered  the  next  day,  when  Eumenes 
found  means  to  restore  the  dyke  and  drain  the  water.  Seleucus, 
finding  that  his  stratagem  had  failed,  was  glad  to  make  a  truce, 
and  his  opponent  immediately  occupied  Susiana,  dividing  his 
army  into  three  corps,  to  facilitate  the  means  of  obtaining 
supplies,^  whilst  he  awaited  the  expected  reinforcements  from 
the  upper  provinces. 

Antigonus  still  hoped  by  a  rapid  march  to  recover  what  had 
been  lost  by  the  skill  and  boldness  of  his  g,dversary ;  but 
arriving  too  late,  he  employed  the  winter  season,  which  had 
now  arrived,  in  concerting  measures  with  Seleucus  and  Pithon 
for  another  campaign.^ 

Whilst  thus  occupied,  events  occurred  elsewhere  Avhich  were 
well  calculated  to  hasten,  if  they  did  not  give  rise  to,  those 
bloody  contests  which  ere  long  convulsed  the  empire  from  one 
extremity  to  the  other. 

At  the  instance  of  Polysperchon,  Olympias  returned  from  oiympias  puts 
Epirus,  her  place  of  banishment,  to  Macedonia,   and  having  EurvSiceto 
obtained  possession  of  Philip,  as  well  as  of  her  rival  Eurydice,  *^^'*''^- 
she  treated  the  captives  with  the  greatest  rigour,^ and  after- 
wards caused  them  to  be  put  to  death :  thus  terminated  the 
nominal  reign  of  Philip,  after  a  period  of  six  years  and  a  half."  B.C.  317. 

One  barrier  to  his  ambition  being  thus  removed,  Antigonus,  Antigonns 
the  self-appointed  regent,  moved  early  in  the  spring  towards  i^oJa.^  ^  ^' 
Babylonia,  taking  his  whole  force,  including  the  contingents  of 
Seleucus  and  Pithon.     Having  crossed  the  Tigris  in  boats,*  he 


'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  iv. 

^'  Ibid. 

^  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  V, 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  vi. 

384 


EUMENES  DEFEATS  ANTIGONUS  IN  SUSIANA.      [cHAP.  XII. 


Marches  to  the 
river  Coprates. 


Eumenes  by 
a  manoeuvre 
routs  the 
euemy. 


Ami-rouus 
retreats  to 
Baduca. 


He  assumes 
the  ofi'euiiive. 


directed  his  march  on  the  capital,  to  encounter  Eumenes,  and 
the  reinforcements  drawn  by  him  from  Carmania,  Ariana, 
Drangiana,  &c. 

Finding  a  determined  resistance,  he  left  a  body  of  troops  to 
besiege  the  castle  of  Susa,  and  advancing  against  Eumenes,  he 
exposed  his  army  to  a  trying  march  from  thence  to  the  river 
Coprates,  at  a  season  when  the  heat  was  at  the  greatest,  and 
everything  completely  burnt  up.  Using  boats,  and  rafts  formed 
of  inflated  skins,  which  were  propelled  by  means  of  poles, 
6,000  horse  and  2,000  foot  were  transported  across  the  lower 
part  of  the  stream  in  question,  probably  the  river  of  Diz,  with 
orders  to  excavate  a  ditch  and  prepare  a  camp  within  it  for  the 
whole  army.  Eumenes,  who  was  posted  behind  a  river,  pro- 
bably the  Karun  (here  called  the  Tigris'),  and  only  eighty 
stadia  from  the  enemy,  was  perfectly  aware  of  all  that  was 
taking  place,  and  determined,  in  conformity  with  the  tactics  of 
the  school  in  which  he  had  been  educated,  to  make  the  best  of 
his  position  by  becoming  the  assailant.  He  therefore  crossed  the 
Tigris  (Kariin)  at  the  head  of  4,000  foot  and  1,500  horse,  where 
he  found  6,000  men  collecting  forage,  under  the  protection  of  300 
cavalry  and  3,000  infantry :  these  he  attacked  and  routed, 
before  there  was  even  time  to  form,  causing  the  whole  to  fly  in 
the  greatest  disorder.  Antigonus  and  the  rest  of  his  forces, 
after  an  ineffectual  effort  to  cover  or  protect  the  fugitives,  were 
obliged  to  witness  the  sudden  destruction  of  4,000  men,  who 
by  rushing  headlong  into  the  boats,  and  causing  the  greater 
part  to  sink,  either  perished  in  the  water  or  were  taken  pri- 
soners, without  the  possibility  of  receiving  assistance.  Nor 
was  the  loss  confined  to  those  killed  and  drowned,  for  numbers 
were  sacrificed  by  exposure  to  the  sun  during  the  subsequent 
retreat  to  Badaca.^  After  reposing  here  for  a  short  time, 
Antigonus  put  the  army  in  motion,  and  proceeded  towards 
Media,  that  he  might  be  near  the  provinces  from  which  he  was 
to  receive  reinforcements.  In  this  march  he  had  choice  of  two 
routes,  the  longer  and  easier  of  which  ho  determined  to  avoid, 
because  it  would  have  exposed  his  troops  to  the  heat  of  the  sun 

'  The  Pasitij2^ris  of  Quint,  Curt,  and  Arrian. 
^  Diocl.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  vi. 


CHAP.  XII.]     PASSAGE  THROUGH  THE  COSS^AN  MOUNTAINS.  385 

for  forty  davs :  he  therefore  preferred  to  move  by  the  shorter  March 

•'  '  ^  ,  n     \_      r^  through  the 

and  more  dirhcult  route  through  the  country  oi  the  Uossajans,  cossican 
his  intention  being  to  force  his  way,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  * 
Pithon,  who  suggested  that  he  should  endeavour  to  purchase 
the  good  will  of  these  hardy  mountaineers.  The  route  thus 
chosen,  which  is  described  as  being  irregular,  narrow,  and  pre- 
cipitous, badly  supplied,  and  occupied  by  hostile  tribes,  but 
cool,'  appears  to  be  that  which  passes  up  the  valley  of  the 
Kerkhah  to  A'bi-Garm,  and  from  thence  crosses  the  mountains 
to  Khorrara-abad."  Nearchus,  one  of  the  generals,  was  sent  in 
advance,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  archers,  some  slingers,  and 
other  light  troops,  with  orders  to  drive  the  Cossseans  from  their 
principal  strongholds,  and  having  done  so,  to  line  the  roads,  so 
as  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the  main  body.  Antigonus  followed 
with  the  latter,  and  a  chosen  body  of  horse,  under  Pithon, 
covered  the  rear.^ 

Nearchus,  as  instructed,  preceded  the  main  body,  and  seized 
several  commanding  points ;  but  many  others  were  overlooked, 
and  these,  being  occupied  by  the  enemy,  caused  great  annoy- 
ance and  serious  loss  to  those  who  followed.     Those  imme- 
diately  round    Antigonus    suffered    most,    and    were    greatly 
exposed  to  the  stones  and  darts  of  the  Cossseans.     They  sue-  The  army 
ceeded,  however,  in  making  good  their  passage,  after  having  pfJs'a'gJ'into 
been   exposed  to  this  harassing  warfare  for  nine  days,  during  Media. 
which    they    incurred   a   heavy   loss    in    men,    elephants,   and 
horses.    On  entering  Media,  abundant  supplies,  with  a  remount 
for  the  cavalry,   in  some  measure  restored  the  wonted  tone 
of  the    army,   and    the   march   was   continued  to   the   higher 
provinces. 

Eumenes    now   broke   up  his   camp    on   the   banks   of  the  Eumenes 
Pasitigris  (Karun),  to  pursue  his  enemy;  and  taking  the  route  "^^ug^ifthe 
of  the   ladders,   or   Pyla)   Persicae,   and  subsequently   passing  Pyi^s  Persica;. 
through  the  shaded  valleys  ar.d  gardens^  of  Basht  and  Failioun, 
he  reached  Persepolis  in  twenty-four  marches.     The  soldiers, 
who  had  been  scantily  supplied  during  this  time,  found  their 

'  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  vi. 

*  Major  Rawlinson,  Eoyal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  IX.,  p.  63. 
^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  vi.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  vii. 

VOL.  II.  2  C 


386  EUMENES'  ARMY  IS  FEASTED  AT  PERSEPOLIS.      [cHAP.  XII. 

toils  rewarded  by  a  great  feast,  which,  like  that  of  Alexander 
The  army  is    qh  a  greater  occasion,  had  been  prepared  by  Peucestas  for  the 

feasted  by  '^       ^  •' 

Peucestas.  wholc  arinv.  An  altar,  dedicated  to  the  conqueror,  and  another 
to  his  father  Philip,  occupied  the  centre,  round  which  the 
generals,  masters  of  the  horse,  nobles,  and  chiefs  of  Persia  had 
their  several  tables,  forming  an  interior  circle  of  two  stadia ;  a 
second,  of  four  stadia,  was  occupied  by  officers  of  the  second 
order;  and  a  third,  of  eight  stadia  in  circumference,  was 
destined  for  the  Argyraspides,  and  those  who  had  served  under 
Alexander:  the  fourth,  or  that  intended  for  the  mercenaries 
and  auxiliaries,  was  ten  stadia  in  circumference.^ 

Eumenes  out-       Eumcnes,  having  drank  hard  at  this  and  another  banquet 

gonus.  ^  ^  which  he  subsequently  gave  to  his  troops,  was  attacked  by 
fever,  which  in  the  latter  part  of  the  march  obliged  him  to  be 
carried  in  a  litter.  By  making  a  forced  march  in  this  manner, 
he  succeeded  in  anticipating  the  intention  of  Antigonus,  by 
throwing  himself  between  the  latter  and  Gabene,  in  the  district 
of  Paraetacene. 

On  the  appearance  of  the  enemy's  advance,  Peucestas 
ordered  the  line  of  battle  to  be  formed ;  but  the  soldiers,  who 
suspected  that  Eumenes  was  dead,  at  first  refused  to  obey. 
Eumenes  was  therefore  brought  out  in  his  litter,  with  the 
curtains  drawn  back,  in  order  to  convince  them  that  their 
general  was  still  alive.^  Eumenes  had  35,000  foot  and  6,000 
horse,  with  114  elephants,  while  Antigonus  had  only  28,000 
foot,  8,500  horse,  and  65  elephants.  The  latter,  who  out- 
flanked his  enemy  on  this  occasion,  attacked  in  echellon  from 
the  right,  and  repulsed  the  left  of  Eumenes ;  ^  but  after  a  long 
and  obstinate  struggle,  with  various  skilful  manoeuvres  and 
alternate  advantages  on  both  sides,  the  contest  ended  at  night- 

in  the  battle    fall  to  the  disadvantage  of  Antigonus.     He  retained,  however, 

which  cnsu6S 

Antigonus  is '  part  of  the  battle-ground,  and  buried  the  dead  before  he  retired 
^^^^  ^  ■  to  winter  at  Gadamolis,  or  Gadarlis,  in  Media.  On  the  other 
hand,  Eumenes  secured  his  object  by  marching  from  the  battle 
ground  into  the  unexhausted  district  of  Gabene. 
Positions  of  Tlic  two  amiics  having  moved  in  almost  opposite  directions 
wL^r^"^''"^  from  the  recent  field  of  battle,  were  now  separated  by  a  distance 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap,  vii.  °  Ibid.,  cap.  viii.  '  Ibid. 


CHAP.  XII. J     RAPID  MARCH  OF  EUMENES  TOWARDS  MEDIA.  387 

of  twenty-five  inarches,  through  inhabited  countries,  but  of 
nine  only  by  the  more  direct  route,  which  was,  however, 
entirely  without  the  means  of  subsistence.'  Antigonus  being 
aware  that  the  troops  of  his  rival  were  dispersed  in  different 
winter  quarters,  for  the  sake  of  supplies,  formed  the  bold  pro- 
ject of  surprising  and  attacking  them  with  a  superior  force, 
before  they  could  assemble. 

Accordingly,  ten  days'  supplies  were  prepared  ;  and  giving  Antigonus 
out  that  he  was  about  to  traverse  Armenia,   he   moved  the  ^^prise 
whole  army  by  forced  marches  across  the  mountains  towards  Eumenes. 
Gabene.     Strict  orders   were   issued  that   no  fires  should  be 
lighted  at  night,  lest  his  approach  should  be  discovered  from 
the  heights ;  but  after  obeying  this  order  for  five  nights,  the 
soldiers,  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  winter,  made  fires, 
and  these  being  seen  by  the  inhabitants,  notice  of  an  approach- 
ing enemy  w^as  immediately  given  to  Peucestas  and  Eumenes. 

The  former,  who  had  charge  of  the  advance,  was  about  to  Happy  expe- 
make  a  hasty  retreat,  lest  he  should  be  cut  off",  but  Eumenes,  Eumenes. 
arriving  at  the  moment,  encouraged  him  to  maintain  his  post 
on  the  borders  of  the  desert,  assuring  him  that  he  knew  how  to 
delay  the  enemy  till  the  army  could  be  collected.  Ever  fertile 
in  expedients,  this  commander  ordered  all  the  troops  that  he 
could  assemble  at  the  moment  to  follow  him  quickly  to  the 
elevated  ground  overlooking  the  plain,  and  choosing  the  most 
conspicuous  places,  he  caused  fires  to  be  lighted  at  each.  At 
nightfall  they  were  to  be  very  large,  as  if  supper  were  in  pre- 
paration ;  but  in  the  second  and  third  watch  they  were 
gradually  to  become  extinct,  thus  having  the  appearance,  from 
a  distance,  of  an  army  encamped  on  the  spot.  This  simple 
stratagem  completely  succeeded;  for  Antigonus  and  Pithon, 
believing  that  the  whole  army  was  in  their  front,  immediately 
halted,  to  allow  their  troops  the  necessary  time  for  refreshment 
and  repose,  preparatory  to  a  general  engagement.  During  this 
interval,  Eumenes  was  equally  prepared,  and  both  armies  being  The  two  ar- 

,  .       „  /.     1      '  f.  1  1  •  1       J  ""^'s  prepare 

encamped  withm  forty  lurlongs  of  each  other,  it  was  resolved  for  battle. 
to  decide  the  war. 

Antigonus    placed    his    cavalry    in    the   wings,   having    the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  x. 

2  C  2 


388 


DEATH  OF  EUMENES. 


[chap.  XII. 


Eumenes  com 
mences  the 
engagement, 
refusing  his 
right  wing. 


Eumenes  is 
put  to  death. 


Antigonus 
arranges  the 
dillL-rent 
governments. 


Fifteen  thou- 
sand talents 
taken  at  Susa. 


infantry  in  the  centre,  the  elephants  in  front,  and  light-armed 
troops  occupying  the  intervals  between  these  animals. 

Eumenes,  with  the  elite  of  the  cavalry,  placed  himself  in  the 
left  wing,  opposite  to  his  adversary,  having  sixty  elephants, 
forming  an  oval,  in  his  front,  here  also  with  light  troops  filling 
up  the  intervals.  Philip,  the  satrap  of  Parthia,  commanded 
the  right  wing,  and  had  orders  to  retreat  rather  than  risk  its 
safety  by  a  general  engagement.  The  whole  force  amounted 
to  114  elephants,  36,700  infantry,  and  6,050  cavalry,  all 
animated  with  the  best  spirit. 

The  battle,  w^hich  commenced  with  the  elephants  and  cavalry, 
terminated,  after  a  lengthened  struggle,  with  mutual  advan- 
tages, the  cavalry  of  Antigonus  having  defeated  its  opponents, 
■while,  on  the  other  side,  the  infantry  of  Eumenes  was  victorious. 
But  the  families  of  the  Argyraspides  having  been  taken,  these 
troops  sacrificed  their  honour  to  recover  their  wives  and  childen ; 
for  on  a  hint  from  Antigonus  that  such  an  exchange  would  be 
acceptable,  the  Macedonians  delivered  up  their  general. 

The  talented  and  upright  Eumenes,  being  now  for  the  second 
time  in  his  power,  Antigonus,  without  hesitation,  caused  him  to 
be  put  to  death ;  and  having  gone  through  the  form  of  honour- 
ing his  remains  with  the  public  rite  of  burning,  he  completed  the 
mockery  by  sending  the  ashes  in  a  funereal  urn  to  his  relatives. 

Antigonus  now  occupied  winter  quarters  between  the  Median 
Ecbatana  and  Rhages,  and  took  advantage  of  this  interval  of 
repose  to  confirm  those  governors  who  were  too  powerful  to  be 
dispossessed,  removing  others  who  were  inimical  to  his  interests. 
Amongst  the  latter  were  Pithon,  who  was  tried  and  executed, 
and  Peucestas,  the  satrap  of  Persia.  Having  personally  super- 
seded the  latter,  he  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  the  country, 
and  sovereign  of  all  Asia:  he  likewise  confirmed  Oxyartes, 
Evitus,  and  others,  in  their  governments ;  after  which  he  pro- 
ceeded towards  Susa,  where  he  found  the  celebrated  golden 
vine,  and  other  treasures  valued  at  15,000  talents.' 

During  this  period  the  flames  of  war  continued  to  rage  in 
Europe,  chiefly  in  the  territories  governed  by  Cassander,  by 
whom  Olympias  had  been  invested  in  Pydna  since  the  murder  of 

'  Diod.  Sic  ,  lib.  XIX.,  caj).  xv. 


CHAP.  Xir.]       ANTIGONUS  RESISTS  SELEUCUS  AND  PTOLEMY.  389 

Aridaeus  and  Eurydice.  At  length  famine  overcame  the  bravery  oiympias  is 
of  the  defenders  of  that  place,  ^heu  the  haughty  Oiympias, 
deserted  by  her  troops,  fell  into  the  hands  of  her  enemies,  and 
the  mother  of  Alexander  was  put  to  death,  by  the  kindred  of 
those  who  had  already  suffered  by  her  orders  ;  but  Koxana  and 
her  son,  who  were  destined  to  experience  a  similar  fate,  still 
remained  in  captivity. 

Favoured  by  these  circumstances,  Antigonus  marched  to-  Combinatioa 
wards  Babylon,  and  on  his  approach  Seleucus  fled  to  Ptolemy,  ptoiemy'^^and 
whose  authority  then  extended  over  Syria  and  Phoenicia  as  Cassander. 
well  as  Egypt.     He  was  well  received ;  and  he  soon  induced 
Ptolemy  to  join  with  the  rulers  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace  in  a 
combination    against  Antigonus,   who    now   openly   aimed    at 
uniting  the   whole   of   the   Macedonian    conquests    under    his 
dominion.     He  prepared  for  the  approaching  conquest  by  esta- 
blishing beacons  and  couriers   to    secure    speedy  intelligence 
throughout   Asia,  by   raising  troops,  by  building  a  fleet,   and 
at  the  same  time  strengthening  his  party  by  an  alliance  with 
Khodes  and  Cyprus. 

His  advantageous  position  between  Ptolemy  on  the  one  side,  Antigonus 
and  the  confederates  in  Asia  on  the  other,  was  speedily  turned  preparftlons. 
to  good  account.  A  fleet  being  urgently  required  to  cope  with 
that  of  Ptolemy,  which,  under  Seleucus,  threatened  the  coast 
and  menaced  the  camp  before  Tyre,  numerous  shipwrights 
were  immediately  employed  to  construct  vessels  at  Tripoli, 
Sidon,  and  Byblus,  and  also  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia.  The 
forests  of  the  Taurus  supplied  materials  for  that  coast,  and 
1,000  pairs  of  bullocks  were  employed  in  transporting  the 
magnificent  pines  and  cedars  of  Lebanon  to  the  ports  of  Syria.^ 

Leaving,  in  addition  to  the  necessary  protection  at  these 
places,  3,000  men,  under  Andronicus,  to  blockade  Tyre, 
Antigonus  proceeded  southward,  and  having  secured  his  flank 
on  the  side  of  Egypt  by  subjecting  the  cities  of  Joppa  and 
Gaza,  he  returned  to  resume  in  form  the  siege  of  the  first 
-place.^  During  its  progress,  however,  the  operations  of  Ptolemy  siege  of  Tyre, 
in  Greece,  and  those  of  the  confederates  in  Asia,  called  for  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  northern  provinces.  Leaving,  therefore, 
'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap,  xviii.  *  Ibid. 


390  ANTIGONUS  INVADES  LESSER  ASIA  AND  ARABIA.    [cHAP.  XII. 


Antigonus 
marches  into 
Lesser  Asia. 


B.  C.  313. 


Ptolemy  de- 
feats Deme- 
trius at  Gaza. 


B.  C.  312. 

Result  of  the 
campaign. 


Antigonns 
sends  a  force 
against  the 
Nabatheans. 


his  son  Demetrius  at  the  head  of  an  ample  force,  Antigonus, 
after  experiencing  some  loss  from  the  snow,  crossed  the  Taurus, 
and  put  his  army  into  winter  quarters  at  Celsene  in  Phrygia, 
being  supported  by  his  newly-constructed  fleet  from  Phoenicia.^ 
He  had  now  obtained  command  of  the  sea,  and  by  the  skilfully 
conducted  campaign  that  followed,  the  greater  part  of  Caria 
fell  into  his  hands.  During  that  and  the  following  year,  he 
gained  the  alliance  of  most  of  the  Peloponnesus,  of  Euboea, 
Thebes,  Phocis,  and  Locris ;  in  consequence  of  which  a  treaty 
followed  with  Cassander,  who,  from  a  formidable  opponent,  be- 
came a  dependent  ally. 

But  these  successes  were  clouded  by  a  serious  reverse 
experienced  elsewhere  by  his  forces.  Ptolemy  having  been 
successful  in  Cyrene  and  also  in  Cyprus,  had  just  returned  to 
Egypt.  From  thence,  at  the  instance  of  Seleucus,"  he  marched 
to  attack  Demetrius  with  a  superior  force ;  and  the  latter 
being  routed  in  a  pitched  battle  near  Gaza,  fled  to  Tripoli  and 
despatched  a  courier  to  entreat  his  father's  speedy  assistance.^ 
As  the  consequence  of  this  battle,  Ptolemy  recovered  the  cities 
of  Phoenicia,  with  the  exception  of  Tyre,  and  Seleucus  was 
enabled  to  resume  his  government  of  Babylonia.  With  this 
resumption  commenced  the  celebrated  era  of  the  Seleucidse. 

The  approach  of  Antigonus,  and  the  defeat  of  Cilles  by 
Demetrius,  caused  Ptolemy  to  retire  into  Egypt,  leaving  his 
enemy  master  of  Coslo-Syria,  &c.^ 

Elated  with  these  successes,  Antigonus  determined  to  turn 
his  arms  against  the  Nabathean  Arabs.  By  their  laws,  this 
particular  section  of  the  Arab  race,  like  the  Rechabites  of  an 
earlier  time,^  were  forbidden  to  drink  wine,  to  sow  seed,  and  to 
build  or  possess  houses.  Being  almost  wholly  without  cultiva- 
tion, their  food  was  necessarily  limited  to  the  milk  and  flesh  of 
their  flocks,  with  the  addition  of  fruits,  roots,  wild  honey,  and  a 
sort  of  pepper,  which,  says  Diodorus  Siculus,  they  mixed  with 
the  last.®  Athenseus,  the  general  to  whom  Antigonus  entrusted 
the  enterprise,  having  ascertained  that  the  bulk  of  the  Naba- 


'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  xx. 

=>  Ibid. 

'  Jer.,  chap.  XXXV.,  v.  2-10. 


"  Ibid.,  cap.  xxiii. 

■*  Ibid.,  cap.  XXV. 

*  Lib.  XIX.,  cap.  xxv. 


CHAP.  XII.]  DEINIETRIUS  PROCEEDS  AGAINST  BABYLON.  391 

tlieans  ^vere  absent  at  a  fair  on  the  borders  of  Syria,  made  a  Amigonus 
forced  march  of  220  miles  in  72  hours,  and  seized  Petra  their  capital  *^"^ 
capital.' 

But  the  Arabs,  being  apprized  by  some  of  the  fugitives  that 
their  enemies  were  not  on  the  alert  after  their  success,  made  a 
sudden  attack  during  the  third  watch,  and  killed  Athenseus 
and  all  his  troops,  with  the  exception  of  some  80  horsemen, 
who  escaped  wounded.-  Antigonus  now  despatched  Demetrius  Second  expe- 
with  4,000  light  armed  foot  and  as  many  horse  to  avenge  the  rjemetrius!^ 
death  of  Athen8E?us ;  but  being  unable  to  make  any  impression 
on  a  people,  who  for  the  sake  of  freedom  occupied  the  caverns 
of  Petra  in  the  heart  of  a  desert,  without  even  ordinary  sup- 
plies, he  gladly  consented  to  retreat  towards  Lake  Asphaltites, 
on  condition  that  the  Nabatheans  would  send  deputies  with 
presents  to  appease  his  father.  The  expected  profit  from  the 
bitumen  of  the  lake  was,  however,  some  compensation  to  the 
latter  for  the  failure  at  Petra,  and  turning  his  thoughts  to  a 
still  higher  prize,  Demetrius  was  despatched  to  recover 
Babylon.^ 

This   undertaking  had  almost  succeeded,   one  castle  being  b.  c.sii. 
taken,  and  the  other  about  to  fal],  when  the  recall  of  Demetrius 
to  assist  his  father  in  Asia  Minor,  enabled  Seleucus  to  move 
from  his  retreat  in  the  Babylonian  marshes,  and  recover  the 
city.     The  hostilities  which  were  at  this  period  simultaneously 
continued  in  Greece,  were  terminated  by  a  treaty  with  the 
confederate  princes,  by  which  Cassander  was  to  hold  Asia  in 
trust  for  the  youthful  king.     But  in  the  following  year,  hoping  Roxanaand 
to  receive  the  crown  of  Macedonia,  he  caused  Alexander  and  andeTmui--^^' 
his  mother  Roxana  to  be  murdered ;  and  thus  her  crueltv  in  ^'^''^'^• 
putting  the  youthful  and  beautiful  Statira  to  death  met  a  just  B.  c.  309. 
reward.     Ostensibly   denouncing   this   treason,    Polysperchon, 
the  competitor  of  Cassander,  sent  for  Hercules,  the  remaining 
son  of  Alexander,  by  Barsine,  the  widow  of  Memnon.''     This 
had  the  desired  effect  of  alarming  Cassander,  and  he  agreed  to 
share  the   government  with   Polysperchon,   who   having  thus 
gained  his  object,  immediately  put  Barsine  and  Hercules  to 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  xxv.,  p.  731.        *  Ibid.,  p.  732. 

'  Ibid.,  pp.  733-736.  "  Ibid.,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  vi. 


392  DEMETRIUS  CAPTURES  CYPRUS.  [CHAP.  XII. 

Cleopatra  put  death.     Oiie  of  the  race,  however,  still  remained,  Cleopatra, 

to  death.  .  .  pat  i  tt  i         i  i      i  •     i  i  t     n 

the  Sister  or  Alexander.  Her  beauty  and  noble  birth,  added 
to  her  influence  over  the  Macedonians,  had  caused  her  hand 
to  be  sought  by  the  most  powerful  of  her  brother's  captains,  as 
the  means  of  advancement.  It  appears  that  Ptolemy  was 
preferred  to  his  rivals  ;  and  the  princess  was  on  her  way  from 
Sardis  to  Egypt,  when  Antigonus  caused  her  to  be  seized,  and 
privately  murdered.^  Thus,  in  the  brief  space  of  fourteen 
years,  the  whole  of  Alexander's  family  perished  by  the  sword, 
and  the  prophecy  that  his  mighty  empire  should  be  plucked  up 
and  given  to  others  was  literally  fulfilled.- 
Demetrius  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  operations  were  under- 

carnes  the  i  i         4        •  •  /-^ 

war  into         taken  by  Antigonus  against  Cassander ;  and  Demetrius,  at  the 
^^^^'         head   of  a  powerful  fleet  and  army,  having  freed  the  Grecian 
cities,  carried  his  arms  into  Garia.     He  then  invaded  Cilicia, 
and  from  thence  sailed  to  Cyprus  to  besiege  Salamis." 

But  here  he  met  with  the  most  determined  resistance,  which 
he  endeavoured  to  overcome  by  the  use  of  helepoles  and  various 
kinds  of  battering-rams.  The  arrival  of  Ptolemy  during  these 
operations,  with  a  considerable  fleet,  caused  the  siege  to  be 
turned  into  a  succession  of  naval  engagements ;  and,  at  length, 
a  signal  victory  gained  over  the  latter  occasioned  his  return  to 
Egypt,  and  Cyprus  submitted  in  consequence  to  the  conqueror."* 

Antigonus  and      Autigouus  was  SO  iiiuch  elated  with  his  son's  success,  that  he 

his  competi-       •  j-        ^  ^  it*  tx 

tors  assume     immediately  assumed  regal  dignity,  and  caused  Demetrius  to 

rega  tit  es.     ^^  ^^^  saiuc.     Ptolcmy  Hkcwise  proclaimed  himself  king,  as  did 

Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Lysimachus  ;^  Antigonus  continuing, 

as  before,  to  occupy  a  place  between  the  kingdom  of  Ptolemy 

on  one  side,  and  that  of  Seleucus  and  Macedonia  on  the  other. 

But  the  newly-acquired  diadems  of  both  father  and  son  were 

destined  to  be  tarnished  during  the  operations  which  now  took 

place,  by  land  and  sea,  against  Egypt. 

Expedition  of      Demetrius,  who  was  recalled  from  Cyprus  to  assist  in  the 

Antigonus  .,  .  i«in 

against  projcctcd  cxpcdition,  was  placed  m  command  of  the  fleet,  with 

orders  to  keep  along  the  coast,  in  sight  of  the  land  forces; 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  ix.  *  Dan.,  chap.  XI.,  v.  4. 

''  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  xii.  *  Ibid. 

*  Ibid. 


Ptolemy. 


CHAP.  XII.]        EXPEDITIONS  AGAINST  EGYPT  AND  RHODES.  393 

whilst  the  latter,  consisting  of  80,000  foot,  8,000  horse,  and 
83  elephants,  marched  to  Gaza. 

Antigonus,  having  procured  a  number  of  camels  from  Arabia  to 
carry  the  requisite  supplies,  advanced  by  a  forced  march,  hoping 
to  surprise  Ptolemy,  relying  on  the  fleet  for  sustenance  when  the 
ten  days'  provisions  carried  by  the  army  should  be  exhausted. 

This  movement  appears  to  have  taken  place  just  before  the  The  fleet  en-  • 

counters  ta 

change  of  the  seasons  ;  the  calms,  therefore,  which  had  delayed  storm  on  the 
the  fleet  in  the  first  instance  were  followed  by  the  usual  strong *^"''^'"    ^■^^' 
northerly  gales  which  commence  in  the  early  part  of  May,  and 
make  the  open  coast  of  Egypt  unapproachable.^     A  large  por- 
tion of  the  fleet  was  lost  near  Raphia  (Rafah) ;  some  vessels 
returned  to  Gaza,  and  the  few  that  remained,  with  great  diffi- 
culty rode  out  the  gale  at  anchor,  probably  near  Cape  Starki 
beyond  El  Arish,  without  the  possibility  of  communicating  with 
the  army,  and  suffering  greatly  from  the  want  of  water.     But 
the  unexpected  cessation  of  the  storm  relieved  the  weather- 
beaten    mariners    from    the    fear   of    death,    and    they    found 
refreshment  in  the  camp  of  Antigonus.     He,  after  vainly  ex-  Antigonus  ad- 
pecting  to  be  joined  by  the  vessels  w^hich  had  separated  in  the  JriVnbackby 
early  part  of  the  storm,  now  advanced  towards  the  Nile.     By  P^^iemy. 
this  time,  however,  Ptolemy  was  prepared  at  all  points,  and 
the  attempts  of  his  enemy  to  enter  Egypt  not  only  failed  by 
land,    but,    subsequently,    both    at    the  Pelusiac   and    Tanitic 
branches  of  the  Nile.     Repulsed  at  every  point,  and  finding 
his  army  rapidly  decreasing  by  sickness  and  desertion,  Anti- 
gonus was  obliged  to  retrace  his  steps,  and  encounter  for  the 
second  time  the  privations  and  exposure  incident  to  traversing 
the  desert  tract  lying  between  Palestine  and  Egypt. 

The  next  operation  was  the  siege  of  Rhodes.    The  Rhodians  Demetrius  • 
had,  it  seems,  been  secretly  inclined  to  support  the  cause  ofa^ai^list^ 
Ptolemy ;  w^hich  circumstance,  added  to  the  wealth  they  had  ^^^°'^'-'^- 
lately  acquired  by  trading  as  a  neutral  territory,  determined 
Antigonus  to  undertake  the  subjection  of  that  island.     Deme- 
trius was  therefore  sent  thither  with  a  sufficient  force  and  a 
powerful  fleet,    provided  with   all    kinds    of  engines    for    the 
intended  siege.    The  Rhodians,  finding  their  towii  beleaguered, 
'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  xvi. 


394  RESISTANCE  OF  THE  RHODIANS  TO  DEMETRIUS.     [CHAP.  XII. 


Preparations 
of  the  Eho- 
(lians  against 
the  besiegers. 


and  that  Demetrius  refused  to  listen  to  any  terms,  prepared 
for  defence,  sending  at  the  same  time  to  request  the  assistance 
of  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassander,  on  account  of  whom, 
in  fact,  the  war  had  taken  place.  As  an  encouragement  to  the 
citizens  during  the  coming  struggle,  it  was  decreed  that  those 
servants  who  proved  most  faithful  should  obtain  their  freedom, 
and  that  the  parents  and  children  of  those  who  died  in  the 
cause  should  be  maintained  at  the  public  expense.  With  these 
and  other  promises  all  were  excited  to  the  highest  pitch  of  enthu- 
siasm, and  the  noblest  spirit  animated  the  Rhodians  throughout 
a  siege  which  has  become  most  remarkable  from  the  skill,  per- 
severance, and  valour  which  were  displayed  on  both  sides.  The 
effects  of  the  darts  and  stones  thrown  from  the  walls  were  nearly 
counteracted  by  means  of  the  testudo  ,•  and  huge  double  towers, 
of  sufficient  height  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  wvall, 
being  floated  on  vessels,  were  placed  alongside  the  fortifications. 
These  moving  castles  w^ere,  however,  met  by  others  placed  by 
the  Rhodians  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour,  to  hurl  stones, 
darts,  and  arrows  against  the  enemy.  The  vessels  of  Deme- 
trius succeeded,  however,  in  approaching  the  walls,  which  were 
fiercely  assaulted,  and  as  obstinately  defended,  till,  at  the 
expiration  of  eight  days,  Demetrius  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
the  outer  harbour.^  After  repairing  his  shattered  fleet,  he  re- 
entered the  port,  and  made  a  still  more  formidable  and  con- 
tinuous attack,  which  had  almost  carried  the  town,  when  the 
desperate  efforts  of  the  Rhodians  were  once  more  successful; 
and  many  of  the  besieging  vessels  being  destroyed  by  fire  and 
other  means,  the  rest  again  retreated  to  the  outer  port.^ 
Renewed  Deuietrius  now  resumed  the  siege  by  land,  chiefly  using  for 

hUfd  side"  with  this  purpose  an  helepolis,  consisting  of  several  loop-holed 
fresh  ma'-  storics.  The  machine  was  put  in  motion  by  eight  immense 
wheels,  and  was  propelled  by  .3,400  of  the  strongest  men  m  the 
army.  To  this  machine  numerous  testudos,  battering-rams,  and 
covered  galleries  w^ere  added,  with  everything  that  ingenuity 
could  devise.  The  whole  means  of  assault  employed  30,000 
workmen,  and  occupied  a  space  of  four  furlongs  along  the  walls. 
The  besieged,  however,  were  equally  active ;  for,  by  using  the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  xvii.  *  Ibid. 


Vessels  and 
machines 
used  by 
Demetrius. 


CHAP.  XII.]  PROGRESS  OF  THE  SIEGE.  395 

materials  of  their  houses,  and  even  of  their  temples,  they  had  Countermines 
raised  another  wall  within  that  which  was  being  battered  down.  theVefeuce! 
Things  were  in  this  state,  when  a  deserter  informed  the  citizens 
that  the  miners  of  Demetrius  were  already  almost  within  the 
defences  of  the  city.  Countermines  now  became  their  only 
resource,  and  both  besiegers  and  besieged  speedily  met,  as  it 
were,  on  equal  terms,  under  ground.^ 

Bribery  was  now  resorted  to,  but  equally  without  success,  and 
the  besiegers  renewed  their  efforts  above  ground.  The  w^alls 
were  fast  giving  way  before  such  powerful  means  from  without, 
whilst  famine  was  assisting  the  enemy  within,  when  Ptolemy's 
fleet  arrived  most  opportunely  with  provisions  and  reinforce- 
ments. Encouraged  by  this  assistance,  the  besieged,  under 
cover  of  their  engines,  which  launched  fire-balls,  darts,  stones, 
&c.,  made  an  unexpected  and  vigorous  sally,  from  the  effects  of 
which  only  a  portion  of  the  besieging  engines  were  saved,  and 
that  with  extreme  difiiculty.^  AVhilst  these  were  being  repaired, 
to  renew  the  attack,  fresh  means  of  defence  were  employed  by 
the  Rhodians,  who  formed  a  crescent-shaped  entrenchment, 
embracing  the  whole  of  that  portion  of  the  walls  which  was 
attacked.  Demetrius,  with  equal  perseverance,  advanced  his 
machines,  and  carried  a  considerable  portion  of  the  defences ; 
but  as  the  centre  tower  still  resisted  his  efforts,  he  resorted  to  a 
general  night  attack  by  sea  and  land.  On  this  occasion,  some 
of  the  assailants  forced  their  way  into  the  town,  but  after  a  The  Rhodians 
lengthened  and  bloody  struggle  the  Rhodians  were  successful,  assaiit'and'^ 
and  a  peace  followed,  by  which  the  city  was  to  continue  under  ™^'-'  p*^^*^*^ 
its  own  laws,  and  at  the  same  time  enjoy  its  own  revenues ; 
while  they  agreed  to  assist  Antigonus  in  any  wars  which  he 
might  undertake,  excepting  those  against  their  ally  Ptolemy.^ 

This  place  furnishes  a  striking  example  of  the  methods  of 
attack  and  defence  employed  in  ancient  times ;  the  greatest 
skill,  perseverance,  and  valour  having  been  equally  displayed 
for  more  than  twelve  months,  both  by  the  besiegers  and  besieged. 
ISIever  were  assaults  more  frequent  and  energetic,  or  courage 
more  indomitable.     When  one  wall  ceased  to  resist  the  pon- 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  xix.  *  Ibid. 

Ibid. 


396 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  SIEGES  COMPARED.       [cHAP.  XII. 


Explosive 
mines  em- 
ployed iu  the 
sixteenth 
century. 


Alexander's 
successors 
throw  off  the 
mask. 


B.  C.  305  to 
303. 


Seleucus  pre- 
pares to  ex- 
tend his  ter- 
ritory beyond 
the  Indus. 


derous  machines  of  Demetrius,  another  appeared  within,  offering 
a  more  impenetrable  barrier  than  the  first.  The  remains  of  the 
helepoles  and  other  machines,  which  were  presented- by  Deme- 
trius to  the  Rhodians,  as  a  just  tribute  to  their  valour,  realized 
a  sufficient  sum  to  erect  the  colossal  statue,  which  was  considered 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

At  a  later  period,  this  fortress  witnessed  the  first  employment 
of  that  branch  of  the  military  art,  which  has  since  contributed 
greatly  to  the  superior  efficiency  of  the  attack  over  the  defence 
of  fortresses.  In  1522,  more  than  100,000  enthusiastic  Muslims 
commenced  the  siege  of  this  fortress  under  Suleiman  II. 
But  notwithstanding  the  use  of  a  powerful  artillery,  and  of  the 
other  means  employed  at  that  time,  besides  a  great  sacrifice  of 
life,  a  band  of  6,000  warriors,  under  the  knights  of  St.  John, 
resisted  successfully,  until  the  besiegers  resorted  to  the  expedient 
of  explosive  mines :  from  that  period  such  mines  have  often 
accelerated  the  fall  of  a  besieged  ])lace. 

As  the  government,  which  had  hitherto  been  carried  on  in  the 
names  of  a  weak-minded  prince  and  an  infant  king,  had  ceased 
to  exist,  the  ambitious  designs  of  Alexander's  generals  were 
no  longer  concealed ;  and  his  vast  conquests  were  regarded  as 
an  inheritance,  which  might  be  lawfully  secured  by  the  most 
powerful  among  them. 

The  position  of  Seleucus  at  Babylon,  and  his  tact  in  turning 
his  attention  eastward,  rather  than  mixing  in  the  contests  to  the 
westward  of  that  city,  gave  him  the  largest  portion  of  the  spoils, 
so  that  he  extended  his  dominion  with  little  difficulty  to  the 
borders  of  India ;  but  his  ambition  being  little  short  of  that 
of  Alexander  himself,  the  Iranian  empire'  was  insufficient. 
Seleucus  therefore  prepared  to  extend  his  territory,  and  cir- 
cumstances were  particularly  favourable  to  him,  for  he  was  in 
alliance  with  Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Lysimachus ;  and  whilst 
the  forces  of  Antigonus  were  still  employed  in  besieging 
Rhodes,  he  proceeded  from  Babylon  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
army,  hoping  by  a  rapid  march  to  recover  the  provinces, 
beyond  the  Indus,  which  had  recently  shaken  off  the  Mace- 
donian yoke.      Being   master   of  the   intervening   kingdoms, 

'  From  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates. 


\ 


CHAP.  XII.]    SELEUCUS  OPPOSES  ANTIGONUS  IN  LESSER  ASIA.         397 

with  the  necessary  supplies  at  command,  and  the  certainty  of 
receiving  constant   reinforcements,  a  march  through  I'ran  was 
not  attended  with  any  particular  difficulty.     But    on  finding 
Sandrocottus,  the  sovereign  of  the  whole  country,  with  600,000 
men,  and  a  proportion  of  elephants  ready  to  oppose  him  beyond  Treaty  with 
the  Indus,  he  took  the  prudent  course  of  renouncing  all  pre-  aud'^retum"^' 
tensions  to  that  territorj'^,  in  consideration  of  being  furnished  by  f™'"  ^°^'^- 
Sandrocottus  with  500  elephants ;  then,  making  a  retrograde 
march,  he  Mas  in  time  to  take  a  decided  part  in  the  concerns 
of   the  west,   which,   since  the   truce  made   at   Rhodes,    had 
become  more  complicated.     Demetrius,  who  was  serving   as  Antigonus  and 
generalissimo   of  the   Greeks,   was  opposed   by  Cassander    in  opposed\y 
Europe,  while    Lysimachus    had   taken  from   Antigonus,    not  p^jj^^"^"^^ '" 
only  all  Phrygia  and  Lydia,  but  the  whole  of  the  territory 
between  the  Propontis  and  the  Mseander. 

This  state  of  things  obliged  Antigonus  to  hasten  in  person 
from  Syria  by  forced  marches ;  and,  with  the  public  funds,  he 
raised  the  requisite  forces  to  march  against  Lysimachus. 
Seleucus,  in  the  mean  time,  having  re-formed  his  army  in 
Babylonia,  marched  into  Cappadocia  to  meet  Antigonus  ;  who 
was  obliged  in  consequence  to  recall  Demetrius'  with  all  speed.  B.  c.  302  to 
He  was,  besides,  pressed  on  the  other  hand  by  Ptolemy, 
who  had  taken  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  recover  the 
tract  between  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor,  the  cities  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon  excepted.  The  forces  in  Cappadocia  and  Phrygia,  now 
about  to  contend  for  dominion,  numbered  on  one  side  60,000 
foot,  10,000  horse,  and  75  elephants,  under  Antigonus  and 
his  son  ;  and  on  the  other,  64,000  foot,  10,000  horse,  400 
elephants,  and  120  scythed  chariots.  Demetrius  attacked  Battle  of 
Antiochus,  the  son  of  Seleucus,  with  a  degree  of  success  which  ^p**^- 
might  have  been  complete,  had  he  not  been  carried  away  in  the 
pursuit  till  the  infantry  was  completely  separated  from  the 
cavalry.  Seleucus,  with  admirable  coolness,  took  advantage  of 
this  circumstance  to  interpose  his  elephants  between  the  enemy's 
horse  and  foot,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  latter  seized  this 
opportunity  to  go  over  to  him. 

Seleucus  now  made  a  determined  attack  with  his  infantry  on 
'  Plut.  in  Demetrius. 


398  RESULT  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  IPSUS.  [CHAP.  XIL 

Death  of  the  main  body,  and  thus  completed  the  great  defeat  near 
°  '  Ipsus/  Demetrius,  on  seeing  his  father  perish  nobly  in  the 
heat  of  the  battle,  rallied  a  few  of  the  troops,  and  retreated  to 
Ephesus,  and  from  thence  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
accompanied  by  a  youth,  who  was  afterwards  known  as 
Pyrrhus  the  Great. 

The  principal  barrier   to  a   peaceable  settlement  being  re- 
moved, the  territories  of  Antigonus  were  divided  amongst  the 
confederate  princes,  and  the  mighty  empire  of  Alexander,  now 
B.C.  301.       formed  four   great    kingdoms.       Ptolemy,    in   addition    to  his 
Subdivision  of  posscssious   in   Africa   and    Arabia,    obtained    Palestine    and 
^mpke.'^'''^*     Ccelo-Syria ;    Cassander    had   Greece    added    to    Macedonia ; 
and  Lysimachus,  Bithynia  in  addition  to  some  of  the  provinces 
beyond  the  Hellespont,     Lastly,  Seleucus  was  the  acknowledged 
sovereign  of  the  rest  of  Asia.     Demetrius,  however,  retained, 
as  the  wreck  of  his  father's  power,   Cyprus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon, 
with  the    throne  of  Macedon ;    and    his    influence   in    Greece 
enabled  him  to  raise   upwards  of  100,000  men,   with  part  of 
which   he  continued  the  war,  hoping  to   recover  his   father's 
B.  c.  287.       dominions  in  Asia.     Pyrrhus,  however,  succeeded  in  expelling 
him  from  Macedonia ;  and,  being  joined  by  the  greatest  part  of 
the  opposing  troops,  the  hopes  of  Demetrius  were  effectually 
crushed  in  that  quarter. 
Demetrius  Impelled,  howevcr,  by  insatiable  ambition,   the  prince  con- 

makes  a  futile  |.jj^yg^j  to  make  Other  efforts,  both  in  the  field,  and  by  means  of 

attempt  to  '  'J 

regain  his       alliances,  to  rccovcr  his  lost  ground  :  the  last  measure  was  a 

crown 

desperate  attempt  with  a  handful  of  men  to  surprise  Seleucus 
by  night  in  his  camp.  Failing,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
he  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  there  remained  till  hunger  forced 
B.  c.  286.  him  to  surrender.  Seleucus  generously  allowed  his  prisoner  the 
range  of  ample  hunting-grounds,  with  all  the  conveniencies  of 
life  :  the  temperament  of  Demetrius  was,  however,  ill  calculated 
to  support  the  great  change  in  his  condition  ;  and  he  was 
gradually  seized  with  hopeless  melancholy.  The  elasticity  of 
his  mind  was  destroyed ;  he  grew  oerpulent,  and  abandoned 
himself  to  drinking  and  gaming.  The  excesses  of  the  table 
and  a  life  of  inactivity,  brought  on  a  severe  distemper,  which 

'  Apion  in  Syriac,  p.  122. 


CHAP.  XII.]  FATE  OF  DEMETRIUS  AND  SELEUCUS.  399 

terminated  his  existence  in  the  third  year  of  his  captivity,  and  pemctriusdies 
the  fifty-fourth  year   of  his  age.     A  striking  contrast  to  the  ^°  *^^^''"  ^* 
fate  of  this  prince  will  be  found  in  the  life  of  his  son,  Mhose 
moderation  preserved  the  crown  of  Macedonia  for  a  lengthened 
period  in  the  family. 

Seleucus,  the  successful  rival  of  Antigonus,  continued  to  be 
the  undisputed  sovereign  of  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia, 
till  he  was  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  B.C.  280.  A  Death  and 
short  time  before  this,  he  had  however  resigned  part  of  his  Seieucus. 
empire,  with  his  queen,  Stratonice,  in  order  to  save  Antiochus, 
who  was  pining  to  death  for  his  stepmother.  Seleucus  was 
distinguished  for  his  just  and  enlightened  government,  and  more 
particularly  for  the  construction  of  numerous  cities,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  were  Antioch  and  Apamea,  both  on  the 
Orontes,  Mith  Seleucia,  the  port  of  the  former ;  also  Theo- 
dosia,  and  the  greater  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris.  The  latter  was 
afterwards  capital  of  the  empire  of  Antiochus  Theos,  which 
extended  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the  limits  of 
Bactria. 

The  second  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  was  surnamed  Phila- 
delphus,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Egypt  at  this  period,  and 
in  the  first  year  erected  in  Alexandria  the  celebrated  Pharos,  The  Pharos 
at  the  cost  of  800  talents.  The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  ^"^^^'^  ' 
likewise  distinguished  by  the  formation  of  a  nobler  monument, 
namely,  the  great  library  :'  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, now  known  as  the  Septuagint  version,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  fruits  of  this  institution  ;  which,  as  will  be  noticed 
hereafter,"  had  much  influence  on  the  infant  literature  of 
Europe. 

Those  enlarged  views,  which  had  facilitated  navigation  and  Commerce 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  were  by  Philadelphus  extended  to  encouraged  by 
the  commerce  with  distant  nations.     A  city  called  Berenice,  P'°^^™>- 
after  the  name  of  his  mother,  sprang  up  on  the  w^estern  shore 
of  the  Red  Sea,  through  which,  as  will  hereafter  be  seen,^  an 
active  trade  passed  from  and  to  the  Nile  ;  again  a  canal  leading 
to  the  same  river,  from  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Bed  Sea 

'  Strabo,  lib.  XVII.,  p.  791.  '  Chap.  XVI. 

'  Chap.  XVIII. 


400 


REVOLT  OF  PARTHIA, 


[chap.  XII. 


War  between 
AiJtiochus 
Theos  and 
Ptolemy. 


was  executed  :  and,  as  an  additional  means  of  superseding  the 
route  from  Elath  to  Ehinocolura,  on  the  borders  of  Palestine, 
this  prince  had  fleets  on  that  sea,  as  well  as  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Intrigues,  which  were  the  natural  consequences  of  an 
incestuous  marriage,  and  the  demoralized  state  of  the  East,  led 
to  a  war  between  Antiochus  Theos  and  Ptolemy/  from  which 
the  former  gladly  disengaged  himself  after  losing  a  large 
portion  of  his  eastern  possessions.  Theodotus  having  revolted 
and  become  the  sovereign  of  Bactria,  his  example  was  followed 
in  other  provinces  of  that  part  of  the  world;  but  the  most 
important  change  was  that  which,  from  a  comparatively  trifling 
circumstance,  took  place  in  Parthia.  Agathocles,  who  governed 
for  Antiochus,  had  so  enraged  the  people  by  offering  violence 
to  Tiridates,  that  they  put  him  to  death ;  and  Arsaces,  the 
brother  of  the  youth  in  qiiestion,  having  expelled  the  Mace- 
donians, assumed  the  government  of  that  extensive  country, 
which  from  henceforth  was  destined  to  play  a  distinguished 
part  in  the  history  of  the  world.^ 

»  Strabo,  lib.  VII.,  p.  152.  '  Justin,  lib.  XLI.,  cap.  iv. 


(     401     ) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

GLANCE  AT  THE  PARTHIAN  AND  ROMAN  WARS,  FROM 
222  B.C.  TO  A.D.  631. 

Seleucus  Callinicus  invades  Partliia. — His  Death. — Parthia  becomes  inde- 
pendent.— Antiochus  the  Great  succeeds. — Suppression  of  the  Rebellions 
in  Media  and  Persia. — Ptolemy  Philopater  gains  Palestine  and  Coclo-Syria, 
and  visits  Jerusalem. — Increase  of  the  Roman  power  in  Asia, — Demetrius 
Nicator  invades  Parthia,  and  is  taken  prisoner. — Extension  of  the  Parthian 
Dominions. — Judicious  Polity  of  Mithridates. — Antioclius  Sidetes  invades 
Parthia,  and  is  killed  in  battle.  Pacorus,  King  of  Parthia,  seeks  the 
friendship  of  the  Romans. — Campaign  of  Lucullus  in  Armenia. — Pontus 
becomes  a  Roman  province. — Crassus  invades  Parthia. — Surena  takes  the 
Field. — Fate  of  the  Roman  Army. — Surena's  Triumph  at  Ctesiphon. — 
Surena's  Death. — Circuitous  march  of  Antony  into  Media. — Siege  of  the 
Capital. — Retreat  from  Praaspa  to  the  Araxes. — Augustus  proclaimed 
Emperor. — Preparations  of  ^lius  Gallus. — March  of  the  Roman  Army 
into  Arabia  Felix.  —  Return  of  the  Expedition  to  Egj'pt.  —  Siege  of 
Jotapata  by  the  Romans. — State  of  Jerusalem. — Siege  and  Capture  of 
the  City. — Massacre  of  the  Inhabitants. — Trajan's  Accession. — Invasion 
of  Assyria,  and  descent  of  the  River  Euphrates. — The  Nahr-Malka 
opened  for  the  passage  of  his  Fleet. — Capture  of  Ctesiphon,  and  descent 
to  the  Persian  Gulf — Return  of  Trajan. — Siege  of  Atra.  —  Severus 
descends  the  Euphrates. — Passage  of  the  Nahr  Malka,  and  Capture  of 
Ctesiphon, — Second  and  third  Siege  of  Atra. — Retreat  of  Severus. — Wars 
of  Sapor,  and  Capture  of  Valerian. — Invasion  of  the  Roman  Provinces  in 
Europe  by  the  Goths,  &c. — Rise  of  Odenatus,  Prince  of  Palmyra. —  He 
makes  War  on  Sapor. — Death  of  Odenatus. — Zenobia  seizes  some  of  the 
Roman  Provinces. — Her  contests  witli  Aurelian. — Siege  and  Fall  of 
Palmyra. — Galerius  Defeats  the  Persians. — "Wars  of  Sapor  II.  and  Con- 
stantine. — Remarkable  Siege  of  Nisibis. — Rise  of  Julian. — His  prepara- 
tions for  War. — Descent  of  the  River  Euphrates  with  a  Fleet  and  Army 
to  Anatho. — Fearful  Hurricane  encountered  when  approaching  this  City. 
— Descent  of  the  River  continued. — Siege  and  Capture  of  Perisaboras,  &c. 
— Julian  crosses  Mesopotamia  to  Ctesiphon. — Retreat  and  Death  of  .Julian. 
— Jovian  succeeds  and  effects  a  Retreat  with  the  Roman  Army. — Belisa- 
rius  is  Defeated  by  the  Persians. — Cliosroes  invades  Syria,  and  Captures 
Antioch. — Cliosroes  is  Routed  by  Justinian. — vSecond  Invasion  of  the 
Roman  Territories,  and  total  Defeat  of  Chosroes. — Rebellion  of  Varancs 
put  down  by  Cliosroes. — Decline  of  the  Persian  power. 

During  the  period  about  to  be  considered,  the  contest  which 
had  previously  been  so  general  in  all  quarters  amongst  the  suc- 

VOL.  II.  2  D 


402  PTOLEMY  ENCOURAGES  LEARNING  IN  EGYPT.    [CHAP.  XIII. 


Science  and 
learning  en- 
couraged in 

Egypt. 


Seleucus 
Callinicus  is 
defeated,  aud 
dies  in  cap- 
tivity. 


B.  C.  222. 


Rebellion  of 
Molo  and 
Alexander. 

li.C.  219. 


cessors  of  Alexander,  became  chiefly  confined  to  one  portion  of 
Western  Asia,  that  inhabited  by  the  Parthians :  these,  in  their 
connexion  with  other  countries,  will  now  be  briefly  noticed. 

Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  chapter 
filled  the  throne  of  Egypt,  was  more  occupied  with  peaceful 
than  with  warlike  pursuits,  being  no  less  the  encourager  of 
learning  and  science,  than  his  predecessor  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
On  the  library  of  Alexandria  he  bestowed  particular  care,  with 
the  assistance  from  time  to  time  of  those  individuals,  who  having 
made  themselves  remarkable  for  their  knowledge  and  acquire- 
ments, became  in  consequence  the  cherished  guests  of  the 
Egyptian  monarch. 

Whilst  the  arts  of  peace  were  fostered  in  this  kingdom,  those 
of  war  maintained  their  pre-eminence  in  the  adjoining  territory. 

The  first  object  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  the  successor  of  An- 
tiochus,  on  being  partly  extricated  from  two  unsuccessful  con- 
tests, one  with  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  and  another  in  Asia  Minor 
with  his  brother  Antiochus,  was  to  march  against  the  Parthians  ; 
but  owing  to  fresh  commotions  at  home  his  purpose  was  delayed, 
and  Arsaces  obtained  another  opportunity  of  consolidating  his 
power.  As  soon,  however,  as  these  troubles  seemed  to  permit  it, 
Seleucus  renewed  the  attempt  with  that  perseverance  which  cha- 
racterized the  successors  of  Alexander :  but  being  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Arsaces,  he  died  in  captivity.^  The  Parthians 
afterwards  celebrated  this  victory  as  the  first  day  of  their  inde- 
pendence, and  as  that  by  which  their  leader  had  raised  himself 
from  a  low  condition  to  the  throne  :  Arsaces  taking  from  thence- 
forth the  title  of  king,  became  in  fact  the  Cyrus  of  Parthia.  The 
short  reign  of  the  son  of  Seleucus,  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  or  the 
Thunderer,  was  followed  by  that  of  his  brother  Antiochus,  sur- 
named  the  Great,  which,  in  his  fifteenth  year,  commenced  under 
difficult  circumstances,  both  as  regarded  Egypt  and  his  own 
territory.  Ilis  brothers,  Molo  and  Alexander,  the  satraps  of 
Media  and  Persia,  withdrew  their  allegiance  from  him,  and 
hostilities  commenced  in  Egypt  against  Ptolemy  Philopater, 
who  was  now  on  the  throne.  The  war  was  urged  personally  by 
Antigonus  in  the  region  of  Ccclo-Syria  with  little  success,  and 

'  Justin,  lib.  XLI.,  cap.  iv.,  compared  with  Athenaeus,  IV.,  cap.  xiii. 


CHAP.  Xiri.]  ANTIOCHUS  INVADES  ASSYRIA,  ETC.  403 

was  carried  on  at  the  same  time  in  Mesopotamia  under  his 
general  Xengetas.  This  last  was  still  less  fortunate  ;  for  having 
passed  the  Tigris,  near  Seleucia,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  in 
that  neighbourhood,  and  perished,  with  those  whom  he  com- 
manded. Mesopotamia  as  well  as  Babylonia  thus  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  rebels.^ 

In  the  spring,  Antiochus  took   the  field,  and  passing  the  Antiochus 
Euphrates,  no  doubt  at  the  Zeugma  of  Thapsacus,  he  wintered  rebels^ 
at  Antiochia  of  Mygdonia  (Nisibin).     Subsequently  his  troops  B.C.  217. 
crossed  the  Tigris,  and  having  relieved  Dura,  which  had  been 
besieged  by  Molo's  troops,  he  advanced  by  Oricum  to  Apol- 
lonia,^  the   capital  of  that  part  of  Assyria  which  bears   this 
name.     Here    he    gained   a  complete   victory,   and   the  rebel 
Molo  having  in  despair  laid  violent  hands  on  himself,  his  fol- 
lowers submitted  ;  as  did  subsequently  the  Atropatians,  with 
their  king  Artabazanes,  and  the  whole  were  received  into  alle- 
giance as  formerly.^ 

On  the  coast  of  Phoenicia  contests,  on  the  whole  favourable  Defeat  of 
to  Antiochus,  were  carried  on  both  by  sea  and  land  ;  but  these  Ptokuiy"^  ^ 
were  followed,  in  the  spring,  by  a  campaign  which  terminated  P^'^'^P^to'*- 
in  his  defeat  at  the  great  battle  of  Raphia,  the  consequence  of  '   * 
which,  was  the  submission   of   Coslo-Syria  and   Palestine  to 
Ptolemy. 

In  making  a  progress  through  these  territories,  the  conqueror 
visited  Jerusalem,  where  he  offered  sacrifices  to  the  God  of 
Israel,  and  bestowed  rich  gifts  on  that  holy  place.     It  is  also 
stated  that  he  visited  the  second  court  of  the  temple,   and  that 
when  about  to  penetrate  to  the  holy  of  holies,  contrary  to  the 
express  law  of  God,  he  was  stricken  with  terror  and  retired.* 
During  the  next  season,  Antiochus  being,  by  the  terms  of  the  ^^^t'ocinis 
treaty  that  followed  the  late  campaign,  at  liberty  to  renew  hos-  Bactria  and 
tilities,  carried  the  war  into  Asia  Minor,  and  having  defeated  mediate 
Achaius,  and  taken  Sardis,  he  subsequently  recovered  Media,  ^*'"°'"^'^' 

'  Polybius,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xlvi.-xlix.,  compared  with  Justin,  lib.  XXX., 
cap.  i. 

*  Kow  Thereban :   D'Anville's  Anc.  Geog.,  vol.  II.,  p.  35. 
'  Polybius,  lib.  V.,  cap.  liv, 

*  Tliird  book  of  Maccabees,  chap.  I.,  v.  9,  to  chap.  II.,  v.  24,  as   found 
in  the  Codex  Vaticanus  of  the  LXX. ;  also  Polybius,  lib.  V.,  cap,  Ixxx. 

2d2 


404 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  ROMAN  POWER  IN  ASIA.       [cHAP.  XIII. 


B.  C.  201. 


B.  C.  183. 


Increase  of 
the  Roman 
power. 


Demotiiiis 
Nicator 
invades 
Parthia. 


His  army  is 
destroyed. 


Parthia,  aud  Hyrcania,  and  concluded  a  treaty  by  which 
Arsaces  was  to  assist  in  regaining  the  other  provinces  ;^  in 
consequence  of  which  Bactria  was  subdued.  The  forces  of 
Antiochus  numbered  100,000  foot,  and  20,000  horse. 

But  notwithstanding  the  success  which  thus  attended  his  en- 
deavours to  recover  the  territory  of  his  predecessors,  Antiochus 
discovered  in  the  sequel  that  circumstances  were  greatly  altered : 
the  Boman  power  now  extended  into  Asia,  and  notwithstanding 
his  repeated  and  persevering  eitorts,  it  was  firmly  established 
between  the  chain  of  the  Taurus  and  the  river  Halys ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  the  kings  of  S}Tia  were  wholly  excluded 
from  Lesser  Asia.  Things  were  in  this  state,  when  Seleucus 
Philopater  succeeded  Antiochus  the  Great  in  the  government 
of  a  kingdom,  now  oppressed  with  the  enormous  annual  tribute 
of  1,000  talents  to  the  Bomans. 

Henceforth,  the  interference  and  influence  of  the  latter 
people  rapidly  increased  amongst  the  Greeks,  the  Macedonians, 
the  Syrians,  and  the  people  of  Asia  Minor.  j\Iany  provinces 
had  in  reality  become  Boman,  some  having  been  bequeathed  and 
others  obtained  by  intrigues  or  negotiations ;  so^that  in  the  year 
145  B.C.  but  little  of  the  Seleucidaean  territory  remained. 

Demetrius  Nicator  still,  however,  retained  Syria,  though  in- 
volved in  a  serious  and  protracted  war  with  the  Maccabees; 
which  had  scarcely  terminated  when  he  was  threatened  with 
more  serious  danger  from  another  quarter.  The  Parthians 
were,  at  this  period,  governed  by  Mithridates,  the  brother  of 
Phraates ;  and,  of  late,  this  people  had  subjected  the  whole  of 
the  countries  lying  between  the  Indus  and  Euphrates.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  being  of  Macedonian  descent,  Demetrius  was 
urged  by  repeated  embassies  to  enable  them  to  shake  oft'  the 
yoke ;  and,  full  of  bright  hopes  built  upon  the  promised  general 
insurrection,  this  prince  marched  eastward  with  the  bulk  of 
his  forces.  The  Elymseans,  Persians,  and  Bactrians,  succes- 
sively declared  in  his  favour  as  he  advanced,  and  he  defeated 
the  Parthians  in  several  engagements;  but  at  the  very  moment 
when  the  prospect  of  recovering  his  eastern  territory  seemed 
most  promising,  the  Parthians,  under  the  plea  of  negotiating, 
'  Justin,  lib.  XLI.,  cap.  v. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  FATE  OF  DEMETRIUS  NICATOR.  405 

or  by  some  other  ruse  de  guerre,  made  him  prisoner,  and  cut 
his  army  to  pieces. 

Followinff  up  this  victory,  Mithridates  obtained  possession  of  p^'"'?''?" 

.-r,  ...  ..  .  .  dominions, 

Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  which,  in  addition  to  his  previous  &c.,  under 
possessions,  gave  liim  the  command  of  the  territory  lying  be- 
tween the  Ganges,  the  Euphrates,  and  Mount  Caucasus.^  In- 
stead of  considering  them  as  ephemeral  conquests  and  enriching 
himself  by  their  spoils,  the  great  Mithridates  consolidated  these 
acquisitions,  making  them  an  integral  part  of  the  Parthian 
empire,  whose  integrity  was  preserved  during  many  ages,  not- 
withstanding the  diversity  of  nations  which  the  state  comprised.^ 
Either  by  force  or  persuasion  the  talented  ruler  of  Farthia 
induced  most  of  the  princes  of  Asia  to  form  alliances  on  his 
own  terms ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  took  from  each  whatever  was 
valuable,  as  the  basis  of  the  laws  by  which  the  empire  was 
regulated  during  the  remainder  of  his  reign :  this  terminated 
in  a  glorious  old  age,  and  was  not  less  illustrious  than  that  of 
Arsaces  I.^ 

Subsequently,  Antiochus  Sidetes,  hoping  to  liberate  his  brother  B.  c.  135. 
Demetrius,  invaded  Parthia  at  the  head  of  80,000  men ;  and  Antiochus 

'       _  ' _  '         _     Sidetes  is 

in  the  campaign  that  followed,  Phraates  II.  being  defeated  in  defeated  in 
three  successive  battles,  all  the  conquests  of  his  father  Mithri- 
dates were  lost.  A  change,  however,  soon  afterwards  took 
place  ;  for  the  invaders,  being  confined  within  the  limits  of 
Parthia  Proper,  and  encumbered  with  follow^ers  who  were  triple 
the  number  of  fighting  men,  experienced  a  signal  defeat;  wdien 
Antiochus  was  slain,  and  his  army  entirely  cut  to  pieces.^ 

Phraates  was  about  to  follow  up  this  success  by  the  invasion  Piiraatcs  loses 
of  Syria,  when  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Scythians.     In  this  the  Scythian"^ 
contest  he  perished,  and  his  successor  Artabanus  subsequently  ^'^"" 
lost  his  life  in  a  battle  with  the  Thogarian  Scythians.^  B.C.  129. 

Pacorus,   the  son  and  successor  of  Artabanus,  tempted  by 
the  renown  of  the  Romans,  and  desiring  their  friendship,  was 

*  Justin,  lib.  XLT.,  cap.  vi. 

*  Diod.  Sic.  ill  Excerpt.  Valesii,  pp.  360,  361. 

^  Ibid.,  compared  with  p.  597,  vol.  IT.  of  Wesseling's  Mithridates. 

*  Justin,  lib.  XXXVIII.,  cap.  x. ;  Diod.  Sic.  in  Excerpt.  Valesii,  p.  374  ; 
Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  XIII.,  cap.  xvi. 

*  Justin,  lib.  XLII.,  cap.  i. 


406  LUCULLUS  SUBDUES  ARMENIA.'  [CHAP.  XIII. 

Origin  of  the   induced  to  Send  ambassadors  to  Sylla  in  Cappadocia;  and  this 
^e'^Romans     Step  led  to  important  consequences ;  for  the  Romans,  as  allies 
and  Parthians.  ^^  ^^^  Syrians,  or  otherwise,  henceforth  maintained  an  almost 
uninterrupted  war  with  Parthia. 

This  commenced  under  Phraates  III.,  who  besieged  the  city 
Artaxata,  with  a  view  to  the  re-establishment  of  Tigranes  on 
the  throne  of  Armenia.  Phraates  withdrew,  however,  on  the 
appearance  of  Pompey,  after  renewing  the  alliance  concluded 
by  his  father,  first  with  Sylla,  and  then  with  Lucullus.^ 
Lucniius  Mithridates,  though  disappointed  in  the  assistance  promised 

Armenia.  by  his  son-iu-law  Tigranes,  continued  the  war,  but  being  again 
B.  c.  65.  defeated,  he  sought  and  obtained  from  the  latter  an  asylum  in 
Armenia;  Tigranes,  however,  scarcely  granted  hospitality  to 
bis  relative,  and  even  refused  to  see  him :  at  the  same  time  he 
carried  the  war  in  another  direction  as  far  as  the  confines  of 
Egypt.  The  success  of  Tigranes  gave  umbrage  to  the  Romans, 
and  Lucullus  invaded  Armenia  in  consequence,  though  osten- 
sibly, as  a  punishment  for  the  asylum  which  had  been  afforded 
to  Mithridates. 

The  vigour  and  talent  for  which  the  early  career  of  Tigranes 
had  been  distinguished  were  now  totally  wanting,  and  his 
retreat  before  the  invaders  became  almost  a  flight.  One  portion 
of  Lucullus'  army  continued  the  pursuit,  whilst  another,  under 
Sextilius,  was  employed  against  Tigranocerta ;  but  soon  after- 
wards the  two  divisions  were  united  with  the  view  of  prosecuting 
the  siege  more  vigorously.  Tigranes  now  called  a  council  of 
war,  in  which  it  was  determined  to  attack  the  Romans,  and  the 
appearance  of  the  king's  army  crowning  the  hills  beyond  the 
river  (presumed  to  be  the  Mesopotamian  Khabiir),  was  hailed 
by  those  in  the  city  as  the  harbinger  of  victory. 
Battle  of  Leaving  a  force  to  continue  the  siege,  Lucullus  crossed  with 

and  subjection  tlic  remainder  of  his  army  at  a  ford  where  the  river  makes  a 
surrounding    l^^nd  to  the  wcst.     This  gavc  his  movement  the  appearance  of 
territory.        ^  retreat ;  but  the  decision  of  the  battle  in  his  favour  against 
fearful  odds,  opened  the  gates  of  the  capital,  with  its  treasure, 
to  the  conqueror.    Thus  terminated  this  remarkable  campaign, 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  XXXVI.,  p.  22.    Liv.  Epit.,  lib.  c,  compared  with  Dio 
Cassius,  lib.  XXXVI.,  p.  24. 


CHAP.  Xlir.]  CRASSUS  QUITS  ROME  FOR  SYRIA.  407 

ill  which  Lucullus,  at  the  head  of  an  organized  body  of  1 1,000 
men,  10,000  being  heavy-armed  foot,  and  1,000  cavalry, 
archers,  and  slingers,  and  assisted  only  by  Machares  the  son 
of  Mithridates,  had  successfully  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Ar- 
menia, which  was  defended  by  250,000  men.^ 

Pompey  superseded  the  Roman  general,  and  ended  the  war  Pontus 
soon  afterwards  with  the  assistance  of  Tigranes  the  younger,  Roman 
who  had  taken  arms  against  his  father,  and  Pontus,  as  well  as  p""*^^'"*^^- 
Syria,    became   a   Roman    province ;    the   latter   in   right    of 
Tigranes,  who  had  been  elected  successor  to  Cybiosactes,  the 
last  of  the  Seleucidae,  who  had  been  murdered  in  Egypt. 

Parthia,  the  next  object  of  conquest  to  the  Romans,  was 
under  the  government  of  Orodes,  who  had  usurped  the  throne 
of  his  brother,  Mithridates  II.,  and  was  assisted  by  the  cele- 
brated Surena. 

At  this  period  Caesar  was  nominated  to  Gaul,  and  his  rival,  Crassus  pro- 
Pompey,  to  Spain,  while  Crassus  obtained  the  government  of  goverameJft 
Syria,  which  his  avarice  prompted  him  to  seek,  that  he  might  ^"  ^7^'^^- 
make  w^ar  upon  the  Parthians.     His  object  being  known,  it  was 
with  exceeding  difficulty  that  he  got  out  of  the  hands  of  Ateius 
Capito,  and  the  party  who  were  opposed  to  the  unjust  invasion 
of  this  rich  and  powerful  nation,  which  had  never  been  subjected 
by  any  foreign  enemy.~     Passing  through  Galatia  he  reached 
his    consular    appointment,    which    comprised    Syria    and    the 
neighbouring  provinces.     He  then  lost  no  time  in  commencing 
his   plans    against   the   Parthians,    and   hastening   across    the 
Euphrates,  he  found  Mesopotamia  altogether  unprepared  against 
invasion.     ELad  this  unexpected  advantage  been  followed  up.  First  invasion 
Crassus  might  have  taken  Seleucia  and  the  whole  of  Babylonia ;  °^  P^^''^**- 
but  after  storming  Zenodotia,^  he  most  unaccountably  retraced 
his  steps,  leaving  about  8,000  men  in  the  towns  of  Mesopotamia. 
During  the  succeeding  winter,  Crassus  increased  the  revenue 
of  Syria  by  new  taxes  and  fresh  sacrileges,  not  even  sparing 

'  Plutarch  in  Lucull.,  vol.  I.,  p.  509,  Paris,  1624,  compared  with  Appian, 
Mithrid.,  cap.  Ixxxvi. 

*  Plutarch  in  Crasso.    Appian,  Bell.  Civil,  lib.  II.,  pp.  437,  438. 
^  Supposed  to  have  been  on  the  river  Kliilbur. 


408 


ENVOYS  SENT  BY  ORODES  TO  CRASSUS.       [cHAP.  XIII. 


the  seat  of  the  much -venerated  Syrian  goddess  Atargetes/  or 
the  hitherto-respected  treasures  of  Jerusalem.^  Having  plun- 
dered this  rich  temple,  and  the  others  within  reach,  and  being 
joined  by  his  son,  who  had  been  serving  under  Caesar  in  Gaul, 
he  collected  his  forces  early  in  the  spring  to  renew  the  invasion 
of  Parthia.  Aware  of  his  hostile  intentions,  the  warlike  Orodes 
had  not  only  assembled  a  numerous  army  in  the  meanwhile, 
but  had  sent  a  special  embassy  to  the  proconsul  during  his 
preparations. 

Agreeably  to  their  instructions,  the  envoys  on  being  admitted 
to  his  presence,  inquired  with  admirable  tact,  whether  Crassus 
were  about  to  break  the  existing  alliance  by  order  of  the 
Komans,  or  only  to  make  war  to  satiate  his  private  interest; 
for,  in  the  former  case,  a  war  of  extermination  must  be  the 
consequence,  whereas,  in  the  latter,  the  Parthian  sovereign  would 
be  ready,  in  consideration  of  his  age,  to  allow  the  Roman 
garrison  to  retire  from  Mesopotamia  unmolested.  Crassus 
haughtily  replied,  that  they  should  have  his  answer  at  Seleucia ; 
on  which  the  envoys  briefly  and  expressively  replied,  that  hair 
would  grow  on  the  palms  of  their  hands,  ere  he  took  the  city  in 
question.' 

Orodes,  little  fearing  an  attack  on  the  western  side  through 
the  Desert,  but  rather  expecting  his  enemy  would  attempt  to 
penetrate  either  by  the  route  of  Armenia,  or  that  of  Upper 
Mesopotamia,  divided  his  troops,  and  proceeded  himself  with 
the  main  body  to  cover  the  frontiers  of  the  former,  while  he 
despatched  the  remainder  to  encounter  the  invaders  in  the 
latter  direction.^ 

This  important  command  was  entrusted  to  a  celebrated  indi- 
vidual, whose  character,  as  handed  down  by  Plutarch,  displays 
that  extraordinary  mixture  of  qualities,  for  which  the  eastern 
people  are  sometimes  remarkable.  To  a  commanding  stature 
and  winning  manners,  Surena  joined  wealth,  power,  and  au- 

*  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  748  ;  Plin.,  lib,  V.,  cap.  xxiii.;  Plutarcli  in  Crasso, 
and  above,  vol.  I.,  p.  421. 

*  .Tos.  Ant.,  lib.  XIV.,  cap.  vii. 

"  Flor.,  lib.  III.,  cap.  ii.;  Plutarch  in  Crasso. 

*  Plutarcli  in  Crasso. 


CHAP.  XIII.]         PRRSON  AND  CHARACTER  OF  SURENA.  409 

thority  only  inferior  to  those  of  the  king,  who  had  been  se'Ai^^rto^"* 
indebted  to  his  valour  for  the  recovery  of  Seleucia  from  Mith-  Oiodcs. 
ridates,  and  for  the  preservation  of  the  crown  itself.  The  tra- 
velling equipage  of  this  chieftain  comprised  1,000  baggage 
camels,  200  chariots  for  his  harem,  and  1,000  heavy-armed 
horsemen,  besides  a  number  of  light-armed  troops ;  forming, 
with  vassals,  slaves,  &c.,  a  body  of  about  10,000  followers.^  In 
his  case  the  luxury  of  an  Asiatic  prince  was  united  with  the 
intrepidity  of  the  soldier,  for  while  ready  to  lead  his  troops 
on  the  most  desperate  enterprise,  like  the  Arabs  and  Medes 
he  was  not  ashamed  to  paint  his  face,  and  dye  and  perfume  his 
hair.^ 

Surena    now   advanced   against   the  Eomans,  and  quickly  Surena 

°  ,...■,       assumes  the 

recovered  Mesopotamia.  From  some  of  the  fugitives,  the  offensive. 
Romans  learnt  that  they  were  about  to  encounter  brave  and 
determined  enemies,  whom  they  could  neither  escape  by  flight, 
nor  overtake  in  pursuit,  and  who  were  consequently  very 
different  from  the  Armenians  and  Cappadocians,  whom  Lu- 
cullus  had  driven  out  of  the  field. 

In  consequence  of  this  intelligence,  Caius  Cassius  and  most  Crassus crosses 

.,  1    •       ^r^  i  •         1       the  Euphrates 

of  the  legionary  tribunes,  advised  Orassus  to  proceed  cautiously,  with  40,000 
whilst  Artavasdes  or  Artabazus,^  king  of  Armenia,  recom-"^*^"* 
mended  him  to  throw  himself  into  the  mountains  to  avoid  the 
Parthian  horse.  But  the  general,  following  his  own  opinion, 
advanced  towards  the  frontiers  of  Mesopotamia,  and  passing 
the  Zeugma  of  Thapsacus,  entered  that  country  at  the  head  of 
seven  legions,  and  4,000  horse ;  or,  including  the  auxiliaries, 
about  40,000  men. 

Seeing  his  chief  determined  to  advance,  Cassius  recommended 
him  to  keep  along  the  Euphrates,  drawing  supplies  from  his 
fleet  during  the  march  towards  Seleucia.  But  the  insidious 
advice  of  Ariamnes,  king  of  Edessa,  then  a  visiter  in  the  camp, 
prevailed,  and  the  Romans  advanced  over  a  desert  tract,  till 
the  scouts  brought  intelligence  that  the  Parthian  army  was  at 
hand.  Crassus,  believing  the  assurance  of  Ariamnes  that  the  Mutual 
enemy's  forces  were  not  numerous,  adopted  a  square  formation, 
with,  as  the  necessary  consequence,  a  limited  front.  One  of 
'  Plutarch  in  Crasso.  *  Ibid.  ^  Ibid. 


410  CRASSUS  ADVANCES  INCAUTIOUSLY.  [cHAP.  XHI. 

the  wings  was  given  to  his  son,  the  other  to  Cassius;  the 
general  retaining  the  command  of  the  centre  himself.  Thus 
advancing,  after  a  long  and  painful  march,  the  enemy  was  dis- 
covered, but  apparently  not  in  force,  near  the  river  Balesius 
(Belik).  Surena,  who  was  prepared  in  every  way,  had  not 
only  concealed  a  part  of  his  forces,  but  their  arms  also,  least 
they  should  be  betrayed  by  their  glare ;  till  on  a  given  signal, 
an  army  well  mounted,  and  with  shining  cuirasses,  appeared  to 
spring  out  of  the  ground,  and  advanced  to  the  attack,  making 
a  frightful  noise.  Surena,  richly  dressed,  charged  at  the  head 
Commence-     of  his  spcarmeu.     Finding  the  phalanx  impenetrable,  the  Par- 

ment  of  the         ,  .  ^    .       ,  , .  ,     .  .  ^  ^     . 

battle.  thians  retired,  according  to  their  custom,  in  apparent  contusion, 

but  again  returned  to  make  a  more  general  attack,  by  means 
of  showers  of  arrows,  which  were  poured  in  on  all  sides. 
Crassus  now  ordered  the  light-armed  troops  to  advance  and 
charge  the  enemy:  this  for  the  moment  was  successful ;  but  the 
Parthian  horse  speedily  re-formed,  and  forced  the  troops  to  seek 
protection  behind  the  heavy-armed  foot.  Showers  of  heavy 
arrows  were  now  discharged  against  the  close  mass,  on  which 
every  missile  took  effect,  and  the  situation  of  the  Eomans  was 
the  more  hopeless,  since  the  Parthians  had  the  means  of  re- 
plenishing their  quivers  from  a  reserve  carried  on  camels. 
Charge  of  Young  Crassus,  by  his  father's  directions,  now  advanced  at  the 
young  ""^ssu?. j^^^^  ^^  1,300  horsc,  500  archers,  and  eight  cohorts;  when  the 
Parthians,  as  was  their  custom,  took  to  flight.  Not  doubting 
that  this  was  real,  the  youth,  crying  out,  "  They  fly  before  us !" 
pushed  on  at  full  speed ;  but  when  far  from  support,  he  found 
himself  charged  by  the  supposed  fugitives.  The  Komans 
halted :  but  instead  of  engaging  in  a  close  fight,  the  Parthians, 
as  before,  resorted  to  a  discharge  of  arrows  against  those  whose 
situation  scarcely  admitted  of  either  attack  or  defence.  As  a 
last  resource,  the  young  commander,  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry, 
made  an  ineffectual  charge  against  the  cuirasses  and  steel- 
covered  horses  of  the  enemy,  and  after  having  been  wounded, 
retired  with  his  remaining  men  to  join  the  infantry,  and  seized 
His  critical  a  rising  ground,  which  they  hoped  to  defend  till  succours  could 
deaih.'""  '^"'^  arrive.  But  seeing  no  chance  of  assistance,  and  being  unable 
to  use  his  arm,  he  sought  the  relief  of  death  from  one  of  his 


CHAP.  XIII.]  FATE  OF  CRA8SUS  AND  HIS  ARMY.  4 1  1 

attendants.  The  Parthians  having  killed  or  taken  all  that 
remained,  marclicd  without  delay  against  Crassus,  displaying, 
as  they  advanced,  the  head  of  his  son  on  the  point  of  a  lance. 

On  perceiving  this  dismal  trophy,  Crassus  exclaimed,  like  a  Efforts  of 
true  Roman,   *' This  misfortune  is  mine;  let  us  charge,   and  encourage  his ; 
punish  these  insulting  barbarians,  since  the  loss  of  one  man  *'"o°p^' 
cannot  affect  the  victory."     His  efforts  to  reanimate  the  troops 
were  however  vain ;  and  the  Parthians  continued  their  harassing 
attacks  till  nightfall,  when  they  retired,  to  allow,  as  they  said, 
the  father  one  night  to  lament  his  son.^ 

This  was  truly  no  more  than  he  required,  for  the  excitement  Retreat  of  the 

PI  1     .  1  .  •  1  111         Romau  army. 

01  the  contest  being  over,  his  energies  sunk  so  completely  that 
he  covered  his  face  in  his  cloak,  and  became  incapable  of  further 
exertion.  A  council  of  war  was  therefore  called,  and  it  was 
resolved  that  a  retreat  towards  Carrhse  should  be  commenced  at 
dawn,  which  took  place  accordingly,  the  wounded  being  left  to 
their  fate.  Three  hundred  horse,  under  Ignatius,  proceeded, 
however,  early  in  the  night  by  the  same  route,  and  passed  on 
to  the  Zeugma,  after  apprizing  the  governor  of  Carrhae  that  a 
battle  had  been  fought  with  the  Parthians :  Crassus  found  in 
consequence  an  asylum  in  this  city.  This,  however,  proved 
only  temporary :  Surena  was  not  long  behind  his  enemy,  and 
having  ascertained  that  Crassus  and  Cassius  were  within  the 
walls,  he  prepared  to  invest  the  place.  To  avoid  so  critical  a 
situation,  the  Roman  army  continued  its  march  the  same  night, 
closely  followed  by  Surena,  to  whom  their  purpose  had,  it  would 
appear,  been  betrayed. 

Finding  the  army  hampered  in  marshy  ground,  Cassius  Difficulties 
separated  himself  from  the  guide,  whom  he  suspected,  and 
returned  to  Carrhee,  whence  he  made  his  way  into  Syria ;  but 
Crassus  remained  entangled  in  his  difficult  position.  At  day- 
light he  removed  to  a  hill,  and  the  troops  having  been  formed  by 
Octavius  into  a  hollow  square,  continued  the  retreat;  their 
bodies  serving  as  a  rampart  to  protect  their  general. 

Crassus  now  increased  the  disadvantages  of  his  position  by  Death  of 
thoughtlessly  entering  into  a  negotiation,  and  even  accepting   '"^^"^" 
an  invitation  to  confer  with  his  enemy.   A  kind  of  scuffle  ensued, 
'  Plutarch  in  Crasso. 


412 


SUllENA  S  MARCH  INTO  CTESIPHON. 


[chap. 


xnr. 


localities. 


TriDinph  of 
Siirena  at 
Ctesiphoa. 


which  led  to  the  death  of  the  unfortunate  Eoman,  and  to  the 
destruction  of  the  remainder  of  his  army/ 

As  in  the  similar  catastrophe  at  Kabul,  in  our  own  time,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  enemy  had  planned  the  death,  or 
merely  intended  to  bring  about  the  capture  of  the  chief.  But 
the  scene  which  was  subsequently  enacted  at  Seleucia,  makes 
the  latter  conclusion  more  probable  than  the  former. 
Position  of  the  The  marshcs  in  which  the  Romans  found  themselves  en- 
tangled when  advancing,  indicate  that  this  event  must  have 
taken  place  some  miles  southward  of  Haran,  and  the  battle 
ground  was  in  all  probability  a  little  further  in  the  same  direc- 
tion.^ The  previous  passage  at  Thapsacus,  and  the  march  from 
thence  through  a  desert  country  to  the  river  Belik,  seem  to 
show  that  Crassus  must  have  proceeded  eastward,  or  nearly  so, 
in  a  direct  line  from  Thapsacus  to  the  upper  part  of  that 
river. 

Surena  proceeded  to  Seleucia  after  the  battle,  and  there 
celebrated  his  victory  by  a  mock  procession,  in  which  Crassus 
was  personated  by  an  individual,  who  was  made  to  enter  the 
city  preceded  by  lictors  and  other  accompaniments  of  such  dis- 
plays. The  head  of  his  fallen  enemy  had,  however,  already 
been  despatched  to  Orodes  with  this  brief  message :  Surena 
sends  the  head  of  the  Roman  general,  whose  army  has  been  cut 
in  pieces.  Orodes  received  this  present,  with  transports  of  joy, 
in  Armenia,  whilst  engaged  in  cementing,  with  public  feasts,  his 
recently-formed  alliance  with  Artabazus  ;  and  having  obtained 
a  more  particular  account  of  the  action  from  the  luessenger, 
Syllaces,  he  commanded  melted  gold  to  be  poured  into  the 
mouth  of  the  lifeless  head,  in  order  that,  as  he  observed,  the 
passion  of  Crassus  for  this  metal  might  be  satiated. 

But  Surena  did  not  long  enjoy  the  glory  of  his  victory  ;  for 
Orodes,  fearing  he  might  be  supplanted  by  his  vczir,  caused 
him  to  be  put  to  death,  and  then  sent  an  army  under  his  own 
son  Pacorus  to  invade  Syria,  at  a  time  when  the  Romans  were 
much  occupied  in  another  quarter. 

'  Plutarch  in  Crasso. 

*  Tlie  distance  from  Carrhoe  must  have  been  small,  since  the  fugitives 
reached  that  city  about  midnight  after  tlie  battle. 


Pacorus 
invades  Syria. 


B.  C.  50. 


CIlAr.  XIII.]  ANTONY  INVADES  PARTHIA.  413 

The  campaigns  in  Europe  which  have  been  so  well  described 
by  the  Roman  historians,  and  in  the  Commentaries  of  Ctesar 
himself,  having  terminated  at  Pharsalia,  the  East  again  became 
the  theatre  of  Avar. 

After  the  reunion  of  Octavius  and  Antony,  the  latter  took  Ar.tony  takes 

1         •  1       1       1  1        p     •  I'  '"*^  field. 

the  field  m  person,  hoping  to  snatch  the  laurels  oi  victory  trom 
his  own  lieutenant  Ventidius,^  and  afterwards  to  subjugate  the 
Parthians ;  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  passes  occupied  by  the 
enemy  in  the  line  through  Kurdistan,"  he  appears  to  have  made 
a  detour  of  1,000  miles,  to  the  river  Araxes  ;^  probably  keeping  Koute  of  his 

.  ,  irti  .  ,•  ,  army  towards 

westward,  and  again  northward,  oi  the  most  mountainous  part  pmaspa. 
of  Armenia. 

Having  arrived  on  the  borders  of  Media,  and  wishing  to 
hasten  operations  in  order  to  rejoin  Cleopatra,  he  left  Statianus 
in  Atropatana*  to  bring  on  the  baggage  and  military  engines, 
while  he  made  a  forced  march  of  300  miles  to  Praaspa  or 
Phraata,  the  Atropatenian  Ecbatana,"  having  taken,  it  is  sup- 
posed, the  route  near  the  lake  of  Urumiyah  and  the  Miyandab 
plain,  following  the  valley  of  the  Jaghatii  by  Sa'in  Kal'eh, 
to  the  stronghold  in  question.^ 

Feeling  at  ease  respecting   the  safety  of  their   city  with  Capture  of  the 
Antony's  present  means,  the  Parthian  army  which  had  come  bag'^ge  and 
to  protect  it,  allowed  the  place  to  be  quietly  invested,   and^°s^°®^- 
crossing  the  mountains  in  a  direct  line,  they  fell  unexpectedly 
upon  Statianus,  and  not  only  routed  his  escort,  but  captured 
the  whole  of  the  baggage  and  military  engines.^     Antony  on 
perceiving  his  fatal  mistake,  and  suspecting  the  object  of  the 
march,  hastened  to  pursue   the  Parthians,  but  finding  he  was 
too  late,  he  returned   to  resume  the  siege,  raising  a  mound 

'  Jos.  Ant.,  lib.  XIY.,  cap.  xxvii. 

*  The  pass  of  Keli-shin,  and  the  mountainous  country  about  Rowandiz, 
would  be  in  the  direct  line  from  Thapsacus  to  the  Median  Ecbatana. 

^  If  tlie  valley  of  the  Upper  Euphrates  were  followed,  keeping  northward 
of  Erz-Euin  to  the  central  part  of  the  river  Araxes,  the  distance  from  Thaj)- 
sacus  would  exceed  1,000  miles. 

*  Plutarch,  p.  933,  and  Appian,  vol.  III.,  p.  77. 

*  Now  Takhti-Soleimdn,  Royal  Geog.  Journal,  vol.  X.,  pp.  113,  114. 
«  Ibid.,  p.  115. 

'  Strabo,  lib.  XI.,  pp.  523,  524,  525,  compared  with  Dio  Cassius,  lib. 
XLIX.,  p.  465. 


414 


AUGUSTUS  PROCLAIMED  EMPEROR.  [CHAP.  XIII. 


Antony's 
retreat  from 
Pliraata. 


B.C.  31, 

Augustus 
assumes  the 
purple. 

B.  C.  24, 

B.C.  20. 


JEYins  Callus 
lands  in 
Arabia. 


March 
through  the 
couutry. 


against  the  walls,  as  the  only  means  of  replacing  the  engines. 
He  persevered  for  a  time  under  these  adverse  circumstances ; 
but  being  unable  to  make  an  impression  on  the  town,  or  to 
bring  the  active  enemy  who  harassed  his  rear  to  a  general 
action,  supplies  also  beginning  to  fail,  he  abandoned  his  en- 
trenchments as  they  stood,  and  forthwith  proceeded  by  the 
mountain  road  towards  the  Araxes.  Antony  retreated  by  a 
different  line  from  that  by  which  he  had  advanced,  namely, 
through  the  mountains,  leaving  it  is  supposed  Maraghah  on  the 
left,  and  skirting  Sehend  in  the  direction  of  Tabriz.  There 
was  a  sort  of  understanding  that  the  march  would  not  be 
molested ;  notwithstanding  which  he  found  himself  constantly 
harassed  by  the  Parthians,  and  suffered  the  greatest  losses  and 
privations,  being  attacked  no  less  than  eighteen  times  before  he 
quitted  the  Median  territory.  The  principal  affair,  that  of 
Gallus,  in  which  the  Romans  lost  8,000  men,  took  place  pro- 
bably not  far  from  Miyandab.^  But  at  length  he  recrossed  the 
Araxes  into  a  friendly  country,  after  the  loss,  chiefly  by  sickness, 
of  20,000  infantry  and  4,000  cavalry.' 

Antony  speedily  rejoined  Cleopatra,  and  ere  long  the  battle 
of  Actium  took  place.  On  the  death  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra, 
Augustus  entered  Alexandria,  and  two  years  later  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Emperor. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  remarkable  for  an  expedition 
sent  into  Southern  Arabia,^  in  order  to  secure  by  commercial 
treaty,  or  other  means,  a  share  of  the  gold,  silver,  and  other 
reputed  treasures  of  that  country. 

By  command  of  the  emperor,  ^lius  Gallus,  the  governor 
of  Egypt,  prepared  an  adequate  flotilla  at  Cleopatris,  from 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Leuce  Komi,  a  port  in  the  Nabathean 
territory,  then  well  known  to  the  Romans  as  a  commercial 
entrepot  between  Southern  Arabia  and  the  great  mart  of  Petra, 
and  now  represented  by  El  Haura^  on  the  coast  of  Hijaz. 

With  a  force  consisting  of  10,000  Romans,  500  of  Herod's 
guards,  and  1,000  Nabatheans  commanded  by  Syllabus,  and 
conducted  by  the  latter  as  the  representave  of  their  ally  Obodus, 

'  Royal  Geog.  Journal,  vol.  X.,  p.  llo.         *  Plutarch  in  Ant. 

"  Detailed  in  Strabo,  lib.  XVI. 

*  The  white  town.     D'Anville's  Anc.  Geog.,  vol.  II.,  p.  8. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  EXPEDITION  OF  .ELIUS  GALLUS.  415 

king  of  the  Nabatheans,  the  expedition  proceeded  through  an  Progress 

.  ,  .  1,17  /»  1     through  the 

and  country,  carrying  on  camels  the  water  necessary  tor  sub-  country  of 
sistence.     After  a   toilsome  march  of  many  days  the   army '*"'^^'^' 
reached  the  territory  of  Aretas,  who,  as  the  relative  of  Obodus, 
gave   them   a   friendly  reception  ;    but  owing  to  the  want  of 
roads,    thirty  days    were    subsequently   consumed    in   passing 
through  the  country  of  this  chief,  which  is  described  as  only 
producing  palms,  and  a  coarse  kind  of  rye,  with  butter  instead 
of  oil  to  render  the  food  of  the  people  palatable.     The  army 
now  entered  the  nomad  district  of  Ararena,'  of  which  Sabus  was 
king.     In  this  tract,  which  was  almost  entirely  desert,  fifty  days 
were  consumed  before  the  army  reached  the  fertile  country  of 
Nigranes,  probably  Wadi  Nejran.     The  king  fled  on  their  ap- 
proach, and  his  city  was  taken  by  assault.     From  thence  in  six 
days  the  army  arrived  on  the  banks  of  a  river.     Here  an  engage-  Engagement 
ment  took  place,  in  which  the  Arabians  lost  about  10,000  men,  Xrabs.^ 
and  the  town  of  Asca  (Cisca),  fell  in  consequence  to  the  invaders. 
Gal] us  next  proceeded  to  the  town  of  Athrulla,  which  did  not 
offer  any  opposition.     Having  procured  supplies,   and  left  a 
garrison  in  this  place,  the  Romans  proceeded  to   Marsyaba, 
in  the  country  of  the  Ehamanetse,  which  was   governed  by 
Ilasarus.    After  six  days,  want  of  water  obliged  Gallus  to  raise 
the  siege  of  this  town,  which  according  to  the  account  given  by 
the  prisoners,  was  only  two  days  from  the  spice  country.    Per- 
ceiving that  he  had  followed  the  guides  uselessly  for  six  months, 
Gallus  determined  to  return,  and  taking  for  this  purpose  a  Retreat  of 
more  direct  line,  in  nine  days  he  reached  the  battle-ground  of^^i'"^^^^^"^' 
the  Nigranes.     Eleven  days  carried  the  army  from  thence  to 
the  Seven  Wells ;  from  whence  they  marched  by  Chaalla  to 
Malothas,  and  thence  through  an  uninhabited  country  to  Nera 
Komi,  a  seaport  town  under  the  dominion  of  Obodus :   thus 
accomplishing  in  sixty  days  in  returning,  a  distance  which  had 
occupied  six  months  during  the -advance.     Gallus  then  crossed  h^s  return  to 
the  Red  Sea  to  Myos-Hormos,  from  whence  he  marched  to  ^^JP*- 
Coptos,  and  returned  to  Alexandria.     There  seems  little  doubt 
that  the  extreme  point  reached,  Marsyaba,  is  Mareb  or  Saba, 

'  Gosselin,  in  his  researches,  with  much  probability  supposes  that  Strabo 
here  alludes  to  the  district  of  Nedjd-el-'Aridh. 


416       THE  TROPHIES  TAKEN  FROM  CRASSUS  RESTORED.    [CHAP.  XHI. 


Observations 
on  the 
campaign. 


Angnstn.? 
recoTers  the 
«'ai;ks,  &c_, 
taken  from 
Crassus. 

13.  C.  2t). 


B.  C.  1. 

Rebellion  of 
the  Jews. 


also  called  Marsaba,  being,  like  the  former,  in  or  near  the 
country  of  the  Rhamnatse.' 

Although  there  are  not  sufficient  materials  to  follow  the 
wanderings  of  the  Roman  army  under  ^lius  Gallus,  the  time 
consumed  during  the  advance  may  easily  be  accounted  for, 
without  the  supposition  that  the  Roman  general  had  been 
deceived.  The  detour  of  Nedjd-el-'Aridh  was  probably  taken 
to  round  the  high  range  of  Jebel  Imariyeh.  This  and  the 
subsequent  march  through  desert  countries  in  central  and 
southern  Arabia,  would  give  a  distance  of  nearly  2,000  miles 
from  El  Plaura  to  Marsyaba,  which  would  have  occupied 
nearly  the  specified  time  of  six  months ;  whilst  the  return, 
when  better  acquainted  with  the  countries  to  be  traversed, 
would  naturally  have  been  much  more  rapid,  the  direct  distance 
to  one  of  the  ports  on  the  coast  opposite  to  Medina,  being  only 
about  1,000  miles. 

The  failure  in  the  attempt  to  subjugate  the  Arabs  was  almost 
the  only  disappointment  which  occurred  during  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  all  else  having  been  prosperous.  The  Parthians 
were  glad  to  restore  the  trophies  as  well  as  the  remaining 
captives  taken  from  Crassus  ;  and  in  the  following  year  an 
embassy  came  for  the  second  time,  bringing  rich  presents  from 
the  Indians,  to  seek  his  alliance.^  Moreover,  extensive  tracts 
of  country,  and  even  kingdoms,  were  disposed  of  by  Augustus  : 
among  these  was  Armenia,  which  was,  for  the  second  time, 
bestowed  on  Tigranes;  the  latter  having  been  raised  to  the 
throne  on  the  expulsion  of  Artabanes. 

When  the  advent  of  the  Redeemer  of  mankind  took  place, 
Augustus  still  wielded  the  sceptre  of  Rome  ;  and,  only  half  a 
century  after  the  decease  of  this  emperor,  the  predicted  punish- 
ment of  the  Jewish  people  commenced,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Gessius  Florus,  the  last  and  most  cruel  of  the 
governors  who  ever  tyrannized  over  Judea.  In  the  second 
year  of  his  government,  the  Jews,  exasperated  beyond  endurance 
by  his  atrocities,  everywhere  took  up  arms,  and  giving  loose  to 
their  passions  in  murders  and  robberies,  Caestus  Gallus  was 
sent  to  subdue  them,  but  was  shortly  afterwards  superseded  in 
'  Strabo,  lib.  XVI.,  p.  782.  J  Ibid.,  lib.  XV.,  p.  719. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  VESPASIAN  INVADES  GALILEE.  417 

the  command  by  Vespasian.     The  Roman  general  commenced  Capture  of 
the  war  by  burning  Gadara ;  after  which,  with  the  assistance  of 
his  son  Titus,  he  laid  siege  to  Jotapata,  knowing  that  Galilee 
must  follow  the  fate  of  its  capital.     The  city  was  defended  by 
the  celebrated  historian  of  the  Jews   with  such  valour,   that  it 
resisted  60,000  Romans   for   forty-seven   days,    when    it    was 
carried  by  a  fearful  assault  in  which  every  indi\'idual  was  either 
killed  or  taken  prisoner.     After  the  fall  of  this  city,^  Vespasian  Successes  of 
reduced  Joppa  and  Tarichea  by  storm,   and  Tiberias  having  tuus!^'^'^  ^° 
surrendered,   he  likewise   captured  Gamala.      Titus  was   em- 
ployed against  Girchala,   which   being   taken,  he  rejoined  his 
father,   in    order  to  undertake    the  siege  of  the    capital,    the 
principal  object  of  the  war.     Three  parties  at  this  time  divided  state  of 
the  powder  in  Jerusalem,  and   a  fourth  was  invited  to  assist  in 
its  defence,  viz.,   the  Idumeans,   who,   as    the   descendants  of 
Esau,   were  considered  a  part  of  the  Jewish  nation.     But  on 
being  admitted  to  the  city,  to   revenge   some  supposed  insult, 
they  indulged  their  predatory  habits  by  plundering  and  com- 
mitting other  excesses,  after  which  they  returned  to  their  own 
country,   leaving  Jerusalem  to  its   fate.     Discord  was   at  its 
height  when  Titus   approached  ;  who,  after  the   necessary  re-  a.d.  73. 
connaissances  were  made,  commenced  the  siege  in  form.     The  Commence- 
tenth  legion   occupied  the   Mount  of  Olives  ;  a   third   legion  ^e"e.° 
took  post  three  stadia  beyond  the  city  :  and  the  rest  of  the 
army,  after  levelling  the  ground  between  Scopus  and  the  Avails, 
was  stationed  where  these  turn  from   north  to  west,  and  from 
thence  to  the  tower  of  Hippicus.     During  these  preparations, 
Titus  sent  Josephus  to  offer  terms  of  peace,   which  were  scorn- 
fully rejected  as  it  were  by  the  whole  nation,   then  assembled 
from  all  parts  to  keep  the  feast  of  the  Passover.     Titus,  there- 
fore, proceeded  to  level  the  suburbs,  and  after  carrying  some  of 
the  works,    he  put  a  stop  to  all  chance  of  egress  by  lines  of 
circumvallation.     Famine    soon  ensued,    and    this  to    such    a  Distress  of 
fearful  extent,  that  the  cravings  of  hunger  overcame  a  mother's  '^*^^""^^^™- 
love,   and  the  body  of  the   offspring  became  the  food  of  the 
wretched  parent.     When  this  inhuman  circumstance  was  made 
known  to  Titus,  he  determined  on  the  extirpation  of  a  people 

'  Now  probably  Safet.— See  vol.  I.,  pp.  479,  480. 
VOL.  II.  2    E 


418  CALAMITOUS  DESTRUCTION  OF  JERUSALEM.       [CHAP.  XIII. 

who  had  chosen  to  be  reduced  to  such  extremities  ;  and  the 
siege  being  pushed  with  increased  vigour,  the  castle  of  Antonia 
was  taken,  the  gates  burned,  and  the  temple  plundered  and 
afterwards  destroyed  by  fire,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
Fate  of  the  Titus  to  save  this  noble  structure.  A  horrid  massacre  sub- 
peopk.  sequently  took  place,   and    1,101,000  Jews  are  said  to  have 

perished  in  this  memorable  siege,  w^hile  97,000  were  sold  as 
slaves  :  ^  the  descendants  of  those  who  escaped  still  continue 
outcasts  in  the  remotest  corners  of  the  world. 

The  work  of  massacre  and  pillage  being  over,  Titus  caused 

the  fortifications  to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  with  the  exception 

of  a  piece  of  the  western  wall,  and  the  three  towers  of  Hippicus, 

Phascelus,  and  Mariamne,  wdiich  were  left  to  give  future  ages 

some  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  city.^ 

A.D.  78.  On  the  death  of  Vespasian,  Titus  received  the  purple :  his 

A.D.  81.         brother  Domitian  succeeded  him,  and  was  followed  by  Nerva, 

A.D,  90.         ^yho  closed  a  happy  reign  by  the  judicious  choice  of  a  successor. 

Trajan's  wars  This  was  Ulpius  Traiau,  a  native  of  Italica,  near  Seville,  who, 

m  Germany.      .  ^  p     ,  i      •   •  n    i<r  •         i     i 

m  consequence  ot  the  decision  oi  JNerva,  quitted  the  govern- 
ment of  lower  Germany,  to  assume  that  of  the  Roman  empire. 
During  his  second  war  against  the  Dacians,  the  famous 
bridge  of  twenty  large  arches  was  thrown  over  the  Danube  by 
his  engineer,  Apollodorus  of  Damascus.^  His  conquests  over 
the  Dacians  and  Armenians  procured  for  him  the  reputation 
of  a  great  general ;  but  these,  as  w^ell  as  the  subjection  of  Arabia 
Petrea,  by  his  lieutenant,  Aulus  Cornelius  Palma,  the  governor 

A.D.  107.       of  Syria,  were  only  preparatory  to  his  invasion  of  Parthia. 

He  constructs  Early  in  the  spring  he  advanced  toM'ards  the  enemy  ;  but  as 
the  country  near  the  Tigris  produces  little  wood  adapted  for 
the  purpose,  he  conveyed  thither  on  carriages  the  materials 
prepared  in  the  forests  near  Nisibis  for  the  construction  of  a 
fleet :  and  on  reaching  the  river,  he  prepared  to  lay  a  bridge 
over  against  Mount  Cordynas,  the  highest  of  the  Gordyaan 
chain.*  The  barbarians  (Assyrians)  were  posted  on  the  op- 
posite bank  to  prevent  the  passage,  yet  Trajan  succeeded  in 

'  Jos.  Bell.  Jud.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  i.  ii.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  i. 

'  At  the  narrow  part  of  the  river,  near  tlie  present  Orsova. 
*  Pliny,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxvii. 


a  fleet. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  TRAJAN  MARCHES  INTO  ASSYRIA.  419 

throwing  a   bridge  across  the   river-:  part  of  the  vessels  were  Passage  of  the 

lashed  together  to  form  the  bridge,  while  others,  with  soldiers    ^^^^'  ^" 

and  archers  on  board,  were  posted  as  if  to  cover  the  operation 

of  passing  the  river,  or  to  mancEUvre  on  each  flank.     Owing  to 

this  judicious  plan  of  attack,   and   the  consternation  caused  by 

the  appearance  of  such  a  fleet  in  a  country,  where,  from  want 

of  timber,  it  could  not  have  been  constructed,  the  enemy  fled. 

The  Romans  immediately  crossed   the   river,   and  subdued  ^.'^]';i^^^^<'°  ^'^ 

'  ,         ,  Adiabene. 

the  whole  country  of  Adiabene,  which  is  that  part  of  Assyria 
near  Nineveh,  and  also  contains  Guagamela  and  Arbela,  where 
Alexander  conquered  Darius.  The  inhabitants,  changing  .9 
into  t,  call  this  part  of  the  territory  Athur,  for  Assur.' 

Not  finding  any  enemies  who  were  in  a  condition  to  offer  Descent  of 

•  ,  •  ,     the  river 

resistance,  the  Parthians  being  extremely  weakened  by  their  Euphrates. 
civil  wars,  Trajan  advanced  as  far  as  Babylon,  and  visited  the 
lake,  the  sulphur  (or  bitumen)  of  which  had  been  used  in  con- 
structing the  walls  of  that  stately  city.  The  strength  of  this 
bitumen,  when  mixed  with  bricks  or  small  stones,  is  so  great 
that  it  becomes  harder  than  marble  or  iron." 

Diflaculties  have  been  experienced  in  explaining  the  descent  Observations 
of  Trajan,  who,  according  to  the  historian  Dio,  proceeded  from  localities. 
Assyria  by  the  Tigris  to  Babylon,  which  is   situated   on   the 
sister  stream.     But  as  the  name  of  one  river  is  sometimes  used 
by  ancient  writers  for  the   other,   there  is  little  doubt  that  on 
this  occasion  the  Roman  fleet  descended  the  Euphrates.     As 
has  been  described,  the   vessels  were  transported  on  carriages 
from  the  forest  of  Nisibis  to  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  and  sup- 
posing them  to  have  been  carried  back  in  the  same  manner, 
Trajan  could  have  taken  his  forces  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Sinjar,  along  the  Mesopotamian  Khabiir  into  the  Euphrates  at 
Circesium,  and  then  have  continued  the  descent  to  Hit  and  Trajan  com- 
Babylon  ;  where  the  narrative  of  the  operations  is  resumed.^      Nahr  Maikd. 

Trajan  had  resolved,  writes  Dio  Cassius,  to  carry  his  vessels 

'  Dio  Cassius,  ed.  Reimer,  Hamb.,  lib.  LXVIII.,  cap.  xxvi. ;  Steph. 
1592,  Xiphilinus,  p.  252-254.  ^  Ibid. 

^  As  the  historian  carries  him  from  tlie  Euphrates  across  tlie  country,  it  is 
obvious  that  Trajan  must  liave  descended  this  river,  and  not  the  Tigris,  as 
erroneously  stated  in  his  text. 

2e2 


420 


TRAJAX  VISITS  THE  PERSIAN  GULF.  [cHAP.  XIII. 


Assyrin,  &c 
declared 
Roman 
proTinces. 


Trajan 
descends  the 
Tigris,  &c. 


from  the  Euphrates  into  the  Tigris,  and  he  commenced  the 
canal  now  called  Nahr  Malka  for  this  purpose  ;  but  he  aban- 
Supposed  beds  doned  the  work  on  ascertaining  that  the  bed  of  the  Euphrates 
Mesopotamia,  was  higher  than  that  of  the  Tigris,  and  that  there  was  danger 
that  the  former  would  be  drained  in  consequence  of  the  waters 
descending  to  the  lower  level.  Transporting  his  vessels,  there- 
fore, by  means  of  carriages  across  the  country  which  lies  between 
the  two  rivers,  and  which  is  a  very  narrow  tract,  he  crossed 
the  Tigris  and  entered  the  city  of  Ctesiphon,  where  he  found 
the  daughter  of  Chosroes,  and  the  golden  throne  of  this  prince. 

Having  conquered  the  surrounding  country,  and  declared 
Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Arabia,  to  be  Roman  provinces, 
he  was  saluted  as  emperor,  and  established  his  right  to  the 
surname  of  Parthicus.  He  also  received  from  the  senate  the 
honour  of  a  triumph,  attended  with  feasts  and  public  rejoicings, 
which  were  to  continue  as  long  as  he  thought  proper. 

After  the  fall  of  Ctesiphon,  Trajan  sailed  down  the  Tigris 
to  the  Red  Sea,  a  part  of  the  ocean  so  called  from  the  name 
of  a  prince  who  formerly  reigned  there,  and  without  difficulty 
reduced  an  island,  called  the  Isle  of  Messene,  which  is  situated 
in  the  Tigris,  and  of  which  Atambilus  was  king.  But  owing 
to  stormy  weather,  the  rapidity  of  the  river,  and  the  reflux  of 
the  sea,  the  fleet  was  exposed  to  extreme  danger.  The  inha- 
bitants of  a  city  called  Spasinas  received  him  in  a  friendly 
manner ;  and  he  afterwards  came  to  the  ocean  itself",  which  he 
viewed  very  attentively.  Seeing  a  ship  ready  to  sail  for  India, 
he  said  that  he  would  have  made  the  voyage  himself  if  he  had 
been  younger ;  adding,  that  Alexander  had  been  happy  in 
carrying  his  arms  so  far.^ 

Symptoms  of  revolt  in  the  newdy-acquired  provinces  having 
called  for  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  he  immediately  re- 
turned to  Ctesiphon,  where,  having  assembled  the  Parthians 
and  Romans  on  the  neighbouring  plain,  and  recounted  from  an 
elevated  spot  his  various  expeditions,  he  declared  Parthamas- 
pates  king,  and  placed  the  crown  on  his  head.  He  next  pro- 
ceeded against  the  Hagarenes  or  Saracens,^  who  had  endea- 

'  Dio  Cassias,  ed.  Reimer,  Ilamb.,  lib.  LXVIIT.,  cap.  xxvi. 

*  Probably  a  portion  of  the  Arabs  westward  of  tlie  lower  Eupln-ates. 


A.D.  117. 

His  return  to 
Ctesiphon. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  SEVERUS  DESCENDS  THE  EUPHRATES.  421 

voured  to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke  ;  but  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  water  and  provisions  for  the  troops,  and  the  excessive  heat, 
Atra,'  the  capital,  successfully  resisted  his  arms;  and  Trajan 
being  foiled,  as  Severus  was  at  a  later  period,  he  raised  the 
siege  and  proceeded  to  Cilicia,^  where  he  died  in  the  nine- 
teenth year  of  his  reign. 

Adrian,  his  successor,  resolved  to  abandon  useless  conquests,  Adrian 
and  having  withdrawn   his  troops  from  the  territories  beyond  uumi.er  of  the 
the  Euphrates,    that  river  once  more  became  the  boundary  of  p^g'^^fj^gg^ 
the  Roman  empire. 

Peace,  which  continued  for  many  years,  was  again  disturbed  a.d.  le:. 
by  the  Persian  king  Yologeses,   who  was  defeated  by  Cassius. 
At  a  later  period,  the  emperor  Severus  resolved  to  subject  the 
Parthians,  who,   while  he  was  occupied  in  the  civil  war,  had 
possessed  themselves  of  Mesopotamia,  and  laid  siege  to  Nisibis.  -A..D.  197. 
This  city  held  out  till  Severus  appeared,  when  the  Parthians  Sevems 

_  (Ifciscdicls  the 

immediately  retreated.      Following   up  his   success   with   in-  Euphrates. 
creased  means,  and  considering  the  autumn  the  most  favour- 
able season  for  his   intended  expedition,  the  emperor  put  his 
fleet  and  army  in  motion;  the  latter  partly  on  the  banks  of  the 
stream,  partly  on  the  water.     On  reaching  Babylonia,  he  caused 
the  Nahr  Malka  to  be  cleared  out,   by  which  means  his  fleet  Passes tinongh 
was  conveyed  from  the  Euphrates  into  the  Tigris.     SeleuciacanaT"^ 
having  fallen,  he  laid  siege  to  Ctesiphon,  which  was  at  length 
carried  ;  but  this  operation  was  attended  with  many  privations 
to  the  troops  of  Severus,  who  w^ere  forced  to  eat  such  roots  as 
they  found  in  the  fields.   The  city  w^as  given  up  to  plunder,  and  Capture  of 
the  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword, ^with  the  exception  of  100,000     ^*'P  "°' 
women  and  children,  who  were  sold  as  slaves.     The  pompous 
account  given  of  his   exploits,  which   were  also  represented  by 
paintings,  obtained  for  Severus  from  the  senate  a  triumph,  with 
the  title  of  Parthicus  Maximus. 

As  the  supplies  had  been  consumed  in  descending  the  line  of  Return  of 
the  Euphrates,  Severus  was  determined  to  return  by  another  siege  of  Atra. 
route.     The  army  ascended  therefore   along  the  Tigris,  and  in  a.d.  129. 
passing  through  Upper  Mesopotamia,    made    an   unsuccessful 
attack   against  Atra  (El    Hadhr).     In  the  following  season, 
'  Probablj'  El  Hadhr.  *  Xipbilinus,  Trajan,  p.  2o4. 


422  SEVERUS  BESIEGES  ATRA  THE  SECOND  TIME.      [cHAP.  XIII. 

Severus,  having  made  great  preparations  in  troops  as  well  as  in 
military  engines,  laid  siege  for  the  second  time  to  this  city, 
whose  resistance  could  not  be  tolerated,  all  other  places  having 
submitted  to  the  dominion  of  Rome.  But,  though  no  means 
were  spared  in  carrying  on  the  attack,  he  was  as  unsuccessful 
in  this  attempt  as  in  the  former,  and  suffered  the  loss  of  his 
Second  siege,  choicest  troops.     Many  were  slain  whilst  foraging :  for,  at  that 

and  successful  i  a       i  •     '  007 

resistance  of  momcut,  the  Arabian  cavalry  were  accustomed  to  fall  upon 
them  suddenly  from  the  exterior,  whilst  the  besieged  showered 
darts  on  those  near  the  walls.  But  the  greatest  loss  was  ex- 
perienced when  the  Romans  had  reached  the  foot  of  the  wall, 
and  had  beaten  down  part  of  it,  for  the  besieged  then  threw 
quantities  of  burning  naphtha  on  the  assailants,  when,  besides 
the  destruction  of  the  men,  the  warlike  engines  were  consumed 
in  an  instant  by  this  liquid  fire. 

Severas  raises       Severus,   from  the   ground  where  he    was  posted,  had  the 

th6  sic"G  HQCl  , 

retreats.  mortification  of  being  an  eye-witness  of  this  catastrophe,  and  of 
the  failure  of  the  assault,  at  the  moment  when  his  soldiers 
attempted  to  enter  the  town  through  the  breach.  Severus  now 
ordered  a  retreat  to  be  sounded ;  but  finding  that  a  whole  day 
passed  without  any  offer  of  surrender  from  the  inhabitants,  he 
gave  directions  for  another  assault.  The  European  soldiers 
refused  to  advance,  and  the  Syrians  having  undertaken  that 
service,  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  After  remaining  twenty 
days  before  this   place,  he  raised  the  siege  and  proceeded  to 

A.D.  201.  Palestine,  after  which  he  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  rendered 
funeral  honours  to  Porapey  the  Great. 

A.D.  211.  This  monarch   died  whilst  carrying   the  Roman  arms  into 

Great  Britain.  He  was  then  in  the  neighbourhood  of  York, 
preparing  to  renew  the  invasion  of  Caledonia,  the  wall  which 
he  had  carried  across  the  island  from  Solway  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyne  not  having  been  a  sufficient  protection  against  the 
people  of  that  kingdom. 

The  Persian        Tlic   cruclties  of  liis  SOU    Caracalla,  and  of  his   successor 

t'hal'^of^he^'''^^  Ilcliogabalus,  caused  two   invasions  of  the  Roman  territories. 

Partiuans.  Qj^  |.j^g  ^j.g|.  occasiou,  the  Romaus  purchased  peace  from  Arta- 
banes,  king  of  the  Parfhians,  by  fifty  millions  of  drachmas ; 
but,  on  the  other,  Artaxerxes,  v/ho  had  established  the  Persian 


CHAP.  XIII.]  DEFEAT  OF  ARTAXERXES.  423 

Oil  the  ruins  of  the  Parthian  power,  was  foiled  before  Atra, 
when  he  returned  to  his  kingdom  after  ravaging  Media, ^  instead 
of  taking  Syria  M'hich  was  then  unprotected. 

The  decline  of  the  Roman  discipline  had,  for  a  time,  given  invasion  and 
the  superiority    to   the    Persians ;  but,   the   ancient  discipline  Artaxerxes 
having  been  restored  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  when  Arta- 
xerxes advanced  at  the  head  of  many  thousands  of  horsemen,  a.d.  233. 
1,800  chariots,   armed  with  scythes,  and   700  elephants,   each 
carrying,   according  to  custom,  a  tower  filled  with  archers,  he 
was   entirely  defeated  ;  and,   to  use  the  words  of  the  Roman 
general,  in  his  relation  to  the   senate,   the  most  potent  Persian 
king  Artaxerxes,  with  120,000  horse,  was  put  to  flight,   and 
1,000  Cataphractarii,  whom  the  Persians  call  Clibanarii,  killed 
in  war.^ 

About   five   years  later,   Alexander   was   assassinated,   and  a.d.  238. 
Gordian  III.  assumed  the  purple  in  consequence.     Sapor,  son  Sapor's' 
of  Artaxerxes,   the  remarkable  prince  who  now  occupied  the  character, 
throne  of  Persia,  was  of  lofty  stature,  arrogant  and  haughty  in 
his  demeanour,  passionate,  cruel,  and  an  enemy  to  the  principles 
of  justice.     This  prince,  the  restorer  of  the  Persian  empire, 
entered  the  Roman  dominions  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army, 
captured  the  cities  of  Xisibis   and  Carrhce,   overran  Mesopo- 
tamia,   and    committed   dreadful  ravages  in    Syria.     Antioch 
itself  had  fallen,  and  the  Roman  soldiers  were  beginning  to 
desert  their  standards,  when  Gordian  restored  confidence  by 
boldly  assuming  the  offensive. 

For  this  purpose  he  hastened  to  the  theatre  of  war,   and  Gordian 
advancing  from   Syria,  soon  proved  that   the  efliciency  of  an  oppoieMhl^ 
army  does  not  depend  on  its  numerical  strength.     The  Romans  P'^'siaus. 
speedily  recovered  Artaxance  and  Antioch,  as  well  as  Nisibis 
and  Carrhae,   in   the  face   of  a  host  of  Persians,   and    Sapor 
retreated  before  his   energetic  enemy,  who  proposed  to  follow 
him  even  as  far  as  Ctesiphon.'^ 

Subsequently,  however,  the  Persians  regained  some  of  their 

•  Dio  Cassius,  lib.  LXXX.,  p.  318. 

*  Lamprid.  vit.  Alex.,  cap.  Iv.,  Ivi. 

Julius  Capitolinus  in   vit.   Gordian,  cap.  xxvi.,  xxvii.,   compared   with 
Zosimus,  lib.  I.,  pp.  5,  6. 


424 


SAPOR  CAPTURES  VALERIAN. 


[chap.  XIII 


Defeat  of 

Sapor,  and 
deatli  of 
Gordiaii. 


Capture  of 
Autioch. 


A.D.  260. 

Valerian  is 
taken  jirisoner 
by  Sapor. 


Koine  and  her 
European 
provinces  are 
threatened. 


lost  ground ;  but  Gordian,  having  again  advanced,  totally 
defeated  Sapor  on  the  banks  of  the  Mesopotamian  Khabiir, 
and  forced  him  to  retreat  into  his  own  dominions.  Whilst 
following  up  this  success,  Gordian  was  put  to  death  by  his  own 
troops,  at  the  instigation  of  Philip,  the  captain  of  his  guards. 
A  splendid  monument,  recording  his  titles  and  conquests  in 
Greek,  Latin,  Persian,  Hebrew,  and  Egyptian,  was,  however, 
erected  by  the  soldiers  to  the  now  deified  Gordian  at  the 
Circeian  camp,  which,  according  to  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
Vv'ho  visited  the  spot,  %vas  at  Dura,  near  Zaitha,  and  sixty  stadia 
below  Circesium  on  the  Aboras.^ 

Sapor  renewed  the  war  successfully  in  the  time  of  Valerian, 
and  having  taken  Antioch,  after  conquering  the  intervening 
territories,  he  returned  to  Persia,  with  much  booty .^  About 
this  period  the  Borani  Scythians  crossed  the  Euxine,  and, 
having  plundered  Trapezus  and  certain  places  near  the  Bos- 
phorus,  they  retreated,  on  the  approach  of  Valerian.^ 

Valerian,  thinking  the  territory  on  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube 
secure,  hastened  into  Syria  to  meet  Sapor,  and  his  allies  the 
Armenians  and  Cadusians  ;  but  having  encountered  these  com- 
bined forces  under  serious  disadvantages,  he  was  signally  defeated 
near  Edessa,  and  subjected  to  a  lengthened  and  cruel  captivity.^ 

This  ill  success  brought  on  the  Roman  empire  a  flood  of 
invaders,  who,  coming  from  the  wide  circumference  of  Asia, 
converged  upon  one  portion  of  Europe,  and  threatened  the 
destruction  even  of  Rome  itself.  One  section,  the  Scythian 
Goths,  ravaged  the  southern  coast  of  the  Pontic  sea,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  Asia  Minor.  A  second,  the  Sarmatians, 
occupied  a  part  of  Dacia,  and  the  neighbouring  tracts.  A 
third  invaded  Spain ;  ^  whilst  a  fourth,  the  Alemanni,  accom- 

'  Amm.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  v.,  and  lib.  XXIV.,  cap.  i. ;  and  Gord.  vit., 
cap.  XXX.,  compared  with  Eutropius,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  ii. ;  Zosimus,  lib.  III.,  p.  49. 

*  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  10,  25,  33,  Ox. ;  Aminian.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  v.  ; 
Zonares,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii.  ''  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  12,  28,  29. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  33-34;  Aurel.  Vict.,  p.  210;  Petri  Patricii  deLegat.,  p.  29; 
Valerian,  vit.,  p.  175  ;  Zonares,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii.  ;  Trebell.  Poll.,  Valer., 
cap.  vi. 

'  Zo.'iim.,  lib.  I.,  p.  42,  Ox. ;  Gallieni,  vit.,  pp.  176-178  ;  Zonar,  lib.  XII., 
p.  24.     See  Aur.  Vict.  De  Cre.*.,  cap.  xxiii. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  RISE  OF  ODENATUS.  425 

paiiied  by  the  Franks,  penetrated  into  Italy  as  far  as  Eavenna. 
Gallienus  hastened  from  Gaul,  and  successfully  opposed  the 
torrent  of  the  Franks,  and  compelled  them  to  retreat.  Those 
who  invaded  Dacia  were  likewise  repulsed.  As  usual  a  civil 
war  ensued,  by  which  Regillianus  gained  the  power,  while,  in 
the  mean  time,  the  Persians  were  actively  employed. 

Sapor  laid  waste  both  Mesopotamia  and  Syria ;  and,  after  sapor  lays 
surprising  Antioch  and  levelling  the  principal  buildings  of  the  poTami^.^^^ 
city,  proceeded  into  Cilicia,  where  he  plundered  Tarsus ;  then, 
advancing  into  Cappadocia,  he  stormed  Ca^saria  and  put  its 
inhabitants  to  the  sword.'  The  thoughtless  conduct  of  this 
prince,  now  at  the  height  of  his  prosperity,  raised  up  an  un- 
expected, and,  as  it  is  proved,  a  formidable  enemy. 

Odenatus,   a  ruling  emir  of  Palmyra  and  eastern  Arabia,  indignity 
held   an    intermediate   place  between   the  two   great   powers,  ockuams  by 
which    for   some   time    had   been  contending  for  sovereignty.  ^^^  P«^'sian 
Hoping  to  keep  on  friendly  terms  with  both,  he  sent  several 
camels  laden  with  rare   and  valuable  presents  to  the  Persian 
king.     But  the  haughty  Sapor  tore  up  the  letter  which  had 
been  addressed  to  him,  and  caused  the  presents  to  be  thrown 
into  the   river,   declaring  that  he  would  exterminate  him  and 
his    country    for  his    presumption,    unless    he    showed   proper 
respect  to  his  lord  and  sovereign,  by  prostrating  himself  at  his 
feet  with  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back.-     Odenatus  declared 
that  he  would  either  be  revenged  for  this  indignity,  or  perish 
in  the  attempt,  and  joined  his  forces  with  those  of  the  Romans. 
The  latter,  who  had  continued  broken  and  dispirited  since  the  Caiistus 

n  -i-r   1      •  111  1  •!••    assumes  the 

capture  oi  V  alerian,  were  now  assembled  under  an  indivi-  offensive. 
dual,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring  and  judicious 
manner  of  assuming  the  offensive.  Caiistus,  or  rather  Balista, 
transported  his  forces  by  sea  from  the  coast  of  Italy  to  that  of 
Cilicia,  and  arrived  just  in  time  to  prevent  the  surrender  of 
Pompeiopolis,  or  Soli,  to  the  Persians.  Being  joined,  as  he 
advanced  towards  Lycaonia,  by  his  new  ally  Odenatus,  the 
Persians,  who  occupied  this  and  the  neighbouring  provinces  in 

'  Amm.  Marcel.,    lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  v. ;    Zonar.,   lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii.  ; 
Cosimus,  lib.  I.,  p.  33,  Ox. 
*  Petr.  Patr.  de  Legat.,  p.  29. 


42{ 


ODENATUS  ASSUMES  THE  REGAL  TITLE.  [cHAP.  XIII. 


Campaign  of 
the  Komans 
and  Palmy- 
reans. 


A.D.  260, 


Odenatas 
assumes  the 
regal  title. 


Odenatns 
defeats  Sapor 
near  Ctesi- 
phon. 


A.D.  264. 


A.D.  266. 


fancied  security,  were  defeated,  and  the  harem  of  Sapor,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  efforts  of  Odenatus,  made  part  of  the  spoil.^ 

Balista  hastened  to  Cilicia,  where  he  captured  Sebaste  and 
Coryeus,^  whilst  his  ally,  faithful  to  his  purposed  revenge,  fell 
upon  the  rear  of  the  Persians  as  they  reached  Euphratesiana, 
and  obliged  them  to  repass  the  river.  This  operation  was 
attended  with  such  heavy  loss,  that  Sapor  gladly  purchased  a 
safe  retreat  from  the  garrison  of  Edessa,  by  restoring  the 
treasure  which  he  had  amassed  whilst  plundering  the  Roman 
territory.^ 

Odenatus  now  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Palmyra,  and  the 
following  year,  being  commander  of  the  Roman  forces  as  well 
as  his  own,  he  again  took  the  field,  and  having  recovered  for 
his  allies  the  cities  of  Nisibis  and  Carrhse,  advanced  into  Persia, 
hoping  for  an  opportunity  of  punishing  his  enemy  by  releasing 
Valerian.* 

Sapor,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  was  defeated  by 
Odenatus  in  an  obstinate  engagement  near  Ctesiphon,  which 
city  he  was  prepared  to  hold  to  the  last.  The  Persians,  how- 
ever, had  hastened  from  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  support  their 
monarch ;  and  a  succession  of  well-contested  battles  were  fought 
under  .the  walls,  generally  to  their  disadvantage.  But  Sapor 
maintained  the  city  and  his  royal  captive  against  all  the 
efforts  of  his  enemy  ;^  and  Odenatus  at  length  abandoned  the 
enterprise,  after  devastating  the  surrounding  country  as  a 
punishment  of  the  people.  In  a  subsequent  invasion,  Odenatus 
besieged  Ctesiphon  a  second  time,  and  had  mastered  the  place, 
when  an  irruption  of  the  Goths  into  Asia  Minor  called  him 
thither,  when,  according  to  Syncellus,®  he  was  assassinated  at 
Heraclea,  by  his  cousin  Maconius.'' 


*  Trigint.  Tyr.,  cap.  xiv. ;  Zonar.,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii. ;  Trebell.  Poll., 
Valerian,  cap.  vii.  °  Zonar.,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii. 

"  Petr.   Patr.  in  Excerpt,  de  Legat.,  p.  25  ;    Trigint.  Tyr.,  cap.  xiv. ; 
Zonar.,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiii. 

■*  Gall,  vit.,  cap.  xxxii. ;  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  p.  36. 

*  Trebellius  Poll.,  vit.  Gall.,  cap.  xxxii.  ;  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  p.  36. 
"  P. 382. 

'  Trebellius  Poll.,  Gall,  vit.,  cap.  xxxii.  ;  Trigint.  Tyr.,  cap.  xiv.,  Zosim., 
lib.  I.,  p.  36  ;  Zonar.,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xxiv. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  ZENOBIA  IS  DEFEATED  AT  IMMA  AND  AT  EMESSA.     427 

The  sons  of  Odenatus  being  too  young  to  reign,  their  mother,  Zeuobia 

rr         1  •  1   •         1     •  1  reigus,  and 

Zenobia,  governed  m  their  name  as  empress,  or  rather,  queen  takes  Syria, 
of  the  East.  Gallien,  foreseeing  that  she  would  not  maintain 
the  same  fidelity  towards  the  Romans  as  her  late  husband,  sent 
Heraclianus  against  her,  who,  being  defeated  by  Zenobia,  was 
forced  to  retreat  towards  Rome  ;  the  queen,  giving  way  to  the 
fascinations  of  ambition,  followed  up  this  success  by  the  sub- 
jection of  Syria,  Mesopotamia,'  and,  subsequently,  of  Egypt. 

Zenobia  continued  undisturbed  till  the  time  of  Aurelian,  a.d.  272. 
whose  wars  with  the  Goths  permitted  her  to  make  a  fresh 
attack  on  the  side  of  Bithynia.  But  the  former  wars  having 
terminated,  the  emperor  proceeded  forthwith  against  the  queen 
of  the  East,  receiving,  as  he  advanced,  the  submission  of  Ancyra 
and  Tyana ;  the  latter,  after  an  obstinate  siege. 

Operations  against  the  queen  commenced  near  Antioch  :  the  Anreiiau 
first  battle  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  at  Imma  on  the  plain  ztnobL  at 
of  'Umk,  and  was  decided  by  a  well-timed  stratagem.     During  i°""'*- 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  the  armour-clad  cavaliers  of  the 
desert  bore  down  everything  before  them.     All,  however,  was 
not  lest  as  long  as  the  resources  of  talent  and  presence  of  mind 
remained.     Aurelian  instructed  his  cavalry  to  retreat,  and  even 
to  simulate  flight.     They  continued  this  system  till  the  heavy- 
armed  troops  of  Zenobia,  spent  with  exertion,  entered  marshy 
ground,  when  the  Romans   unexpectedly  faced  about,    and  at 
the  close  of  the  day  snatched  the  victory  from  the  queen  of  the 
East.     Her  fugitive  troops  hurried  into   Antioch,  but   again 
quitted  the  city  on  finding  that  the  inhabitants  were  likely  to 
declare  for  Aurelian,   and  proceeded  towards    Emessa.      On 
pursuing  them,  Aurelian  found  the  heights  and  defile  of  Daphne 
strongly  occupied.     But  a  closely-formed  body  advancing,  pro- 
tected from  missiles  by  the  cover  of  their  shields,  carried  the  He  forces  the 
heights,  and  turned  the  pass.    On  approaching  Emessa  (Horns),  P^^^  Daphne. 
Aurelian  found  Zabdus  posted  in  order  of  battle,  with  70,000 
men  to  oppose  his  progress.-    A  double  attack  was  immediately 
made,  in  which  the  caAalry  of  Aurelian  was  overturned,  but 
the    Roman    infantry   being  successful,   the   victory  remained 

'  Orosius,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  xxiii. ;  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  36,  41,  44. 
*  Vopiscus,  Aurel.,  vit.,  cap.  x.\v. ;  Zosim.,  pp.  45,  46,  48. 


428 


STATE  OF  PALMYRA  BEFORE  THE  SIEGE.       [cHAP.  XIII. 


Zenobia, 


Preparations 
at  Palmyra. 


Second  defeat,  with  the  latter,  and  the  ground  was  covered  with  the  slain. 
The  queen,  unable  to  trust  the  inhabitants  of  Emessa,  who 
were  prepared  to  declare  for  the  Romans,  made  a  rapid  retreat 
to  her  capital,  followed  by  Aurelian,  who  secured  the  treasure 
left  by  her  in  Emessa.  During  his  advance,  several  combats 
took  place  with  the  Arabs  ,•  but  he  continued  his  march  till  the 
beautiful  city  of  the  wilderness  was  before  the  eyes  of  the 
victorious  Romans. 

Zenobia  was  prepared  to  defend  herself  in  what  was  deemed 
an  almost  impregnable  and  well-garrisoned  position ;  v»hile  in 
consequence  of  its  central  situation  as  the  commercial  entrepot 
of  the  East,  Palmyra  was  in  the  highest  state  of  wealth  and 
prosperity  which  had  ever  yet  been  attained  by  any  city.  Tyre 
and  Carthage  alone  excepted.^  As  lately  as  the  time  of 
Odenatus  it  had  been  skilfully  fortified,  and  in  addition  to  the 
advantages  of  high  and  strong  walls,  it  possessed  that  of  an 
isolated  situation  in  a  wide-spreading  desert.  Here  the  re- 
sources of  the  besieging  army  in  water,  would  be  limited  to  a 
scanty  supply,  while  the  city  was  amply  provided  for  a  pro- 
tracted defence,  which,  from  the  enormous  wealth  of  the  people, 
their  devotion  to  their  queen,  and  her  determined  valour, 
promised  to  be  successful ;  supported  as  it  was  outside  the 
walls,  by  the  Arab,  Persian,  and  Armenian  auxiliaries.  Such 
a  state  of  things,  at  a  period  when  defensive  siege  warfare  was 
equal  to,  if  not  superior  to  that  of  attack,  almost  justified  the 
answer  of  defiance,  which  was  sent  in  the  name  of  Zenobia,  by 
her  secretary,  to  the  summons  of  Aurelian,  who,  from  that  time, 
appears  to  have  determined  to  be  revenged  on  this  minister. 

Thinking  their  city  impregnable,  the  inhabitants,  from  the 
summit  of  their  walls,  irritated  the  Romans  with  reproachful 
epithets,  while  the  latter  gradually  raised  towers,  and  carried  on 
their  approaches  with  timber,  supplied  by  the  neighbouring  date 
groves.  Sorties  and  other  efforts  were  not  wanting  ;  for,  en- 
couraged by  their  sovereign  and  the  influential  men  who  were 
so  much  attached  to  Zenobia,  the  city  was  long  and  valiantly 
defended.^     But  Syria  being   open  to  the  besiegers  and  rcin- 

'  Vopiscus.  Aurel.,  vit.,  cap.  xxviii. ;  Zosim.,  p.  50. 
*  Ibid. 


Commence- 
ment of  the 
siege. 


CHAP.  XIII.]     FLIGHT  OF  ZENOBIA  AND  FALL  OF  PALMYRA.  429 

forcements  havinc:  joined  them  under  Probus,  the  hope  that  Zenobia  quits 
supplies  would  fail  them  seemed  vain,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  is  taken 
those  of  the  city  began  at  length  to  be  exhausted.     It  was  P"^'*"*^''- 
therefore  resolved  that  Zenobia  in  person  should  seek  further  A.D.  273. 
assistance  from  Persia.' 

The  departure  of  the  queen  took  place  during  the  night,  by, 
it  is  supposed,  one  of  the  channels  constructed  for  cleansing  the 
town ;  and,  mounted  on  a  dromedary,  she  made  her  way  almost 
unattended  towards  Zelebi.  But  her  escape  having  been  made 
known,  some  fleet  horsemen  overtook  the  fugitive  on  the  very 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  and  Zenobia  returned  as  a  captive  to 
Aurelian.  All  hope  of  assistance  from  Persia  wrs  now  at  an 
end,  and  the  question  of  capitulation  to  avoid  starvation  was 
therefore  seriously  agitated  within  the  city.  A  certain  party, 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  warrior-philosopher  Longinus, 
urged  its  defence  to  the  last  extremity,  whilst  another  proposed 
to  capitulate.  The  latter,  which  was  headed  by  Sandarion,  pau  of 
prevailed,  and  the  siege  terminated.  Palmyra, 

Taking  with  him  the  spoils  of  the  city,  Aurelian  returned  to 
Emessa,  where  he  caused  Zenobia,  and  those  who  had  favoured 
her  revolt,  to  be  examined.  The  queen  pleaded  the  peculiar 
circumstances  in  which  she  had  been  placed,  the  weakness  of 
her  sex,  and  the  injudicious  advice  of  her  counsellors,  including, 
it  is  said,   the  faithful   Longinus,    who,  to  the   disgrace  of  the  and  execution 

,  of  Longinus. 

emperor,  was  executed." 

Zenobia  claimed  descent  from  Cleopatra  and  the  Ptolemies.  Character  of 
She  is  said  to  have  understood  the  Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Latin 
languages,  and  to  have  been  acquainted,  through  Longinus, 
with  Oriental  and  Egyptian  history.  To  these  intellectual 
accomplishments  were  added  personal  bravery  and  skill  in 
martial  exercises.  Zenobia  appears  to  have  possessed  some  of 
the  high  qualities  which  so  eminently  belonged  to  her  husband, 
although  during  her  reverses  in  Syria,  and  the  latter  part  of  the 
siege  of  Palmyra,  she  scarcely  displayed  that  courage  and 
constancy  for  which  she  has  obtained  such  credit. 

Aurelian  had  scarcely  ended  the  siege,  when  he  was  recalled 

'  Vopis.,  Hist.  August.,  cap.  xxviii. ;  Zosira.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  44,  48,  50. 
*  Zosim.,  p.  51  ;  Vopis.,  Aurel.  vit.,  cap.  xxviii.-xxx. 


430  THE  PERSIANS  SUE  FOR  PEACE.  [CHAP.  XIII. 

Revolt  and      by  a  rcvolt  of  the  Palmyrenians,  who  had  murdered  Sandarion 
p2my*ra!*'^°^  and  the  Roman  garrison.     Havmg  surprised   the  city  by  the 
rapidity  of  his  march,  be  put  the  women  and  children  to  death, 
and  destroyed  the  town,   the  splendid  temple  of  the  sun  alone 
excepted.^ 
A.D.  273.  After  the  fall  of  Zenobia,  all  the  provinces  formerly  subject 

to  Rome  returned  to  their  allegiance,  together  with  most  of 
the  territory  as  far  as  Bactriana.  Hormisdas,  the  successor  of 
Sapor,  sent  rich  presents,  and  embassies  came  to  Rome  even 
from  China  and  Ethiopia. 

Aurelian  was  successively  followed  by  Probus,   Carus,  and 
Gaierins,        Diocletiau.     The  last,  fearing  he  might  experience  the  fate  of 
Diocletian.      Valerian,  sent  Galerius  against  the    Persians.     This  general 
A.D.  297.       having  fought  two  battles,  advanced  hastily  and  incautiously 
into  Upper  Mesopotamia,  where,   on  the  ground  so  fatal  to 
Crassus,  he  was  signally  defeated  :^  he  was,   however,   one  of 
those  men  who  are  destined  to  rise  above  reverses ;  and,   re- 
newing  the  invasion  with   a  fresh  body  of  25,000  men,   he 
entered  Armenia  and   gained   a  complete    victory   over   the 
Persian  king,  who  fled,  leaving  his  harem  in  the  hands  of  the 
conqueror.     From  the  desert  in  which  he  had  taken  refuge, 
Narses  sent  to  entreat  Galerius  to  restore  the  queen   and  his 
children,  and  not  to  extinguish  an  empire,  which,  he  said,  was 
Peace  with  the  the  eye  and  sun  of  the  earth.     A  treaty  followed,    and  the 
Persians.        }^^yq^^^  ^^s  restored,  on  condition  that  Narses  should  give  up 
Sophene  and  the  other  provinces  westward  of  the  Aboras  :^ 
these  were  retained  by  the  Romans  till  the  defeat  of  Julian, 
notwithstanding  the  repeated  efforts  of  the  Persians  to  recover 
them  ;  and  Armenia  was  restored  to  Tiridates. 
Sapor  and  The  wars  which  arose  in  consequence  were  chiefly  between 

Constantius     jgapor  II.''  and  Constantius.      The   former,    who  had    twice 

prepare  for  r  „  .  ^^.    ,,  ,  .  ,  •        i       • 

var.  failed  before  Nisibis  or  Nisibm,  agam  made  extensive  levies, 

'  Vopis.,  Aurel.  vit.,  cap.  xxxi.  ;  Zosim.,  lib.  I.,  p.  56 ;  Trig.  Tyr. 
cap.  xxix. 

'  Orosius,  lib.  VII.,  p.  25. 

'■"  Petr.  Patricii.  Excerpt,  de  Legat.,  pp.  26,  27  ;  Procopius,  de  Edificiis, 
lib.  II.,  cap.  vi. ;  Zonares,  lib,  XII.,  cap  xxxi. ;  Ainmian.  Marcel., 
lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  V. ;  Eutropius,  lib.  IX.,  cap.  xv. 

*  Son  of  Hormisdas,  and  grandson  of  Narses. 


CHAP.  Xm.]      RETREAT  OF  THE  PERSIANS  BEFORE  NISIBIS.  431 

and  assembled  auxiliaries  from  various  nations,  hoping  thus  to  a.d.  348. 
terminate  the  war.  The  river  Tigris  not  being  defended,  the 
Persians  crossed  on  three  bridges,  and  advancing,  they  halted 
at  Hillii  near  Singara,  where  they  fortified  their  camp;'  Con- 
stantius  being  posted  seven  or  eight  leagues  from  thence.  Sapor 
placed  his  archers  on  the  ramparts,  with  the  cavalry  in  advance; 
and  with  the  rest  of  his  troops  he  made  demonstrations  as  if  to 
give  battle,  but  in  reality  with  the  intention  of  retreating,  in  the 
hope  of  being  pursued,  till  they  could  fight  under  cover  of  the 
entrenchments. 

Thus  the  two  armies  remained  for  some  time,  neither  of  the  Position  of  the 
commanders  wishing  to  attack.  It  is  stated  that  Sapor  at  near  Singara. 
length  reconnoitred  the  enemy  from  an  artificial  elevation, 
"which  appears  to  have  been  formed  in  front  of  his  adversary  by 
means  of  a  pile  of  shields.  Perceiving  that  such  a  dense  mass  was 
unattackable,  Sapor  retired  and  entrusted  the  care  of  the  army 
to  his  son,  assisted  by  one  of  his  generals.  The  Persians  now 
retreated,  and  were  followed  by  the  Romans  to  their  camp. 
An  attack  then  took  place,  first  on  the  covering  cavalry  and 
afterwards,  contrary  to  the  orders  of  Constantius,  on  the  camp 
itself  This  was  however  carried ;  and  the  son  of  Sapor,  with 
considerable  spoil,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Eomans :  but 
during  the  night,  whilst  the  Roman  troops  were  refreshing 
themselves,  the  Persian  archers  made  a  sudden  attack,  and 
defeated  them  with  heavy  loss,  which  was  followed  by  great 
privations  and  hardships  during  their  retreat  ;  but  Nisibis  was 
still  retained  by  the  Romans.^ 

External  and  internal  wars  in  the  west,  occupied  the  Romans, 
and  gave  Sapor  time  for  fresh  preparations  for  war.  These 
being  completed,  he  invaded  Mesopotamia  at  the  head  of  a 
numerous  army,  collected  from  various  parts  of  his  dominions, 
and  even  from  the  borders  of  India.  Being  well  provided  with 
elephants  and  warlike  engines,  he  undertook  the  siege  of 
Nisibis  for  the  third  time.  Constantius  could  not  render  any  Third  siege 
assistance,   but  the  city  was  well  provided,  and,  what  w^as  of  sapor?  '^  '^ 

'  Jeron.  Clironic,  Eus.  a.d.  351,  Julian,  Orat.  1,  p.  23  ;  Spanheim's 
edition,  1696. 

*  Ibid.,  compared  with  Ammian.  Mar.,  lib.  XVIII.,  cap.  v. ;  Eutropius, 
lib.  X.,  cap.  vi. ;  and  Sixtus  Rufus,  cap.  xxvii. 


432  PROTRACTED  SIEGE  OF  NISIBIS.  [cHAP.  XIII. 

Extraordinary  greater  consequeiice,  was  defended  bv  the  brave  and  talented 

efforts  of  the      °         .,.  ^         r     ^  ■      i  r>    t       •  -r. 

Persians.        Liucilianus,  the  latlier-in-law  or  Jovian.     Eattermg  rams  and 
mines  having  proved  ineffectual,  Sapor  turned  the  Mygdonius, 
in  the  hope  of  depriving  the   defenders  of  water ;  but  as  the 
cisterns   and  wells   still  gave  a  supply  this  project  failed,   and 
Sapor  resorted  to  another   contrivance,   Avhich  was  familiar  to 
the  Persians.     This  was   the  construction  of  a  series  of  bunds, 
to  collect  such  a  body  of  water  above  the  town,  as   might   in- 
undate  the   country,   and,   as  he ,  hoped,   the   city  also.     The 
former  part  of  the  plan  was  accomplished,    but  owing  to  the 
elevation  of  the  site,  the  latter  failed.     Boats  carrying  engines 
were  now  floated  alongside  the  walls,  but  the  attack,  though 
Failure  of  the  continued  for  some  days,  was  repulsed.     Seventy  days  having 
assaulting       been  consumed  in  various  efforts,  it  was  determined  to  make  a 
Nisibm.         i^j^^i  attempt  by  collecting  such  a  mass  of  water  as  would  rush 
with  irresistible  force  along  the  bed  of  the  river,   and  in  so 
doing,  carry  away  part  of  the  defences.     A  hundred  cubits  of 
wall  were  levelled  by  this  contrivance,  and  the  Persians  imme- 
diately assaulted  the  place  ;   but  owing  to  a  violent  thunder- 
storm at  the  moment,  they  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  10,000 
men.^ 
Sapor  raises         In  spitc  of  renewed  attacks,  the  besieged  repaired  the  breach, 
the  siege.        ^^^^  ^^^^^  more  prepared  to  oppose  their  enemies.     Sapor  con- 
tinued to  persevere,  till  news  of  the  invasion  of  the  Massagetae 
added  to  famine  and  sickness  among  his  troops,  obliged  him  to 
A.D.  350.       burn  his  engines,  and  terminate  a  siege  of  four  months'  dura- 
tion, in  order  to  march  towards  the  Oxus.^ 
A.D.  3.55.  Four  years  later  Constantius  appointed  his  cousin  Julian,  the 

philosopher,  governor  of  Gaul,  where,  as  well  as  in  other  parts 
of  Europe,  he  distinguished  himself  as  an  able  general,  and  thus 
prepared  himself  for  those  extensive  and  more  important  opera- 
tions which  will  presently  be  noticed. 
Sapor  Reverting  to  Persia,   the  ever-active  Sapor,  hoping  at  this 

the^Komrn*^'^^  juiicturc  to  be  able  to  recover  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia,  took 
dominions.      ^\^q  flgij  for  this  purposc,  and  passed  the  Tigris  near  Nineveh 
on  a  bridge  of  boats.     But  finding  the  country  wasted  in  the 

'  Julian.,  Orat.  1,  pp.  27,  28  ;  Orat.  2,  pp.  62-65  ;   Spanheim's  edit.,  1 696  ; 
Zonar.,  lib.  XIII.,  p.  14;  Zosim.,  lib.  III.,  p.  161  ;  Jul.  Theoph.,  p.  33. 
"  Zonar.,  lib.  XV.,  cap.  vii. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  JULIAN  PREPARES  TO  INVADE  PARTHIA.  433 

direct  line  of  Thapsacus,  and  the  Romans  preparing  to  dispute 

the  passage  of  the  Euphrates  at  that  place,  the  Persians  turned 

northward  through  Mesopotamia,  in  order  to  cross  that  river, 

now  flooded,  towards  its  sources.     Sapor  passed  Nisibis,  but  in  Amida  carried 

a  fit  of  anger  he  was   induced    to    depart  from   his  plan  by  ^  *  *^""' 

attacking  Amida,  which  he  carried  by  a  bloody  assault,  after  a 

siege  of  sevent}'-five  days,  and  the  loss  of  30,000  men.^ 

The  opportunity  of  striking  a  decisive  blow  being  thus  lost,  a.d.  3co. 
operations  were  delayed  till  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  fnvasion  of 
when  Sapor  re-entered    Mesopotamia,   and  captured  Singara  ^P"^- 
after  a  short  siege ;  then  parsing  Nisibis,  he  stormed  Bezabde, 
once  Phenice,^  and  laid  siege  to  Birtha  (Bir)  at  the  extremity 
of  Mesopotamia ;  but  having  failed  in  several  attempts  to  carry 
this  strong  place,  he  retired  to  his  own  dominions. 

Constautius,  who    had  hesitated    between   the    necessity   of  Death  of 
opposing  this  enemy,  or  moving  against  Julian  (the  apostate). 
"who  had  been  declared  emperor  by  the  soldiers  at  Paris,  decided 
on  the  latter  course,  but  died  on  the  march. 

AYith  a  view  to  the  invasion  of  Persia,  Julian  fixed  his  head-  a.  d.  362. 
quarters  at  Antioch,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  Christians  of 
that  place.     Here,  his  extensive  preparations  of  troops,   and  Julian's  pre- 
ships  both  for  war  and  for  burthen,  being  completed,  Julian  put  Antioch. 
his  army  in  motion  in  the  month  of  March,  and  in  five  days 
reached  Hierapolis.     Remaining  at  this  place  three  days,  he 
proceeded  to  the  neighbouring  Zeugma  of  Kara  Bambuche,  or 
Buyuk  Membij ;   and  appointing   Lucian   and  Constantius  to 
conduct  the  fleet  then  assembling  at  Sumeisat  and  other  places 
on  the  upper  Euphrates,  he  proceeded  to  Batnse  in  Osrhocne. 
There  the  inhabitants  of  Edessa  presented  him  with  a  crown,  March  to 
and  begged  he  would  honour  their  city  by  his  presence.     He  carrhte!''^' 
acceded  to  their  request,  and  afterwards  advanced  to  Carrha?. 
From  hence,  he  had  the  choice  of  two  routes  into  Persia,  one 
by  the  Tigris  and  Adiabene,  the  other  along  the  Euphrates ; 
and  thus  far  the  invasion  would  have  appeared  to  be  by  the 
former  line,  rather  than  that  which  he  intended  to  follow.^ 

'  Ammian.  Mar.,   lib.  XYIII.,    cap,  iv.,  viii.  ;    lib.  XIX.,    cap.  viii.  ; 
Zonares,  cap.  ix.,  p.  20.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  vi.,  vii. 

'  Ibid.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  ii.,  iii.,  p.  273,  ccnipartd  with  Zosini.,  lib.  III., 
pp.  160,  161,  eti.  Ox.  1679. 

VOL.  II.  2  F 


434  THE  ROMAN  ARMY  ENTERS  MESOPOTAMIA.    [cHAP.  XIII. 

Whilst  in  this  city,  news  was  brought  that  the  Persians  were 
ravaging  the  Roman  territories,  which  intelligence  took  the 
army  by  surprise ;  but  the  emperor  perceiving  that  it  was  little 
more  than  a  foray,  determined  to  persevere.  Leaving  18,000 
heavy-armed  troops  therefore  under  Sebastian  and  Procopius  to 
Julian  changes  protect  the  surrounding  country,  and  ultimately  join  him  near 
operations.  Selcucia,  he  Suddenly  turned  southward  with  the  remainder  of 
his  forces,  which  amounted  to  65,000  horse  and  foot. 

In  three  days,  following  the  course  of  the  river  Basilius 
through  the  plain  of  Haran,  he  reached  Nicephorium  or  Calle- 
nicum,^  a  strong  fortress  where  there  is  a  rich  mart;  and  here, 
whilst  receiving  the  submission  of  the  Arabian  princes,  his 
fleet  appeared.^  Following  the  windings  of  the  Euphrates  for 
a  distance  of  ninety-eight  miles,  he  arrived  at  Circesium,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Khabiir  with  the  Euphrates,  where  the  army, 
animated  by  the  sound  of  trumpets,  crossed  the  former  on  a 
The  army  bridge  of  boats,  and  in  sight  of  the  fleet,  which  was  waiting  for 
rWerKhdbiir,  <^he  troops,  in  the  latter  river.^ 

The  flotilla,  which  had  been  prepared  with  great  care  to 
facilitate  the  expedition,  comprised  no  less  than  600  vessels  of 
wood,  and  500  covered  with  leather,  in  addition  to  50  vessels 
of  war,  besides  numerous  flat  boats,  intended  either  for  the  con- 
struction of  bridges,  or  for  the  transport  of  the  vast  supplies 
required,  of  warlike  engines,  arms,  and  provisions. 

The  next  day,  after  entering  the  Persian  territory,  the 
emperor  harangued  the  troops  according  to  his  custom,  and  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  oration,  he  gave  each  man  130  pieces  of 
silver.  The  command  of  the  infantry  was  confided  to  Victor, 
and  that  of  the  cavalry  to  Arintha^us  and  Hormisdas.  The 
latter  was  the  son  of  the  king  of  Persia,  who  on  being  deprived 
of  his  kingdom  by  his  brother,  had  taken  service  under  Con- 
stantius  :  he  now  commanded  the  cavalry  which  composed  the 
and  advances  left  wing.  The  infantry  formed  the  right,  having  a  rear-guard 
phlates. ^  "  at  the  distance  of  seventy  stadia ;  the  baggage  and  camp 
followers  occupied  the  intervening  space,  and  1500  light  troops 

'  Now  Rakkali.  -  Ammian.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  ii.,  iii. 

'"*  Zosiinus,  lib.  p.  161,  III.,  cd.  Ox.  1679,  compared  witli  Amm.  Mar., 
lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  V. 


CHAP.  XIII.]    DESTRUCTIVE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  DESERT  WIND.  435 

were  kept  in  advance :  the  remainder  of  the  force  appears  to 
have  been  embarked.' 

x^ftcr  marching  sixty  stadia,  the  army  reached  Zaitha,  from  The  tomb  of 
whence  the  tomb  of  the  emperor  Gordian  was  conspicuous  at 
a  great  distance,^  probably  at  Dura,  the  next  halting-place. 
This  was  a  deserted  town  on  the  Euphrates  two  days  from  the 
Aboras;  and  it  is  mentioned  that  the  soldiers  killed  a  lion 
during  this  part  of  the  march  f  and  also  that  one  of  the  men 
perished  by  lightning. 

In  four  easy  stages  Julian  reached  the  town  of  Anatho,  the 
Phathusse  of  Zosimus/  opposite  to  which  there  was  an  island 
having  a  castle  on  it.  This  latter  was  defended  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, but  being  surrounded  during  the  night,  they  were  induced 
to  capitulate  the  following  day  after  a  parley. 

It  was  at  this  period  of  the  invasion  that  a  hurricane 
occurred,  which  deserves  to  be  particularly  mentioned,  on 
account  of  a  similar  hurricane  having  taken  place,  during  the 
passage  of  the  British  Expedition  down  the  same  river,  and 
nearly  at  the  same  place.  The  storm  of  the  7tl-  '^pril,  a.  d. 
363,  is  thus  described  by  the  historian  : — "  When  the  sun  was  Juiiau's  expe- 

,      ,.    .  ,  ,        .  nil  1/1      dition  encouu- 

declmmg  near  the  western  horizon,  a  small  cloud  appeared ;  the  ters  a  imm- 
air  suddenly  became  so  thick  that  they  could  not  see,  and  after  *^^"^' 
repeated  and  threatening  peals  of  thunder,  accompanied  by 
flashes  of  lightning,  a  soldier  was  struck  down  by  lightning  with 
two  horses  which  he  was  leading  from  the  river  after  they  had 
drank  at  it."^     In  another  passage  he  adds: — "A  M'hirlwind 
seized  on  them,  and  making  numerous  eddies,  so  confused  the 
encampment  that  many  tents  were  rent  to  pieces,  and  most  ofsomeof  the 
the  soldiers  thrown  on  their  backs  or  faces,  not  being  able  to  many  of  the 
keep  their  feet  through  the  violence  of  the  wind."  destroyed?^ 

On  the  same  day  a  no  less  dangerous  accident  happened. 
For  the  river  having  suddenly  overflowed  its  banks,  some  of  the 

*  Zosim.  lib.  III.,  pp.  161,  162;  Ox.  1679. 

*  HicGordiani  Imperatoris  longi  conspicuum  vidimus  tunmlum. — Anim. 
Mar.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  v. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  XXIV.,  cap.  i.  Musa  seems  to  corre:?pond  with  this  site  in 
point  of  distance.     See  Map  IV. 

*  Lib.  III.,  pp.  163,  164. 

*  Amm.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  v.,  p.  279. 

2  F  2 


reaches  Hit. 


436  Julian's  forces  continue  the  descent,    [chap.  xiii. 

ships  laden  with  provisions  were  sunk ;  the  dykes,  which  were 
constructed  of  stone-work,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  up  the 
waters  used  for  irrigation,  having  been  torn  away.^ 

The  descent  from  Anatho  was  continued  soon  after  the  ter- 
mination of  the  storm.  The  emperor,  on  the  march,  invested 
an  island  fort  called  Thilutha,^  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  but 
he  was  obliged  to  be  satisfied  with  a  promise  that  the  inha- 
bitants would  surrender  ultimately,  if  Sapor  should  be  con- 
quered. 

Julian  now  continued  his  march  by  Achaichala  to  Barax- 
malka,''  where  he  appears  to  have  crossed  the  river;  and  he 
proceeded  seven  miles  to  Diacira,  which  is  on  the  right  in 
descending  the  Euphrates.  The  soldiers  pillaged  this  place  of 
a  large  quantity  of  corn,  killed  the  women  who  had  remained 
The  army  there,  aud  completely  destroyed  the  town.  On  the  bank  along 
which  the  army  marched,  probably  at  Hit,  a  bituminous  spring 
was  found. 

The  emperor  having  recrossed  the  river,  advanced  to  Sitha, 
then  to  Megia,  and  afterwards,  according  to  Ammianus,  to 
Zaragardia  or  Ozogardana,*  where,  according  to  Zosimus,  a 
stone  still  exists,  which  is  called  by  the  people  of  the  country 
Ti-ajan's  Trajau's  throne.  Pillaging  and  burning  the  town  occupied  the 
whole  of  this  and  the  following  day. 

The  emperor  being  astonished  to  find  that  during  his  long 
march  through  an  enemy's  territory  no  opposition  had  been 
offered,  despatched  some  troops  under  Hormisdas,  who  knew  the 
country,  to  reconnoitre.     On  this  occasion  the  latter  narrowly 

'  Tlie  violence  of  the  tempest,  as  described  by  Amm.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIII., 
cap.  v.,  and  Libanius,  Oration  X.,  p.  314,  will  be  easily  understood  by  those 
wlio  witnessed  the  storm  of  the  21st  May,  1836,  when  a  mass  of  water 
covered  the  left  bank  of  the  river  at  Werdi,  and  carried  portions  of  the 
Tigris  steamer  and  some  of  her  cargo  far  into  a  field  of  corn. 

^  Now  'Anatelbus,  and  still  a  strong  fort,  whose  walls  are  washed  by  the 
river.  The  site  of  Anatho  on  the  left  bank,  with  an  island  opposite  having 
a  castle,  also  corresponds  with  the  description  of  Ammianus,  lib.  XXIV., 
cap.  V. 

*  Jibbali,  the  Pombeditha  of  D'Anville,  vol.  I.,  p.  440,  may  represent 
Baraxmalka,  between  whicli  place  and  Hit  was  Diacira. 

*  This  site  must  be  sought  on  the  left  bank,  some  distance  below  Hit ; 
Ammian.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIV.,  cap.  v.,  compared  with  Zosim.,  lib.  III.,  p.  165. 


throne. 


CHAP.  XIII.]   JULIAN  SUCCESSFULLY  ENCOUNTERS  THE  PERSIANS.   437 

escaped  an  ambuscade,   which,  having  fortunately  discovered 
posted  behind  a  canal,  he  attacked  and  routed. 

The  army  continuing  to  advance,  reached  a  canal  extending 
from  the   Euphrates   towards   the  Tigris.     A  thick  glutinous  Julian  turns 
slime  at  the  bottom,  made  it  difficult  for  the  cavalry  to  cross  it,  forces,  and 
especially  in  the  face  of  an  enemy  strongly  posted  on  the  oppo- 
site  bank.     To  overcome    this   difficulty,    1,500   men  under 
Lucilius,  and  a  body  of  troops  under  Victor,  rounded  each  flank 
of  the  enemy,   and  having  marched   the  whole  night,  simul- 
taneously attacked  his  rear.     Being  obliged  to  face  about  to 
repel  this  luiexpected  onset,  the  army  readily  effected  the  pas- 
sage of  the  canal,  and  immediately  advanced  on  Perisaboras,'  an  advances  to 
exceedingly  strong  place,  being  surrounded  by  a  double  wall, 
and  having  in  the  interior  an  elevated  acropolis,  which  was  also 
surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  forming  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

This  work  was  approached  either  by  means  of  a  difficult  road  Description  d 
from  the  inner  wall  of  the  town,  or  by  a  kind  of  passage,  which 
led  thither  in  an  oblique  direction  along  the  southern  and 
western  sides  of  the  hill.  In  these  quarters  the  "^^y  was  con- 
sidered impregnable.  On  the  north  it  was  defended  by  a  canal, 
excavated  for  this  purpose,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  supplied 
the  inhabitants  with  water ;  and  finally,  on  the  eastern  side,  there 
was  a  rampart  with  a  ditch  protected  by  high  towers,  the  lower 
portions  of  which  were  of  brick,  the  upper  of  composition,  pro- 
bably the  Persian  conglomerate." 

The  siege  of  this  place  was  now  commenced  with  such  Siege  and 
ardour,  that  the  inhabitants  proposed  to  capitulate,  and  Hor-  fow  "^  ^ 
misdas  was  sent  to  arrange  the  terms.  But  the  pride  of  the 
Persians  was  roused  by  his  appearance,  and  the  prince  was  re- 
minded that  he  was  basely  conducting  strangers  against  his 
king  and  country.  Incensed  at  their  conduct,  Julian  pressed 
the  siege  with  redoubled  energy,  and  the  Perisaboreans  being 
unable  to  defend  their  extensive  walls,  now  partially  breached, 
retired  into  the  citadel.  The  Romans  accordingly  entered  the 
town,  and  having  thrown  down  the  walls  and  burnt  the  houses, 
they  placed  engines  upon  the  ruins,  from  which  darts  and  stones 

'  Zosim.,  lib.  III.,  p.  168  ;  Ammiau.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIV.,  cap.  v, 
*  For  a  description  of  this,  see  sequel,  chap.  XIX. 


438  SIEGE  AND  CAPTURE  OF  PERISABORAS.         [CHAP.  XIII. 

were  showered  into  tlie  citadel.     A  square  tower  was  also  con- 
structed of  great  wooden  beams,  well  secured  by  iron  cramps, 
and  of  the  same  height  as  the  walls,  for  the  purpose  of  launching 
darts  against  the  defenders. 
Capitulation        The  Persians  bravely  continued  their  resistance  for  some 
of  the  citadel,  ^j^^^^^  |^^^  ^^  length  Capitulated,  and  5,000  men,  with  Momonius 
the  governor,  were  permitted  to  retire  from  the  place.     This 
being  the  largest   city  of  Assyria   excepting  Ctesiphon,   the 
Romans  found  in  it  vast  stores  of  provisions,  arms,  and  Avarlike 
engines.'     The  ruins  of  Tell  'Akhar,  bet^veen  the  left  bank  of 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Nahr  I'sa,  answer  the  description  of  the 
historian,  and  correspond  with  Firuz-Sapor,  or  Anbar,  which 
is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  Perisaboras."^ 
Progress  of         Haviiig  laid  the  city  completely  in  ruins,  Julian  proceeded 
hTivrso  ^ot^^^  ^^°^^  thence  along,   as  may  be  presumed,  the  southern  side  of 
mia.  the  Nahr  I'sa,  and  making  his  way  through  a  country  which 

had  been  inundated  by  the  Persians  (no  doubt  that  near  'Akar 
Kuf),  he  reached  the  town,  which  had  been  deserted  by  the 
Jews  who  inhabited  it.  The  soldiers  burned  this  place,  and 
then  came  to  Maozar-Malka.  This  city  was  situated  on,  or 
near  the  Nahr  Malka,  and  was  strongly  defended  by  a  double 
wall  flanked  with  sixteen  lofty  towers,  and  a  deep  ditch. 
Having  gradually  approached  the  latter,  a  mine  was  carried 
under  the  foundation  of  the  wall,  and  the  vigilance  of  the 
besieged  being  diverted  by  an  external  attack,  until  the  moment 
when  it  was  ready,  the  assailants  entered  the  city  by  this  sub- 
terranean passage,  and  put  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword. 

Passing  several  canals  on  bridges,  and  taking  two  fortresses,^ 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Sapor's  son,  the  army  now 
advanced  and  captured  Sabatha,"*  within  thirty  stadia  of  Seleucia ; 
but  in  order  to  approach  Ctesiphon,  which  was  the  main  object 
of  the  enterprise,  it  was  necessary  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
crossing  the  Tigris  at  the  former  place.  Julian,  following  the 
'  Anim.  Mar.,  lib.  XXIII.,  cap.  xxiii.,  compared  with  Zosimus,  lib.  III., 
p.  171.,  ed.  Ox.  1679. 

*  D'Anville's  Auc.  Geog.,  London,  1810.    Feulder,  Wilkie,  &c.,  vol.  II., 
p.  37. 

'  One,  according  to  Zosimus,  p.  174,  was  called  Besuchis. 

*  Zosimus,  lib.  III.,  p.  180. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  RETREAT  AND  DEATH  OF  JULIAN.  439 

example  of  his  predecessor  Trajan,  caused  the  Nahr  Malka  to  Julian's  fleet 
be  cleared  out,  and  the  vessels  were  immediately  floated  intofi^e^^^^jr"^ 
the  Tigris.      After  the  army  had  been  with  some  opposition  ^^'Jj'^'  ^^^°  ^^^ 
and  difficulty  transported  across,  the  Persians,  who  lost  3,500 
men  in  the  action,  were  pursued  to  the  gates  of  Ctesiphon  ; 
and  that  city  might  possibly  have  then  been  taken  by  assault, 
if  the  Koman  general  Victor,  had  shown  more  presence  of  mind 
and  daring. 

Disappointed  of  the  expected  reinforcements  under  Sebastian 
and  Procopius  from  Upper  Mesopotamia,  and  Sapor  himself 
advancing,  Julian  determined  to  abandon  the  siege.  His  pur- 
pose appears  to  have  been  to  meet  the  Persian  king,  rather  than 
to  effect  a  retreat ;  and  that  his  march  might  not  be  encumbered,  Julian  bums 
he  forthwith  destroyed  his  magnificent  fleet,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  boats,^  which  were  to  be  transported  on  carriages,  for 
the  passage  of  rivers.  The  lofty  spirit  of  Alexander,  his 
supposed  model,  no  longer  existed,  and  the  hopes  of  Julian 
rested  on  a  rapid  march  to  Corduene,  a  part  of  Assyria  still 
friendly  to  the  Romans.  Taking  therefore  twenij.  -^ays'  provi- commences 
sions,  the  army  marched  through  the  country  to  a  place  called 
Noorda,  and  from  thence,  after  resting,  to  the  river  Durus, 
probably  the  Diyalah,  which  they  crossed  on  a  bridge,  and 
reached  Barophthcg.  They  found  the  country  laid  waste,  the 
corn  having  been  burned  by  the  enemy,  who  speedily  appeared, 
and  a  skirmish  took  place  before  they  reached  Symbra.  This 
place,  which  is  called  Nacumbra  by  Ammianus,  is  contiguous  to 
two  towns,  connected  by  a  bridge,  and  separated  by  the  Tigris, 
namely  Nisbara  and  Nischanabe  ;  the  first,  hoAvever,  the  enemy 
had  burned.  Flying  parties  of  Persian  cavalry  now  appeared.  Difficulties  of 
and  became  more  and  more  troublesome,  almost  surrounding  ®™^'^'' 
Julian's  forces.  The  Persians  attacked  the  rear-guard  of  the 
latter  between  Danabe  and  Synea,  but  they  made  g-ood  their 
march  to  Acceta,  where  they  saved  some  forage  from  the 
flames,  and  proceeded  to  Marausa,  Marousa,  or  Macauga,  where 
there  was  anotlier  engagement.  From  thence,  passing  some 
villages,  they  came  to  Zummara,  where  they  defeated  the  Per- 
sians ;  but  on  the  following  day,  being  almost  completely  sur- 

'  Eitrhteen  Roman  and  four  Persian  vessels. 


440  JOVIAN  SUCCEEDS  ON  THE  DEATH  OF  JULIAN.     [CHAP.  XIII. 


Death  of 
Julian. 


Jovian  suc- 
ceeds to  the 
command, 


rounded,  they  were  again  attacked  by  tbe  latter,  and  Julian 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  which  ensued.^ 

The  morning  after  this  contest,  the  army  met  to  elect  an 
emperor,  and  saluted  as  such  the  first  officer  of  the  palace,  with 
the  title  of  Jovianus  Augustus.  Jovian  had,  it  seems,  been  a 
sincere,  though  not  an  avowed  Christian,  and  perceiving  an 
opportunity  of  serving  the  cause  which  he  had  most  at  heart, 
he  declared  that  he  would  neither  accept  the  government  of  the 
empire,  nor  even  the  post  of  general,  unless  he  were  to  hold 
the  command  over  Christians.  The  soldiers  replied  with  one 
voice,  that  they  were  really  Christians,  and  that  they  cherished 
more  what  they  had  been  taught  during  the  days  of  Constantine 
and  Constans  than  what  they  had  since  learned  under  Julian. 
With  this  assurance,  and  trusting  that  the  hand  of  Providence 
would  save  the  army  from  the  cruel  alternative  of  perishing 
either  by  hunger  or  by  the  sword,  Jovian  undertook  the  com- 
mand. The  same  day,  after  repelling  a  fresh  attack  of  the 
enemy,  he  marched  to  a  fortress  called  Sumera,  whose  site  is 
probably  that  of  the  later  Miihammedan  city  of  nearly  the  same 
name."  The  next  day  Jovian  encamped  in  a  valley,  where,  on 
the  following  morning,  he  repulsed  another  attack  of  the  Per- 
sians. The  following  night  the  Romans  occupied  Charcha,  and 
on  the  next  evening,  when  approaching  Dura  after  a  march  of 
thirty  stadia,  the  baggage-drivers  were  almost  cut  off;  and  after 
four  days  of  continued  fighting,  Jovian  succeeded  in  breaking 
through  the  enemy  by  whom  he  had  been  encircled.  The  sol- 
diers being  now  aware  that  they  were  near  the  Roman  territory, 
were  clamorous  to  be  allowed  to  pass  the  river,  and  some  Gauls 
and  Sarmatians  who  were  accustomed  to  swim  rapid  rivers, 
passed  across  the  same  night  as  an  experiment.  The  rest  of 
Difficulties  of  the  army  remained  two  days  endeavouring  to  form  a  bridge  of 
inflated  skins,  which  failed  owing  to  the  rapidity  of  the  current,^ 


and  continues 
to  retreat. 


the  march. 


'  Ammian.  Mar.,  lib.  XXV.,  cap.  ii.,  compared  with  Zosim.,  lib.  III.,  p. 
181 — 190.  Libanius,  Orat.  X.;  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat  II.,  sec.  xv. — 
xviii.  ;  and  Zonares,  lib.  XIII.,  cap.  xiii. 

*  Sammarrah. 

'■"  Tlie  passage  was  attempted  about  the  7th  of  July,  which  is  during  the 
season  of  floods.     See  vol.  I.,  pp.  38,  39. 


CHAP.  XIII.]       TREATY  OF  PRACE  WITH  THE  PERSIANS.  441 

and  the  army  was  nearly  reduced  to  the  greatest  extremities  for 
want  of  provisions.^ 

But  before  any  plan   could  be  formed,    the   Persians  most  Jovian  makes 
unexpectedly  proposed  peace.     The   terms,    though    hard  for  Persians. 
Romans,  were  justified  by  circumstances  ;   and  in  four  days  a 
treaty  was   concluded  for  thirty   years,    the    Romans   having 
agreed  to  restore  Nisibis,  Singara,  and  the  part  of  the  territory  Nisibis 
ceded  to  Diocletian  :   there  was  a  further  condition  that  the  reslored^^" 
Romans    were    not    to    give    any   assistance    to    the    king    of 
Armenia. 

Being  now  free  from  the  annoyance  of  the  enemy,  the  march 
appears  to  have  been  continued  for  a  time  through  difficult 
ground,  along  the  bank  of  the  river.  The  troops  suffering  from 
scarcity  of  provisions,  many  of  the  soldiers  heedlessly  attempted 
to  swim  across,  and  were  either  drowned,  or  cut  off  by  the 
Arabians  on  reaching  the  other  side.  But  at  length  the  trumpet  Passage  of  the 
gave  a  general  signal  to  cross,  when  each  individual  hastened  to  ° 
escape  from  the  calamities  to  which  he  had  hitherto  been 
exposed.  Some  on  hurdles  hastily  constructed,  others  on 
inflated  skins,  or  leather  bags  and  other  contrivances,  crossed 
the  torrent  obliquely.  The  emperor  himself,  with  some  of  his 
followers,  used  the  shallow  boats  that  had  been  preserved,  which 
crossed  and  recrossed  till  all  were  ferried  over ;  and  at  length, 
adds  the  historian,  all  of  us,  excepting  those  who  were  drowned, 
reached  the  opposite  bank,  having  escaped  our  perils  by  the 
favour  of  heaven."  A.  d.  363. 

From  the  known  position  of  Dura,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
this  remarkable  passage  was  effected  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tekrit,  which  lies  in  the  line  from  thence  towards  Hatra :  the 
latter  place  was  aflerwards  reached  by  a  forced  march.    Hearins:  ^^^'"^Ij  across 

,n  ^^  ^  •  ^         r      ^  i^  Mesopotamia. 

that  tor  seventy  miles  onward,  neither  lood  nor  water  were  to  be 
procured,  the  army  laid  in  a  stock  of  both,  killing  for  this  pur- 
pose their  camels  and  other  beasts  of  burthen.  After  six  days' 
march,  without  having  found  even  grass,  they  obtained  a  tem- 
porary supply  at  the  Persian  fortress  of  U'r.^     From  thence, 

'  Aram.  Mar.,  lib.  XXV.,  cap.  ii. 

*  Zosini.,  lib.  III.,  p.  190;  Ainiu.  Mar.,  lib.  XXV.,  cap.  viii. 

^  Kal'ah  Skerkat. 


442  BELISARIUS  DEFEATED  BY  THE  PERSIANS.     [cHAP.  XIII. 

but  still  suffering  great  privations,  the  march  was  continued  by 
Thilsaphseta  to  Xisibis,  whither  Sebastian  and  Procopius  had 
come  with  supplies,  to  meet  the  emperor.' 

Except  occasional  incursions  of  the  Persians,  little  occurred  of 
moment  between  the  rival  nations  for  a  lengthened  period,  when 
Azarethes,   the  general  of  Kobad,  invaded  the  Roman  terri- 
tories at  the  head  of  a  combined  army  of  Persians  and  Arabs, 
by  the  route  of  Comagene.     Belisarius,  who  was  sent  to  oppose 
the  enemy  with  a  very  inferior  force,  having  garrisoned  the  for- 
tresses in  Mesopotamia,  advanced  with  20,000  men  to  meet 
Belisarius       lii^^T^  ^^  Chalcis.     Finding  their  purpose  of  invading  Syria  anti- 
Pcrsiaiis^'^      cipated,  the  Persians  retraced  their  steps,  and  were  followed  by 
Belisarius,  who  encamped  day  by  day  on  the  ground  Avhich  they 
had  just  quitted.     The  Romans,  who  could  not  appreciate  his 
prudence,  accused  their  leader  of  cowardice,  and  demanded  to 
be  led  to  battle.     Belisarius  pointed  out  that  the  enemy  was 
flying  before  them,  which  was  all  they  could  desire ;  but  as  this 
The  Romans   had  uo  effect,  he  was  constrained  to  give  battle.     The  contest 
andtcnh'^*^'    ^^^^  terrible,  and  at  a  late  hour  of  the  day,  victory  still  remahied 
armies  retreat,  doubtful,  when  a  charge  of  the  Immortals  broke  the  left  wing  of 
the  Romans,  and  decided  the  battle  in  favour  of  the  Persians." 
Belisarius  retreated  after  dark  with  the  remains  of  his  forces, 
and  gained  Callinicus  on  the  Euphrates,  whilst,  on  the  other 
A.  D.  532.      hand,  the  Persians  marched  into  their  own  country.     But  on 
each  soldier  reclaiming  an  arrow  from  the  pile,  which  according 
to  custom  was  formed  at  the  commencement  of  the  campaign, 
the  Persian  king,  who  then  discovered  the  extent  of  his  loss,^ 
refused  to  grant  the  expected  mark  of  distinction. 

During  the  negotiations  which  followed,  Chosroes  'An lish ire- 
van  succeeded   his  father   Kobad   (Cobades),    and   Justinian, 
wishing  to  be  at  liberty  to  oppose  the  Vandals,  agreed  to  pay 
the  Persian  king  11,000  pounds  weight  of  gold.    This  laid  the 
Successful       foundation  of  a  protracted  contest  between  the  sovereigns,  which 
Chosroes  into  ^^'^^  i^^  general    favourable   to   the   Persians.      Urged  by   the 
the  Roman      Arabians  and  others,  Chosroes,  taking  advantage  of  the  absence 

provinces.  ...  .  . 

of  Belisarius,  invaded  the  Roman  territory  in  contravention  of 

'  Amm.  Mar.,  lib.  XXV.,  cap.  viii.,  and  Zosimus,  lib.  III.  p.  194,  &c. 
*  Procopius,  Bell.  Pors..  lib.  I.,  cap.  xviii.  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  Xlir.]  CHOSROES  CAPTURES  ANTIOCH  BY  STORM.  443 

the  treaty,  following  on  this  occasion  the  river  Euphrates  from 
Circesiuni  to  Zenobia ;  a  distance  about  equal  to  that  which  an 
active  man  would  march  in  three  days.^  Having  again  advanced 
the  same  distance,  he  came  to  Sura,  which  he  took  and 
burned.-  He  next  levied  a  tribute  on  Hierapolis,  and  demanded 
twice  as  much  from  Beroea,  which  latter  he  afterwards  remitted, 
as  the  inhabitants  were  unable  to  pay  it.^ 

He  now  advanced  against  Antioch :  when  there  he  offered  to  Siege  and 
spare  the  city  for  a  moderate  consideration,  but  a  reinforcement  Antioch. 
of  6,000  men  having  arrived  from  the  Lebanon,  the  people  in 
consequence  not  only  refused  to  treat,  but  ridiculed  the 
besiegers  from  their  walls.  Enraged  at  this,  Chosroes  occupied 
the  rocky  ground  south-eastw^ard  of  the  city,  and  forthwith 
commenced  the  siege  w4th  vigour.  The  inhabitants  defended 
themselves  with  great  valour;  and,  to  increase  their  means, 
they  suspended,  bet\veen  the  towers  at  the  summit  of  the  cur- 
tains, on  the  external  side  of  the  w^alls,  massive  beams  of  wood 
on  w^hich  troops  were  posted.  But  the  cordage  having  given 
way,  the  men  were  precipitated  from  a  considerable  height,  and 
those  in  the  towers,  believing  that  the  walls  had  been  beaten  a.  D.  542. 
down,  took  flight.  Chosroes  seizing  the  opportunity,  stormed 
the  town,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to 
ashes.^ 

His  previous  offers  were  now  gladly  accepted :  5,000 
pounds  of  gold  were  to  be  paid  to  the  Persians  within  two 
months,  and  500  pounds  annually.  In  return,  the  Persians 
agreed  to  relinquish  all  claims  to  Dura,  and  to  prevent  the 
barbarians  from  breaking  into  the  empire  through  the  Persian 
gates.^  The  towns  of  Apamea  and  Chalcis  being,  however,  ijenewal  of 
plundered  by  the  Persians  as  they  returned,  Justinian  renewed  ^  ^  '^^^' 
the  war.  Belisarius,  to  whom  it  was  ^  entrusted,  sent  his  general 
Arethas  into  Assyria,  which  he  laid  waste  as  far  as  he  could. 
He  then  entered  Persia,  and  took  the  fortress  of  Sisibranum ; 

'  Procopius,  Bell.  Pers.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xxi.,  and  lib.  II.  cap.  v. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  v. 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  vi.,  vii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  viii.,  x, 

*  Ibid.,  and  Evag,,  lib.  IV.,  cap   xxv. 

*  Procopius,  Bell.  Pers.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xix. 


444 


DEFEAT  AND  DEATH  OF  CHOSROES  I. 


[chap.  xnr. 


Inroad  of  the 
Persians. 

A.  D.  543. 


Second  inva- 
sion and  total 
defeat  of 
Chosroes. 


A.D. 


Accession  of 
Horniisdas. 
A.  D.  581, 


A.  D.  589. 


but  owing  to  the  sickness  among  his  troops  caused  by  violent 
heat,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  the  Roman  dominions,  and 
Chosroes,  who  had  hastened  from  Lazia  to  encounter  him,  put 
his  army  into  quarters  at  Ctesiphon.^ 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  Chosroes  again  advanced 
across  the  Euphrates.  Passing  Sergiopolis  (Resafa),  and 
keeping  that  river  on  his  right,  he  marched  to  Comagene, 
otherwise  Euphratesia ;  meditating  an  advance  from  thence  to 
Palestine  to  take  Jerusalem.  Belisarius,  being  despatched 
against  him,  boldly  threw  himself  upon  the  flank  and  rear  of  the 
Persians,  and  caused  them  to  retreat." 

The  next  year  Chosroes  entered  the  Roman  territory  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  found  himself  unexpectedly 
opposed  by  Justinian  with  150,000  men  near  Dura.  A  Scy- 
thian chief  who  commanded  the  right  wing,  unexpectedly 
turned  the  flank  of  the  Persians,  and  making  an  attack  in  their 
rear  penetrated  into  the  camp,  when  he  not  only  pillaged  the 
royal  tent,  but  captured  the  baggage,  part  of  the  harem,  and 
even  the  sacred  fire.  Chosroes,  in  some  measure,  recovered  his 
disgrace,  by  a  spirited  attack  on  the  enemy's  camp  during  the 
night ;  but  considering  himself  still  in  danger,  he  retreated  to 
Malatiyah ;  afterwards,  having  burnt  the  town,^  he  crossed  the 
river  Euphrates  on  an  elephant,  and  escaped  on  a  camel,  leaving 
his  army  to  its  fate.  Justinian  now  pushed  on  to  the  banks  of 
the  Araxes,  and  renewed  the  war  in  the  spring ;  but  Chosroes 
did  not  live  to  meet  the  enemy. 

Hormisdas,  his  son  and  successor,  made  peace ;  but  un- 
mindful of  his  father's  prudent  directions  to  avoid  war  with  the 
Romans,  shortly  afterwards  commenced  hostilities,  which  were 
attended  with  adverse  circumstances  and  severe  loss ;  and  w^ars, 
which  partook  of  the  nature  of  mutual  inroads,  were  carried  on 
at  intervals  between  the  Romans  and  Persians  for  about  nine 
years,  when  MartyTopolis,  (Myafarekin,)  submitted  to  the 
former  power. 


'  Procopius,  Bell.  Pers.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xix. 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  XX.,  xxi.,  xxvi.,  and  Tiieophaiies,  Clironograpliia,  pp.  186, 


187. 


Menandcr  in  Excerpt.  Legat.,  pp.  113,  125. 


CHAP.  XIII. j  CIVIL  WAR  IX  PERSIA.  445 

Varanes,  general  of  Horinisdas,  then  took  the  field,  and  war  and  re- 
carried  the  war  first  into  Suania,  from  thence  he  proceeded  into  varaues. 
the  Lazian  territory,  where  he  amassed  considerable  riches, 
and  having  sent  his  treasure  to  Baghdad  for  security,  he 
marched  towards  the  Araxes.'  A  Eoman  army  was  now  sent 
against  him,  and  two  battles  were  fought :  in  the  second,  the 
first  not  having  been  decisive,  the  Persians  were  entirely 
defeated.^  Varanes  afterwards  raised  the  standard  of  civil  war, 
and  several  towns  followed  his  example. 

Chosroes  II.,   who  succeeded  Hormisdas  at  this  juncture,  a.  d.  590. 
offered  an  amnesty  to  Varanes,   with  the  second  place  in  the  Chosroes  puts 
kingdom,  but  these  propositions  were  refused  with  the  utmost  rebeUion! 
insolence,  and  Varanes  even  went  so  far  as  to  command  the 
monarch  to  abdicate  his  throne.    Both  parties  prepared  in  con- 
sequence for  a  contest ;  and  in  this,  Varanes  being  victorious, 
Chosroes  sought  an  asylum  with  the  Roman  garrison  of  Cir- 
cesium. 

Accompanied  by  a  Roman  army,   Chosroes  re-entered  his 
own  kingdom,  where  he  was   received   as   sovereign    by  the 
people;  and  the  rebellious  army,  40,000  strong,  being  defeated 
by  a  force  of  60,000  under  Chosroes  and  the  Roman  general 
Narses,  Varanes  abandoned  the  contest.     Chosroes  now  took 
possession  of  his  kingdom,  and  undisturbed  peace  continued  for  and  takes 
some  time  between  him  and  the  Romans.'^    But  in  the  first  year  h?s^kS°om! 
of  Heraclius,  the  Persians  having  captured  Apamea  and  Edessa,  ^-  ^'  ^'^^■ 
advanced  towards  Antioch,  where  the  Romans  gave  battle,  and 
were  completely  defeated  :   in  the  following  year  the  Persians 
took  Ccesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and  carried   off  a  multitude  of 
captives.     Chosroes  afterwards   took    Palestine  ;^    Egypt   and  a.  d.  607. 
Lybia  to  the  borders  of  Ethiopia,  were  likewise  subjugated,  and 
the  Persians   carried   their  conquests    even    to    the    Thracian 
Bosphorus.^ 

Two  campaigns  followed  in  Armenia,  which  Mere  on  the 
whole  favourable  to  Pleraclius.     That  of  the  succeeding  year 

Theophylact.  Simocatta,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vi. 

*  Ibid.,  cap.  vii. 

^  Evagriiis,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xvi.  to  xix."     *  Eufycliiiis,  Ann.  IT.,  p.  212. 

*  Theophanes,  p.  248—268. 


446 


CAMPAIGN  OF  HERACLIUS. 


[chap.  XIIL 


A.  D.  CIS. 


Battle  near 
Niueveh. 


Death  of 
GliosToes  II. 


was  still  more  active,  and  was  carried  on  alternately  on  the 
banks  of  the  Halys,  of  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Taurus ;  the  Persians,  however,  maintained  their  ground.  In 
December  Heraclius  passed  the  Zab,  and  approached  Nineveh, 
where  a  battle  took  place  which  was  obstinately  contested 
during  a  whole  day,  without  either  army  yielding  the  field. 
Chosroes,  however,  retired  during  the  night,  and  eventually 
returned  to  his  palace  of  Dastagerd  to  await  reinforcements. 
The  emperor  pursued  him,  and  captured  the  place,  in  which  he 
found  a  quantity  of  silks,  carpets,  and  other  valuables.  Chos- 
roes escaped  with  difficulty  through  a  subterraneous  passage, 
with  his  wives,  and  having  reached  the  castle  of  Ctesiphon,  he 
was  there  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  by  his  sou,  who  made 
peace  with  Heraclius.^ 

During  the  decline  of  the  Persian  empire,  th-e  Arab  nation 
was  making  rapid  advances  towards  the  attainment  of  vast  phy- 
sical and  moral  influence  in  the  world. 


'  Theoplianes,  pp.  266,  268,  271,  272. 


(     447     ) 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GLANCE  AT  ARABIAN  HISTORY  DURING  THE  REIGN  OF  THE  EARLIER 
KHALIPHS,  FROM  A.D.  40  TO   1097- 

Early  connection  of  Arabia  with  other  Countries. — Central  situation   and 
geographical  position  of  this  Territory. — Flood  of  El  Arira. — Foundation 
of  the  kingdoms  of  Ghassan  and  Hinih. — Conquests  of  the  Tobbai. — 
Invasion  and  Conquest  of  Yemen  by  the  Abyssinians. — State  of  Religion 
amongst  the  Arabs  up  to  the  time  of  Miihammed. — AVar  of  the  Elttjihant. 
— Subjection    of  Yemen    by   the    Persians. — The    plans  of  Muhammed 
favoured  by  circumstances. — Early  life  of  the  Prophet,  and  commence- 
ment of  his   Ministry, — Attractive   Doctrines  of  the   new  Religion. — 
Accession  of  Abu  Bekr  and  'Omar.  —Character  of  the  latter  Prince. — 
The  Dress,  Arms,  &c.,  of  the  Arabs,  adapted  for  difficult  enterprises. — 
Conquests  of 'Omar. — Accession  of  'Othman. — Tlie  Berbers:  commence- 
ment of  the  Moorish  dynasty  in  Africa. — Ayeshah  commence^  a  Civil  War 
against  'All. — Invasion  of  Spain  by  the  Moors. — Arab  Conquests  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  elsewhere. — Fiscal  arrangements  of  'Omar  ben  'Abd-el- 
'Aziz. — The  Moors  penetrate  into  France. — Commencement  of  the  reign 
of    the    Abassides. — Baghdad    occupied. — Rise    of   Hariin-el-Rashid. — 
State  of  the  Khaliphat  during  his  reign. — Intercourse  cultivated  between 
Arabia  and  Europe. — Temporary  division  of  his  Territory. — Accession  of 
Mdraun. — He    encourages    Philosophy   and    Literature. — Assemblies    of 
Learned  Men  at  the  court  of  Baghdad. — Cultivation    of  the    Persian, 
Indian,  and  Greek  Languages  encouraged. — Style  of  refreshments  at  the 
Khaliph's  palace. — His  liberality. — Revenue  of  the  principal  Court  Physi- 
sian. — Mu'tasem's  accession  and  contests  witli  Justinian. — His  encourage- 
ment of  Architecture. — Military  and  Civil  organization. — Extensive  pri- 
vileges of  Muslims. — Formation  of  regular  Troops  in  Arabia.^ — Discontent 
in  consequence  at  Baghdad. — Construction  of  the  city  of  Sammarrah. — 
A  cartel  establislied   for  the  exchange  of  Muslim  prisoners,  &c. — AVars 
with  the  Greek  Empire. — Recitals  of  the  Rawi  to  the  Khalipii  at  night. — 
Mutawakkel  builds  a  great  palace. —  Learned  Men  in  the  time  of  Mdmun. — 
Subdivision  of  power  in  Arabia. — Origin  of  the  Ilunsand  Turkish  Tribes. 
— Conquests  of  Mahmiid  Ghizni  and  the  Afghans. — Rise  and  progress  of 
the  Seljukian  dynpsties. 

The  almost  unceasing  wars  briefly  sketched  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding chapters,  only  partially  affected  the  peninsula  of  Arabia ; 


448 


CENTRAL  SITUATION  OF  ARABIA,      [cHAP.  XIV. 


Early  isolati 
of  Arabia. 


Its  geo- 
graphies 
pesitkiB. 


Extent  and 
superficies  of 
Arabia. 


which,  although  conterminous  with  the  Parthians  and  Persians 
on  one  side,  and  with  part  of  the  Roman  territories  on  another, 
continued,  as  it  were,  almost  isolated  in  the  centre  of  the  world. 
But  it  will  now  be  seen  that  instead  of  occasional  expeditions 
as  heretofore  into  other  countries,  the  people  of  Arabia  hence- 
forth took  a  prominent  place  amongst  other  nations ;  and, 
concentrating  their  energies,  they  speedily  overran  Asia,  Africa, 
and  a  portion  of  Europe. 

Arabia,  it  will  be  recollected,  constitutes  a  middle  region, 
which,  touching  Asia  on  one  side  and  Africa  on  the  other, 
appertains  geographically  to  each,  although  politically,  it  does 
not  belong  to  either  continent.  Its  people,  however,  from  their 
origin,  as  well  as  their  subsequent  relations,  have  been  closely 
linked  with  both. 

With  respect  to  their  origin,  it  will  be  recollected  that  this 
was  the  territory  intermedially  occupied  as  mankind  spread 
towards  Africa ;  and,  with  regard  to  their  relations  with  other 
countries,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  Ophirian  mariners 
coasted  its  shores  ;  that  pilots  from  this  country  circum- 
navigated Africa  •,^  and  that  the  merchandize  which  constituted 
the  objects  of  the  earliest  eastern  trade  traversed  its  wide- 
spreading  plains  :  M'ithin  its  limits,  also,  are  comprised  the 
scenes,  among  which  occurred  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites, 
as  well  as  many  of  the  great  events  connected  with  scriptural 
history.  Jezireh  El' Arab,  in  its  largest  sense,  is  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  seas,  and  on  the  fourth  by  the  river  Euphrates. 
Taking  the  air-line,  it  extends  for  a  distance  of  1,500  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean  at  Iskenderiin  to  the  Indian  Ocean  at 
Eas  Sherbeda,  one  of  the  horns  of  Khuriyan-Muriyan  Bay; 
and  it  has  a  superficies  of  1,153,762  square  geographical  miles, 
or  rather  more  than  the  great  peninsula  of  Hindustan.  Though 
split  into  multitudinous  tribal  sections,"  a  broad  line  of  demar- 
cation exists,  on  one  side  of  which  are  the  fixed  inhabitants,  and 
on  the  other  the  nomad  races  of  the  peninsula.  Amongst  the 
leading  branches  of  the  latter  are  the  Shammar,  the  Anizeh, 
the  Harb,  El  Saba,  El  Kohtan,  the  Beni  'All,  Beni  Khaled,  &c.' 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  652.  -  See  List,  p.  703-724,  vol.  I. 

^  Vol.  I.,  Table  IV.,  Appendix. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  FLOOD  OF  EL  'aRIM.  449 

Amongst  the  former  are  the  sons  of  Cush,'  and  those  of  Kahtan. 
There  are  likewise  the  grafted  or  naturalized  Arabs,^  who, 
particularly  the  Himyari,  obtained  power  in  Yemen,  the  ruler 
being  styled  the  great  king.^ 

Here,  about  the  time  that  the  first  princes  of  the  Cahlan 
branch  of  this  dynasty  governed  in  Yemen,  and  either  during 
the  reign  of  Akran  or  that  of  his  son  Duhabshan,  the  flood  of 
El  'Arim  is  supposed  to  have  occurred,  by  the  bursting  of  the 
gigantic  dike  at  Mareb/  The  epoch  of  this  calamity,  by  which 
the  city  and  a  large  portion  of  the  surrounding  country  was 
destroyed,  has  been  assigned  to  different  periods  between  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  third  century  of  Christ. 
But,  of  the  eight  tribes  who  were  driven  from  their  dwelling- 
place  in  consequence  of  this  inundation,  one  section  settled  at 
Ghassan,^  and  another  at  Hirah  in  'Irak;  and  the  commence- Kingdoms  of 
ment  of  the  latter  kingdom  may  serve  to  fix  approximately  the  §5^^^^°^°*^ 
time  of  the  flood.  Noav,  a  sovereign  named  Cholebus  and 
another  called  Charibael  are  mentioned  as  reignins:  jointly  in 
Yemen,^  probably  about  a.  d.  40  ;  and  scarcely  a  century 
later,  the  descendants  of  Akran  were  firmly  established  there  ; 
hence,  as  the  line  of  the  Tobbai  continued  unbroken,  the  date 
just  mentioned,  which  was  probably  also  that  of  the  settlement  at 
Ghassan,  may  claim  a  preference.  Asaad  Abii  Kurriib,  third 
of  the  new  line  of  Tobbai,  appears  to  have  been  a  successful 
conqueror,  who,  after  invading  Tehameh,  carried  his  arms  into 
Azerbaijan,  and  from  thence  to  distant  parts  of  the  East. 

One  of  his  successors  having  embraced  Christianity,  marched  Expedition 
into  the  Hijaz  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  100,OOo\nen,  pur  J"'«  ^^^^  Hijaz. 
posing  to  exterminate  the  Jews  who  had  been  settled  about 
Medina  since  their  flight  from  the  arms  of  Titus  and  Adrian. 

But,  instead  of  fulfilling  his  purpose,  he  became  himself  a 
convert  to  the  Mosaic  ritual,  which,  on  his  return  to  Yemen,  was 
introduced  among  his  subjects. 

About  this  period  an  expedition  sent  from  Abyssinia  appears 

•  Vol.  I.,  pp.  658,  659.        *  Ibid.,  pp.  654,  658,  and  Tables  II.,  III.,  App. 
'  Specimen   Historiae  Arabura,  by  Pococke  ;   Historia  veterum  Arabum, 

ex  Abii-l-fedd,  Oxonise,  1806,  pp.  65,  66. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  67,  77.  '  See  above,  p.  81. 

^  Vincent,  Periplus  of  the  Erythrean  Sea,  vol.  II.,  p.  314-317. 
VOL.  II.  2  G 


450  ARABIA  BEFORE  THE  TIME  OF  MOHAMMED.       [CHAP.  XIV. 

Invasion  of     to  have   crossed  the  Red  Sea  under  Aizanas/  who  after  sub- 
AbysdniYns/  duing  the  Hiinyari  and  other  tribes,  carried  away  a  number  of 
A.D.  330.       captives,  with  their  sheep,  oxen,  &c.      The  final  subjection  of 
Yemen  took  place  however  at  a  much  later  period.^     One  of 
the  Beni  Thaleb  of  the  Xejran,  who  had  been  converted  to 
:  Christianity  by  Akeimaur,  a  Syrian,   having   escaped  from  a 

'  A.B.  530.       persecution,  induced  the  Christian  king  of  Abyssinia  to  proceed 
against  Yemen :  the   latter  landed  his  forces   at  'Aden ;    and 
Second  success  haviiig  attended  his  arms,  the  Abyssinian  line  of  kings 

Yemen."  "^       commenced  with  Aryat   or   Aruat,  whose  efforts  in  favour  of 
Christianity  added  fresh  fuel  to  the  flames  of  discord  in  Arabia. 
The  various  kinds  of  worship   enumerated   (vol.  I.   pp.  661, 
662),  were  combined  with  the  tenets  of  the  Magi  and  the  fire- 
worship  of  the  Persians ;  and  to  these,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
were  added,  at  later  periods,  Judaism  and  Christianity.    Abra- 
Abrahah  is dis- hah  or  Abramus,  once  a  Roman  slave  and  now  a  Christian, 
M^ah.  ^  °^^  having  usurped   the  throne,  proceeded  at  the  head  of  40,000 
men  against  the  Koreish,  then  the  guardians  of  the  Ka'ba  at 
Mekkah.     Prayers  being  offered  by  the  inhabitants,  the  v/hite 
elephant  on  which  Abrahah  was  mounted  refused,  it  is  said,  to 
carry  him  towards  the  temple.     At  the  same  time  a  flight  of 
birds,  each  carrying,  according  to  tradition,  a  stone  in  its  bill 
and  another  in  each  claw,  let  fall  these  missiles  on  the  heads  of 
the  besiegers,     Abrahah  alone  escaped,  and  on  reaching  San  a 
died  of  a   loathsome  disease.      Thus   ended  the  war  of  the 
elephant,  which  has  become  memorable  as  marking  the  date  of 
Chosroes         Muliammed's  birth.^      Ere  long,  at  the  instance  of  Siph,  one  of 
Yemerf  ^^^    excluded  line   of  the  Himyari,   Chrosroes  Amishirevan, 

invaded  and  subdued  Yemen,  which  continued  to  be  governed 
subsequently  by  Persian  satraps,  till  Badhan,  the  last  governor, 
adopted  the  new  faith. 
State  of  Arabia      No  period  could  be  more  favourable  than  that  selected  by 
me^nrementof  IMuhammcd  for  the  development  of  those  plans  to  which  the 
Miitiammed's  preccdino;  years  of  his  life  had  been  devoted. 

ministry.  ^  "  y  /.  .  .  .  •         *       i  • 

The  existence  of  various  kmds  of  idolatry  in  Arabia,  and 
the  admixture  of  Judaism  with  a  corrupt  form  of  Christianity, 

'  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,  by  Henry  Salt,  Esq.,  Rivington,  London,  1814, 
pp.  411,  462;  Vincent's  Jsearchus,  &c.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  317,  318. 

*  Vincent's,  Dissertation  on  the  Adulitick  Inscription,  vol.  II.,  pp.  .534, 
535,  anil  Note  21. 


CHA1\  \IV.]       iMUHAMMED  COMMENCES  Ills  MINISTRY.  451 

gave   rise,   in   tliat  country,  to  a  state  of  civil  and  religious 

discord,  which  greatly  favoured  the  views  of  this  extraordinary 

man,  and  prepared  the  people  to  receive  the  system  of  religion 

which  he  had  formed  by  a  combination  of  the  two  last ;  at  the 

same  time  the  surrounding  nations  were  not  in  a  state  to  resist 

the  warlike  impulse  communicated  to  the  people  of  that  country  ,^  \. 

by  his  influence  and  example. 

Abii  Kaseni  Miihammed,  the  factor  of  the  rich  widow  Contemplated 
Khadijeh,  when  onl}^  in  his  thirteenth  year,^  is  understood  to  reUgum? 
have  contemplated  the  introduction  of  a  new  religion.  This 
idea  probably  occurred  to  him  about  a.d.  583,  during  his 
intercourse  with  a  Nestorian  monk  at  Bozra  in  Syria ;^  and  his 
purpose  appears  to  have  been  confirmed  by  another  visit  to  the 
same  individual.  After  Khadijeh  became  his  wife,  he  prepared 
himself  for  the  object  he  had  in  view  by  making  himself 
acquainted  with  the  tenets  of  the  Jews,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
different  sects  into  which  the  Christians  were  already  divided. 

About  fifteen  years   after  his  marriage,   his   picj'^ct   being  First 
matured,  Miihammed  announced  that  he  was  about  to  restore  Mdhammed/ 
the   true  religion  of  Adam,  through  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
Jesus,  and  the  prophets,  and  he   succeeded  in  making  his  doc- 
trine sufficiently  attractive  to  enlist  the  people  in  its  cause,  not- 
withstanding the  self-denying  ordinances  which  were  enjoined. 

In  addition  to  the  eternal  truth  that  there  is  only  one  God, 
he  joined  belief  in  his  own  name  as  that  of  the  apostle  of  the 
supreme  and  incomprehensible  Being,  inculcating  at  the  same 
time  prayer,  fasting,  and  alms,  as  religious  duties.  The  first  is 
supposed  to  carry  the  Muslim  half  way  to  God ;  the  second  to 
bring  him  to  the  door  of  the  heavenly  palace  ;  and  the  third  to 
gain  his  admittance. 

To  the  self-denial  enjoined  by  stringent  fasts,  such  as  that  of 
the  Ramadan,  and  by  the  devotion  of  one-tenth,  even  sometimes 
of  one-fifth,  of  the  yearly  income  to  charity,  were  added  the 
prohibition  of  gaming,  usury,  the  use  of  wine,  &c.  ;  while  wilful 
murder,  calumny,  fornication  and  adultery,  were  enumerated 
as  deadly  sins.^ 

'  He  was  born  a.d.  oTO  or  571.     *  Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  pp.  161 ,  162. 

•'  "  Verily  God  coinmandetli  justice,  and  the  doing  of  good,  and  the  giving 

unto  kindred  what  shall  be  necessary,  and  he  forbiddeth  M'ickedness  and  ini- 

2  G  2 


452  QUALIFICATIONS  OF  MUHAMMED.  [cHAP.  XIV. 

Muhammed's  In  returii  for  the  restraints  thus  imposed  on  the  Arabian 
people,  Paradise,  vv'ith  its  rivers,  its  marble  palaces,  delightful 
gardens,  luxurious  fruits  and  wines ;  besides  robes  of  silk, 
diamonds,  pearls,  dishes  of  gold,  and  still  more  sensual  gratifi- 
cations, were  promised  as  rewards  to  the  faithful  in  the  life  to 
to  come.^  Expectations  such  as  these,  united  to  the  commanding 
aspect  and  winning  manners  of  the  preacher,  were  calculated 
to  enlist,  as  his  followers,  the  pagan  Arabs,  and  even  those  who 
were  either  half  Jews,  or  who,  by  becoming  partly  Christians, 
had  made  a  step  in  the  true  direction. 

A  general  idea  may  be  formed  from  what  has  been  said  of 
the  tenets  propounded  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
by  this  extraordinary  man,  who,  from  the  circumstances  of  his 
previous  life,  was  equally  prepared  to  become  alternately  either 
a  warlike  leader  in  the  field,  or  the  guide  of  his  hearers  from 
the  mim'bar  or  pulpit. 

His  aids  iu  the      His   advcutures   during  his   mercantile  journeys  to  eastern 

th™Kor*an°  °^  cities,  and,  still  more,  the  experience  gained  during  an  expe- 
dition which  he  joined  in  his  twentieth  year,  against  the 
predatory  tribes  of  Arabia,  had  prepared  him  in  an  eminent 
degree  for  military  achievements ;  whilst  his  early  intercourse 
with  learned  individuals,  furnished  him  with  materials  for  his 
grand  object.  Among  these,  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  were  Hertebe,  an  Arab,  Soleiman,  a  Persian, 
Barylas,  a  Jacobite,  'Abd-Allah  Ibn  Salaam,  and  Waraka,  the 
nephew  of  Khadijeh.  The  latter  had,  in  the  first  instance,  ex- 
changed his  native  polytheism  for  the  Jewish  faith  ;  and  having 
subsequently  embraced  the  Christian  religion,  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.^ 

Basis  of  its  Qn  the  information  derived  from  these  sources  were  based 

compilation.  t      t        n  •  i  ii  />it^/  o      ^  •   ^ 

the  Muslnn  fiiith  and  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  a  part  ot  which 
work,  according  to  tradition,  was  prepared  in  the  convent  of 
Mount  Sinai ;  but  whether  there  or  elsewhere,  it  is  evident 
that  much  was  taken  from  the  Bible. 

quity  and  oppression  ;  he  admoiiislietii  you,  that  ye  may  remember."  Koran, 
chap.  XVI.,  V.  92.  Sale,  compared  with  Lane's  Selections  from  the  Kurdn. 
See  also  chap.  II.,  v.  31,  173,  269,  273  ;  III.  v.  36;  XVII.,  v.  33,  37. 

'  Koran,  chap.  II.,  v.  23  ;  XVIII.,  v.  30  ;  XXXVII.,  v.  39,  48  ;  LVJL, 
V.  11,  37,  &c. 

*  Abii-l-fedci,  de  Vit.  Miihammed,  p.  14-17. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  TOLERATION  ENJOINED  IN  THE  KORAN.  453 

The  self-appointed  prophet,  however,  in  rejecting  the  gross  The  prejudices 
idolatry  of  his  countrymen,  respected  many  of  their  feelings  and  respected, 
prejudices.      The  ancient  veneration  for  the  Ka'ba  was  still 
retained,  and  the  hospitality,  on  which  they  prided  themselves 
so  much,  was  enjoined  as  part  of  the  new  creed ;  the  rite  of 
circumcision  was  also  retained. 

These  politic  measures  did  not.  however,  prove  sufficient,  and 
even  Miihammed's  own  powerful  tribe,  the  Koreish,  only  adopted 
the  new  faith  after  a  contest  of  ten  years'  duration,  which  was 
scarcely  terminated  at  the  prophet's  decease,  a.  d.  632. 

The  judgment  formed  by  posterity  regarding  the  Koran, 
has,  it  would  seem,  been  chiefly  founded  on  certain  passages 
in  that  book,  which  refer  principally  to  the  infidels  who  main- 
tained bloody  and  protracted  wars  in  opposition  to  the  religion 
it  inculcated.     The  work  did  not  profess  to  contain  anything 
new.     Miihammed  simply  announced  himself  as  a  teacher  and  The  restora- 
admonisher,  who  had  come  to  restore   the  ancient  religion  by  ancient  reii- 
means  of  persuasion,  not  by  violence.^     The  use  ^^  'lie  sword  ^'°^  professed 
was  to  be  chiefly  defensive,  his  followers  being  enjoined  to  wait 
till  they  were  attacked.^ 

Freedom  of  trade  and  toleration  of  their  worship  were  per- 
mitted to  those  who  were  not  believers,  and  they  were  to  be 
left  to  the  punishment  of  God,  the  only  arbiter  and  recompenser 
of  every  one  as  he  deserves  f  it  is  also  stated  that  the  hope  of 
salvation  is  not  confined  to  the  Muslim,  but  that  every  one  who 
believes  in  God  and  does  good  works  will  be  saved.'* 

These  precepts,  however,  were  but  little  regarded  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  Arabian  reformer,  and  still  less  in  the  time  of 


'  Koran,  Chap.  III.,  v.  138;  XVL,  v.  84,  91,  124;  XVII.  95; 
LXXXVIII.,  V.  21. 

*  "  Fight  for  the  religion  of  God  against  those  who  fight  against  vou,  but 
transgress  not  by  attacking  them  first,  for  God  loveth  not  the  transgressors," 
&c.  Chap.  II.,  V.  186.  "Let  there  be  no  violence  in  religion,"  &c.  Koran, 
chap,  II.,  V.  257. 

^  Ibid.,  chap.  XLV.,  V.  14. 

*  "  Surely  those  who  believe,  and  those  who  judaize,  and  Christians,  and 
Sabeans,  whoever  believeth  in  God  and  the  last  day,  and  doth  that  which  is 
right,  they  shall  have  their  reward  with  their  Lord ;  there  shall  come  no 
fear  on  them,  neither  shall  they  be  grieve<l."  Chap.  II.,  v.  59.  Lane's  Selec- 
tions from  the  Kuran,  compared  with  Sale.    See  also  chap.  II.,  v.  106. 


454 


CHARACTER  OF   OMAR. 


[chap.  XIV. 


Muhammed  an 
impostor  and 
enthusiast. 


Early  difFn- 
sion  of  Mii- 
hammedan- 
ism. 


A.D  C32. 
The  Arab 
people  united 
under  Abu 
Bekr. 


The  govern- 
ment regulated 
by  'Omar. 


his  successors,  when  the  sword  became  the  chief  instrument  in 
propagating  his  creed. 

Miihammed  commenced  his  career  as  an  impostor,  and 
in  all  probability  ended  it  as  an  enthusiast ;  leaving  this 
enthusiasm  as  an  inheritance,  which,  through  the  instrumentality 
of  his  successors,  produced  mighty  changes  in  the  eastern  world. 

Nearly  twelve  centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  commencement 
of  the  Arabian  revolution,  but  it  seems  as  difficult  as  ever  to 
comprehend  the  extraordinary  and  daring  conception  of  Mii- 
hammed, and  the  wonderful  success  which  attended, his  project. 

AVith  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  of  our  Saviour,  the  Arabian 
doctrines  cannot,  and  must  not  be  compared  ;  but  for  some  wise 
purpose,  they  have  hitherto  been  permitted  to  hold  a  middle 
place  in  the  moral  world,  by  superseding  paganism.  The  faith 
of  El  Islam  became,  at  an  early  period,  predominant  from  the 
tropic  of  Cancer  northward,  to  the  borders  of  Siberia,  and  from 
the  shores  of  Albania  eastward,  to  the  plains  of  Delhi ;  giving 
to  its  disciples  an  improved,  if  not  a  high,  state  of  morality,  and, 
may  it  not  be  added,  a  tolerant  disposition  when  compared  with 
that  of  most  other  creeds.^ 

Abu  Bekr,  the  coadjutor  of  Muhammed,  found  an  unsettled 
government ;  but  the  impetus  had  already  been  given,  and  by 
following  the  steps  of  his  predecessor,  the  Arabs  became  for  the 
first  time  united  and  powerful.  'Irak  was  subjected  during  his 
reign  ;  Syria  was  also  invaded,  and  Damascus  surrendered  on 
the  very  day  that  the  khaliph  died. 

But  a  much  greater  advance  was  made  under  his  successor, 
Abii  Hassah  Ibn  el  Khatib,  the  celebrated  'Omar,  whose  fiscal 
arrangements  included  every  department  of  the  state."  This 
prince  was  eminently  qualified  to  become  the  leader  of  a  brave 
and  enthusiastic  people.  He  was  content  with  such  humble  food 
as  barley-bread,  dates,  and  water.  His  couch  was  a  simple 
mat,  and  the  porch  of  a  building,  the  foliage  of  a  tree,  or  even 
the  firmament  of  heaven,  served  him  as  a  canopy ;  and  that 


'  'Omar  and  tlie  earlier  khaliphs  gave  privileges  to  Muslims,  as  well  as 
to  those  who  might  become  converts,  Avhile  the  rayah  was  protected,  his 
religion  permitted,  and  his  internal  polity  preserved. — See  vol.  I.,  pp.  371, 
376,  379,  and  Sequel,  vols.  III.  and  IV. 

*  See  vol.  I.,  p.  253-261. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  HIS  ACCESSION  AND  CONQUESTS.  455 

emanation  from  heaven,  justice  to  all  mankind,  was  at  all  times 
his  guiding  principle.  Such  was  the  leader  of  a  race  of 
people,  whose  ordinary  habits  and  mode  of  life  fitted  them  to 
follow  a  daring  chief 

The  kefiyeh  protected  the  head  of  the  Arab,  and  a  flowing  Equipments 
cloak  covered  his  person.^    Arrows,  the  jerid,  and  a  sling,  were  quaift'ies'o^ 
his  arms  for  distant  combat ;  while  a  scimitar,  a  long  lance  with  ^^^  -^.rabs. 
a  light  bamboo  shaft,  a  hanjar,  and  a  battle-axe,  were  used  in 
close  contests ;  and  bread  and  cheese,  with  dates   occasionally, 
were  considered  ample  provision  for  the  longest  march.    Being 
thus  lightly  equipped  and  easily  provided,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  troops  being  mounted  on  fleet  horses,  a  campaign  was  a 
simple  affair,  which  the  Arabs  speedily  brought  to  a  close. 

'Omar's  accession  took  place  on  the  fall  of  Damascus ;  and  Conquests  of 
throughout  his  reign  wars  were  carried  on,  partly  by  himself  ^^^' 
in  person,  and  partly  under  the  direction  of  his  lieutenants. 
Everything  gave  way  before  an  unencumbered  army ;  and  the 
conquests  of  'Omar  spread  like  a  flood  in  all  directions.  East- 
ward his  arms  were  successful  in  the  bloody  field  of  Kadisiyeh,^ 
and  after  the  victory  of  Nahavend,  they  were  carried  towards 
the  Oxus.  Westward  his  armies  advanced  to  Jerusalem,  and 
finally  to  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  In  connection  with  this  city, 
however,  'Omar's  name  has  obtained  an  unenviable  notoriety, 
in  consequence  of  the  wanton  destruction  of  its  great  library 
by  his  deputy,  Aniru  Ben  As.^ 

According  to  the  Persian  historian  Khondemir,  'Omar  took 
from   the   infidels   36,000   cities  and  castles,  destroyed  4,000 
temples   or   churches  ;    while  he  either  endowed  or  founded 
1,400  mosques.     In  the  twenty-second  year  of  the  Hijrah,  a.d.  644. 
'Omar  perished  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  and  was  succeeded 
in   the   khaliphat   by  'Othman   Ibn  Assan.     Continuing  their  Accession  of 
previous  successes  during  his  reign,  the  Arabs  took  Cyprus  and  '^^^^'^°- 
Hamadan  ;  and  from  thence  they  advanced  to  Khorasan.    They 
also  invaded  Isauria,   and   made   an  expedition  into  Africa. 
The  Moorish  dynasty  in  that  region  dates  from    about  this 
period. 

'  Herod.,  lib.  VII.,  cap.  l.vix  ;  see  also  vol.  I.,  p.  G68. 
-  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'Herbelot,  art.  'Omar. 
"  Ibid.,  art.  Amrou  Ben-Al-As. 


456 


THE  MOORISH  DYNASTY  OF  THE  ARABS.       [cHAP.  XIV. 


Settlement  of 
the  Berbers  in 
Africa. 


Subjection  of 
Mauritania  by 
the  Arabs. 


Ayeshah,  the 
widow  of 
Miihammed, 
opposes  "Ah'. 


Death  of 'Ah', 
and  the  conse- 
quent schisms. 


According  to  tradition,  as  well  as  the  accounts  of  the  Arabian 
authors,  the  Berbers  who  preceded  the  Moors,  came  from  the 
coast  of  Syria,  the  Gergashites,  Jebusites,  &c.,  being  one 
branch  of  that  race;^  the  descendants  of  the  Canaanites  who 
were  exterminated  by  Joshua,  were  another ;  the  descendants 
of  the  Amorites,  (Ait  Amor,)  were  a  third  ;  and  the  Sabseans  of 
Abyssinia,  a  fourth.^  It  is,  however,  believed  that  the  Berbers 
in  general  are,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians,  descended  from  Ham;^ 
and  of  these,  the  Mazigh,  appear  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  tribes : 
many  of  the  dialects  of  Barbary  are  apparently  derived  from 
theirs,  or  from  one  common  language  which  was  similar  to  it. 

But,  however  this  may  have  been,  the  ancient  branches,  like 
the  Cushites  of  Arabia,  merged  into  the  later  comers.  These 
were  the  Mauri  or  Moors,  who  under  the  various  denominations 
of  Saracens,  Hagarenes,  Easterlings,  &c.,  entered  Mauritania 
at  the  period  mentioned,  and  after  a  contest  of  forty  years' 
duration,  succeeded  in  conquering  the  country. 

'All  Ben  Abi  Taleb,  the  husband  of  Fatimah,  was  the  first 
cousin  of  the  prophet,  and  the  first  to  acknowledge  his  divine 
mission  ;  and,  on  the  murder  of  'Othman,  he  succeeded  to  the 
khaliphat,  but  not  with  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  people. 
Ayeshah,  the  surviving  widow  of  Muhammed,  formed  a  strong 
party  in  her  favour.  She  took  Basrah  ;  and  at  Khoriaba,  at  the 
head  of  30,000  men,  she  disputed  the  pretensions  and  the 
doctrines  of  'All.  She  appeared  in  her  shebrye,''  mounted  on  a 
camel,  and  moving  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another  in 
order  to  animate  her  troops ;  but  at  length  the  animal  being 
ham-strung,  she  lay  on  the  ground  till  the  close  of  the  battle, 
which  is  called  by  the  Arabs,  that  of  the  Camel.  Subsequently, 
Moawiyah  raised  forces  in  Syria  to  dispute  the  right  to  the 
khaliphat ;  and,  after  a  series  of  bloody  combats  near  Suffein, 
without  a  decided  result,  the  question  of  the  succession  was 
determined  by  arbitration. 

The  decision  being  unfavourable  to  'All,  this  chief  settled  at 
Kufah,  where  he  was  subsequently  assassinated ;  but  he  had 
already  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Shi'ah  section  of  Muham- 

'  Procopius,  Vandalicorum,  II.  *  See  above,  pp.  46,  47. 

'  Ibn  Khaldiia,  MS.,  2so.  9574,  in  the  British  Museum. 
♦  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  683,  688. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  THE  MOORS  INVADE  SPAIN.  457 

medanism,  which  under  Hasan,  Hosein,  and  their  successors, 
has  ever  since  been  opposed  to  the  Sunnies,  or  the  more  orthodox 
party. ^ 

Religious  discord,  however,  did  not  entirely  cripple  the  efforts 
of  the  Arabs,  for  during  the  khaliphat  of  'Abd-el-Malik,  the 
fourth  from  Moawiyah,  'Irak,  Sigistan,  and  Khorasan,  acknow- 
ledged their  dominion.  A  little  later,  namely  in  the  76th  year 
of  the  Hijrah,  dinars  and  dirhems  were  first  struck  with  the 
Arabic  inscriptions  ;  and  only  seven  years  subsequently,  the 
invasion  of  Spain  commenced. 

The  Arabs  had,  as  has  just  been  mentioned,  subjected  Mau-  invasion  of 
ritania,  from  whence  in  the  92nd  and  93rd  years  of  the  Hijrah,  Mwre.^ 
Tarikh  Ibn  Zerka  was  despatched  to  Spain  by  the  African 
khaliph,  Tarikh  Ibn  Okair.  The  landing  took  place  at 
Gibraltar,  from  whence  the  Arabs  advanced  into  the  interior ; 
when,  having  defeated  Roderic,  the  last  of  the  Goths,  near 
Toledo,  they  overran  a  considerable  part  of  the  country,^ 
and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  which  afterwards 
conferred  such  benefits  on  Europe.  This  dynasty  commenced 
during  the  khaliphat  of  El  Walid,  who,  besides  Spain,  had 
conquered  Sardinia,  Majorca,  and  Minorca ;  and  in  Asia, 
Ma-wera-l-nahr,  Kashgar,  Turkestan,  with  part  of  India  on 
this  side  of  the  Ganges.  So  that  the  Arab  language  and  the 
banners  of  El  Islam,  extended  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
to  the  banks  of  that  river,  and  again  from  the  desert  of  Sahara 
to  the  Jaxartes. 

The  short  reign  of  Soleiman,  the  successor  of  El  Walid,  Polity  and 
was  followed  by  that  of  'Omar  ben  'Abd-el-'Aziz,  who  carried  xhuai^ben 
out  and  improved  upon  the  fiscal  arrangements  of  his  prede-  '-^^'i-'-'i-'^z'z- 
cesser,  the  first  khaliph  of  that  name.     Founded  on  a  calcu- 
lation   of  the     yearly    earnings    of   a    labourer    employed    in 
cultivating  the  soil,  the  pay  for  the  military  and  civil  branches 
was  regulated,  and  the  taxes  to  be  levied  were  carefully  fixed 
on  a  moderate  scale  for  every  district  of  the  empire.^     His 
own  finances  were  regulated  with  the  utmost  frugality ;  so  much 
so  indeed,  that  his  whole  daily  expenditure  did  not  exceed  two 

'  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  85,  86.  "  Mariana,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxii. 

*  See  vol.  I.,  p.  254-261. 


458  THE  MOORS  DEFEATED  IN  FRANCE.     [CHAP.  XIV. 

dihrems,  or  S^d.  From  infancy  his  mind  had  been  fixed 
entirely  on  the  other  world,  and  his  life  was  in  consequence 
just,  religious,  and  devout. 

The  short  reign  of  Yezid  Ibn  'Abd-el-Malik  succeeded,  and 
was  followed  by  that  of  Suleiman  Ibn  Hesham,  a.h.  112.  Mos- 
lema,  one  of  his  generals,  marched  against  the  Turks,  as  far  as 
the  Caspian  Sea,  but  returned  without  effecting  anything,  while 
Hesham's  troops  gained  some  advantages  over  the  Christians. 
Hesham  subsequently  advanced  with  90,000  men  as  far  as  Tyana 
in  Cappadocia,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Imperial  army  under 
the  emperor  and  his  son  Constantine  at  Synnada  in  Phrygia. 
The  Moors      '  Abd-el-Eahman,  the  khaliph's  lieutenant  in  Spain,  being  deter- 

invade  France.       .  .    ^  i     i         i  •        i 

mmed  to  carry  the  war  into  ±  ranee, ^  entered  that  kingdom  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  advanced  to  Aries,  where  he 
defeated  a  large  body  of  the  French.  Thence,  passing  the 
Garonne  and  the  Dordogne,  he  continued  his  march,  devastat- 
ing the  country  as  he  proceeded.  Having  advanced  as  far  as 
Tours, ^  he  was  there,  after  a  contest  of  seven  days,  defeated  by 
the  famous  Charles  Martel,  and  the  Arabs  with  difficulty 
effected  a  retreat  into  Spain. 
Baghdad  bniit  During  the  reign  of  the  three  succeeding  khaliphs,  namely, 
occupie  .  j^^  Walid  (surnamed  Abii'l  Abbas),  Yezid  Ibn  Khaled,  and 
Abii-1-' Abbas,  which  occupied  a  space  of  twenty-one  years, 
warlike  events  were  confined  to  the  Arabian  territory  itself. 
The  last  of  these  princes  commenced  the  line  of  the  Abassides; 
and  with  them  the  arts  and  sciences  became  objects  of  particular 
attention.  Abii  Jaafer  Al  Mansiir  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
great  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  in  140  of  the  Hijrah, 
and  finished  its  construction  four  years  later.  Baghdad,  the 
new  capital,  was  occupied  in  the  144th  year  of  the  Hijrah, 
and  was  destined  to  merit  the  name,  so  happily  given  by  its 
founder,  of  Medinet  el  Salaam,  a  city  of  peace,^  though  during 
the  reign  of  the  first  princes  of  this  line,  there  were  occasional 
wars,  and  also  invasions  of  the  imperial  territory.  Hariin-el- 
Kashid,  who,  as  the  general  of  Mohadi,  his  father,  the  successor 

'  Roderic  Tolentaus,  Hist.  Arabum,  cap.  XIII. ,  p.  12  ;  cap.  XIV.,  p.  13. 

*  Mariana,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxii.,  xxiii. 

'  Biblioth.  Orient.,  art.  Baghdad  j  Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  p.  141. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  EMBASSY  FROM  ARABIA  TO  EUROPE.  459 

of  Abu  Jaafer  Al  Maiisur,  had  already  distinguished  himself 
by  penetrating  through  the  Grecian  provinces  as  far  as  the  Hdnin-ei- 
Ilellespont,  succeeded  his  brother  Miisa  Al  Hadi.     His  fleets  ^^^^L  to  the 
and    army   invaded   Cyprus,'   and    he  carried    his  arms    in^^o  JJ^*'^^'^p^°^- 
Natolia ;  he  might  even  have  wrested  this  province  from  the 
hands  of  the  feeble  Constantine,  had  he  pushed  his  successes. 
But  great  as  were  his  courage  and  capacity  for  war,  he  was  still  CivU  and 
more  distinguished   by  his    zeal  for   literature   and  the   arts,  perUy  oHhe 
combined  with  a  love  of  justice  and  truth.     The  vow  which  he^'^P"'^- 
had  made  to  undertake  the  pilgrimage  to  Mekkah  on  foot,  if  he 
ever   came    to  the  throne,  was  now  redeemed.     Flourishing 
towns  sprang  up  in  every  part  of  his  dominions ;  traffic  was 
encouraged  by  land  and  by  sea,  and  at  this  time,  which  was 
the   golden   age    of  the   khaliphs,    Baghdad    surpassed    Con- 
stantinople   itself    in    magnificence.       Friendly    and    literary 
communications  were  opened  with  many  parts  of  Europe,  and, 
in  some  instances,  in  a  very  remarkable  manner.     Harun,  who 
was  in  the  east  nearly  what  Charlemagne  was  in  the  west,  sent 
an  embassy  direct  to  that  emperor,  and,  at  his  instance,  another  Embassy  to 
was  sent  at  the  same  time  to  the  same  court  from  Abraham,     ^■^'^^^g^^- 
one  of  the  most  powerful  emirs  of   Barbary.     Amongst  the 
presents  were  an  elephant,  then  but  little  known  in  Europe,  a 
rich  tent,  and,  what  was  still  more  singular,  a  curious  sort  of 
clock,  as  a  specimen  of  the  state  of  the  arts  in  Arabia.^     The 
ambassadors  passed  through  France,  and  were  entertained  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  with  fetes  and  exhibitions  calculated  to  impress 
them  with  the  power  of  the  emperor. 

Hariin  distributed  his  territories  among  his  three  sons.    The  Division  of 
eldest,  Amin,  had  Baghdad,  Chaldea  or  Babylonia,  the  three    ^  ^'"P'''^' 
Arabias,  also  Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Media,  Syria,  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  Africa,  with  the  title  of  khaliph. 

Mamun,  the  second  son,  received  Persia,  Kirman,  India, 
Khorasan,  Taberistan,  Zabulistan,  and  Kabul,  with  the  tracts 
beyond  the  Araxes  and  Jaihan.  While  Mu'tasem,  his  third  son, 
had  Armenia,  Natolia,  Georgia,  Circassia,  and  the  tracts  belong- 
ing to  the  khaliph  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Black  Sea ;  the 

'  Eginhartus,  Vita  et  Gesta  Caroli  Magni,  Colonia,  1521,  p.  108. 


460 


ENCOURAGEMENT  TO  LITERATURE  IN  ARABIA. 


[chap. 


XIV. 


A.D.  809. 


A.  D.  813. 


Mamun's  ac- 
cession and 
character. 


Literary 
assemblies  in 
the  palace  of 
Baghdad. 


brothers  were  to  succeed  one  another,  also,  in  the  dignity  of 
khaliph.' 

Hariin  died  soon  afterwards  at  Tiiz,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Amin.  But  war  shortly  arose,  and  was  continued  for  five  years 
by  the  brothers,  when  Abu  'Abd-allah  al  Amin  was  succeeded 
by  Abii-l-Abbas-al  Mamun.  The  foundation  of  the  literature 
of  the  East  had  been  laid,  and  even  part  of  the  superstructure 
raised  by  Hariin-el-Rashid ;  but  the  reign  of  Mamiin  forms  a 
still  more  important  epoch  in  the  learning  and  science  of 
Arabia.  This  prince  made  war  upon  the  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  besieged  Carrhse  in  Mesopotamia,  which  he 
captured  and  demolished.  The  following  year  he  marched 
into  Cilicia,  and  having  gained  several  places  by  capitulation, 
he  proceeded  to  Egypt,  where  he  captured  Ta'im  ;  after  which 
he  returned  to  Damascus."  In  this  year  he  besieged,  during  a 
hundred  days,  the  city  of  Liiliia,  which  afterwards  surrendered 
by  capitulation.^  On  his  way  back  to  Baghdad,  he  ate  so 
immoderately  of  dates,  and  drank  so  largely  of  cold  water, 
that  a  violent  fever  ensued,  which  carried  him  ofi".  Mamun  is 
described  as  having  been  liberal,  merciful,  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  art  of  government,  and  w^ell  versed  in  the  speculative 
sciences  of  his  time,  besides  being  largely  the  encourager  of 
learning.  Different  branches  of  knowledge  had  been  already 
fostered  by  Hariin-el-Rashid,  but  the  reign  of  Mamiin  was 
eminently  the  golden  age  of  Arabian  literature.  At  Baghdad 
learned  societies  were  formed ;  and  there,  encouraged  by  the 
protection  of  the  monarch,  congregated  the  literary  men  of  the 
empire,  who  were  accustomed  to  assemble  every  evening  at  the 
palace,  as  the  companions  and  even  friends  of  the  khaliph. 

In  the  court  of  Maraiin  learning  became  the  passport  to 
advancement,  and  the  greater  the  attainments  of  an  individual, 
especially  when  united  with  engaging  manners,  the  brighter  was 
the  prospect  before  him  of  honours  and  advancement.     It  is 

'  Historia  Sarracenica,  «&c.,  a  Georgio  Elmacino,  Lugdun.,  1625,  cap.  VI., 
p.  115. 

*  Elniacin.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii. ;  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'llerbelot.,  art. 
Al  Mdmiiii. 

"  Elmacln.,  lib.  TI.,  cap.  i.  and  viii. 


CHAP.  XIV,]    LITERARY  ENTERTAINMENTS  GIVEN  BY  MAMUN.         461 

true,  that  ready  wit  and  winning  manners  sometimes  did  more 
than  the  deepest  learning  could  effect  without  these  advantages, 
but  subjects  were  frequently  discussed  in  the  presence  of  this 
remarkable  prince  in  a  manner  which  would  do  honour  to  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  the  present  day.  Indeed,  without  a 
profound  knowledge  of  the  particular  science  which  a  man 
professed,  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  attain  eminence  among 
the  philosophers  of  Baghdad. 

Al  Mas'ildi  and  other  authors  have  described  at  some  length  Luxurjof the 
the  half-literary,  half-social  re-unions  in  question,  which  had  ^P"'"^®"*®* 
evidently  reached  a  considerable  degree  of  refinement.  We 
are  told  that  the  riches  of  India  and  China,  regulated  by  a 
refined  taste,  were  displayed  in  the  decorations  of  the  apart- 
ments ;  which  were  lighted  with  wax  candles,  so  highly  perfumed, 
that  the  most  exquisite  odours  filled  the  air ;  this  being  kept  at 
an  agreeable  and  delicately  stimulating  temperature  by  the 
thawing  of  ice.  Vocal  and  instrumental  performers,  skilled  in 
Arabian,  Persian,  Indian,  and  Greek  music,  delighted  the 
senses  of  the  assembled  guests,  while  refreshments  to  gratify  the 
palate  were  handed  by  youths  from  Khorasan  and  Turkistan, 
chosen  for  the  purpose  on  account  of  the  symmetry  and  grace- 
fulness of  their  forms. 

The  khaliph  was  accustomed  to  distinguish  certain  indi-  Public 
viduals  on  their  appearance  in  public,  by  requesting  them  to  ^^'^^  °^' 
recite  any  verses  or  passages  in  prose  which  had  made  a 
particular  impression  on  him  ;  when  the  merits  of  the  production 
were  canvassed  by  the  company,  including  the  prince  himself, 
whose  observations  were  witty  and  laconic.  Terse  rhyme  was 
the  fashionable  mode  of  expression,  and  was  frequently  used 
also  in  state  papers,  with  due  regard,  however,  to  simplicity 
and  brevity.  Contrary  to  this  practice  of  the  ancient  Arabs, 
the  modern  Persians  use  a  lengthened  phraseology,  in  which 
the  meaning  is  not  unfrequently  almost  buried. 

The  refreshments  chiefly  consisted  of  ices,   and  iced  fish.  Confectionary, 
meats,  and  fruits ;  and  it  seems  that  the  Italians,  who  are  the  ^^^ "'  ^' 
best  confectioners  in  Europe,  learned  at  least  part  of  their  art 
from  the  Arabs,  with  whom  they  were  in  close  contact  during 
the  middle  ages.     Many  of  the  Italian  dishes  are  the  same  as 


462 


LIBERALITY  AT  THE  COURT  OF  BAGHDAD.    [CHAP.  XIV. 


Revenne  of 
the  principal 
physician  at 
Baghdad. 


Liberality  of 
the  khaliph. 


A.  D.  833. 

Campaign  of 
Al  Mu'tasem 
against 
Theophilus. 


those  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  word  sorbetto  (sherbet  ice),  is 
clearly  from  the  Arabic' 

Some  estimate  may  be  formed  of  the  extravagant  expenditure 
of  the  court  of  Al  Mamiin,  by  taking,  as  an  example,  one  item 
derived  from  that  of  another  khaliph,  who  was  known  to  be 
more  moderate  in  his  disbursements.  Kifti  informs  us  that 
Gabriel,  son  of  Bakhtishu'a,  the  royal  physician,  received  from 
the  treasury  of  Harun-el-Eashid  10,000  dirhems  monthly,  and 
from  his  private  purse  50,000  dirhems  in  cash,  besides  10,000 
in  clothes,  the  first  month  of  every  year.  The  khaliph  was 
bled  twice  every  year,  and  on  each  of  these  occasions,  Gabriel 
received  100,000  dirhems  ;  he  received  the  same  sum  on 
administering  medicine  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 

But  this  was  only  a  part  of  Gabriel's  receipts.  Tsa  Ibn 
Jafer,  the  son  of  the  khaliph,  bestowed  50,000  dirhems 
annually,  and  Zobaidah,  the  favoured  wife  of  Hariin-el-Rashid 
gave  as  much.  From  Al  'Abbaseyah  he  received  a  similar 
sum,  and  from  Fatimah  70,000  dirhems.  From  Ibrahim  Ibn 
'Othman  30,000  ;  from  Al  Fadhl  Ibn  Ar  Rabiah  50,000  in 
cash,  and  100,000  in  perfumes,  horses,  clothes,  &c.  From 
Yahya  el  Barmekite  600,000,  from  Ja'  forte  Barmekite 
1,200,000,  and  from  Abu  Fadhl  el  Barmekite  600,000  dir- 
hems. The  preceding  does  not  include  occasional  presents, 
or  even  the  annual  produce  of  his  estates,  amounting  to 
1,500,000  dirhems;  so  that  the  principal  physician  received 
for  his  services  in  the  Abasside  court,  about  5,280,000  dirhems, 
equal  to  about  99,000/.,  or  more  "than  the  personal  revenue  of 
the  principal  sovereigns  of  Europe.  And  when  the  presents 
distributed  by  the  khaliph  in  his  harem  and  among  his 
courtiers  are  taken  into  account,  together  with  his  extraordinary 
liberality  to  learned  men,  it  is  evident  that  the  disbursements 
at  the  court  of  Baghdad  must  have  been  prodigious. 

On  the  death  of  Al  Mamiin,  Al  Mu'tasem  succeeded  to  the 
khaliphat ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  the  emperor 
Theophilus  advanced  as  far  as  Malatiyah,  committing  great 
ravages.     The  khaliph,   in  return,  took  the  field  with  a  formi- 

•  Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  p.  160-164;  Elmaciiius,  p.  139; 
Renaudot,  p.  274. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  AGRICULTURE  ENCOURAGED.  463 

dable  army,  and  having  invaded  the  imperial  territories, 
reduced  Ancyra,  and  laid  Antioch  in  ashes.  A  battle  between 
the  contending  armies  near  Amorium,  ended  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  emperor's  forces.  Amorium'  was  afterwards  stormed 
and  levelled  to  the  ground,  30,000  men  being  killed,  and  as 
many  taken  prisoners ;  and  thus  terminated  the  campaign. 

Al  Mu'tasem  died  in  the  year  of  the  Hijrah  227 ;  but  character  of 
although  he  was  possessed  of  much  talent,  and  many  good '^^  ^^"^ *^^"' 
qualities,  the  empire  seems  to  have  declined  during  his  reign. 
According  to  Al  Mas'udi,  he  was  passionately  fond  of  archi- 
tecture, which  he  said  promoted  civilization,  the  principal 
object  of  life,  and  at  the  same  time  increased  the  revenue  by 
spreading  money  through  the  state.  He  also  encouraged  the 
improvement  of  the  breed  of  cattle,  and  promoted  occupation 
among  the  working  classes.  In  accordance  with  these  ideas, 
he  instructed  his  vezir,  Miihammed  Ibn  'Abd-el-Malik,  to 
occupy  for  him  any  land,  for  which  after  a  year's  time,  he 
might  receive  eleven  dirhems,  in  return  for  ten  expended  upon 
it.  Another  propensity  of  the  Khaliph  was  to  purchase  His  foreign 
Turkish  slaves  ;  of  whom  he  had  in  his  army,  no  less  than  s^^^*^^- 
4,000,  clad  in  various  kinds  of  brocade,  wearing  girdles 
embroidered  with  gold,  necklaces,  and  bracelets  ;  while  their 
uniform  was  distinguished  by  its  richness,  from  that  of  the  other 
troops.  He  had  previously  formed  a  body-guard,  composed  of 
people  from  the  delta  of  Egypt,  from  Yemen,  Barbary 
(Mugharebeh),  Khorasan,  and  Turkistan.  This  measure, 
which  was  at  first  advantageous  in  reconciling  the  different 
nations  to  the  government,  proved  in  the  end  the  ruin  of  the 
state ;  for  these  troops  gradually  became  as  formidable  to  the 
khalifdom  as  the  Praetorian  bands  became  to  the  empire  of 
Rome  ;  and,  at  length,  acquired  a  degree  of  power  superior  to 
that  of  the  khaliph  himself. 

According  to  the  original  institutions  of  the  Arabian  empire,  Privileges  of 
the  Muslims,  including  persons  who  voluntarily  embraced  the  *^^  Muslims, 
religion  of   Islam  (others  were  expatriated),   formed  the  free 
and  fighting  population.     In  return,  they  were  not  only  exempt 
from  taxation,   but  had  a  claim  on  the  public  funds.     Being 

'  At  Hergan  Ka'leh. —  ITaniilton's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  I.,  pp.  453,  454. 


464  RELIGIOUS  DISCORD  IN  ARABIA.  [cHAP.  XIV. 

excluded  from  agricultural  pursuits/  they  were  supported  from 
the  revenue  levied  on  the  other  subjects  of  the  state.  These 
hereditary  soldiers  occupied  camps,  which  soon  became  im- 
portant cities,  as  Basrah,  Kiifah,  &c.,  owing  to  the  wealth 
obtained  by  prize-money ;  one-fifth  of  the  booty^  taken  in  war 
Establishment  being  appropriated  to    the    warriors.      In    Syria   and    Meso- 

of  permanent  .^^|  .  ni-         k       ^  •        t      ^  i  /  "^ 

troops.  potamia,  such  stations  were  called  in   Arabic  Jomid  (armies), 

and  in  'Irak,  Ansdr,  meaning  settled,  in  opposition  to  the 
wandering  habits  of  the  Arabians  in  general.  This  separation 
of  the  troops  from  the  rest  of  the  people  produced  an  inde- 
pendent spirit  in  the  former ;  and  to  this  evil  was  added  the 
discord  produced  by  religious  differences.  At  this  time, 
Damascus,  and  other  places,  became  so  many  centres  of  Arabian 
learning,  comprising  theology,  law,  the  study  of  Arabic  gram- 
mar, and  literature ;  and  the  discussions  on  the  first  of  these 
subjects  led,  towards  the  close  of  the  third  century  of  the 
Various  Hijrah,  to  the  formation  of  at  least  seventy  different  religious 

in  Aiabia!*^^  ^  sccts,  of  which  that  of  the  Shi'ahs,   or  followers  of  'All,  was 
the  most  numerous  and  most  persevering ;  in  fact,  scarcely  any 
year  was  allowed  to  pass,  without  an  effort  on  their  part  to 
place  an  'Ali-ite  on  the  throne  of  'Abbas. 
Miinum  As  the  attempt  made  by  Al  Mamiin  to  terminate  this  state 

unitTthe"^^  ^"  of  discord  had  failed,  although  he  had  united  the  contending 
Shf'T*  ^°^     families  by  marrying  his  daughter  to  the  leader  of  the  opposing 
party,    whom   he   declared   his  successor,  Al    Mu'tasem  was 
obliged,  as  a  matter  of  security  to  himself,  to  form  the  new 
body-guard,  the  Mugharebeh  just  described,  from  individuals 
who  did  not  belong  to  either  party.     It  was  in  consequence 
called  the  guard  of  foreigners,  and  may  be  compared  to  the 
Swiss  guards  of  France. 
The  introduc-       In  taking  this  necessary  but  dangerous  course,  Al  Mu'tasem 
trooM  ^"'  '^°  departed  from  the  customs  of  the  empire,  and  overlooked  the 
superiority  claimed  by  the  followers  of  El  Islam  over  the  rest 
of  the  world.     Foreign  soldiers  had  indeed  frequently  fought 
in  the  ranks  with  the  latter ;  whole  corps  of  Berbers  served 
with  the  Miihammedans  in  Africa,  and  Al  Mamiin  employed 
the  Turks  in    Ma-wcra-1-nahr ;    but   in    these    instances    the 

'  By  'Omar.  — See  vol.  1.,  pp.  253,  254. 
'  Called  Khams.— See  vol.  I.,  p.  253. 


CHAP.  XIV.]    MU'tASEM  EMPLOYS  BERBERS  AND  OTHER  TROOPS.     465 

foreigners  were  persons  who,  having  been  previously  adopted 
by  some  tribe,  had  enlisted  in  Miiharamedan  corps,  and  served 
as  auxiliaries ;  they  were  called  Moula,  or  clients,  and  had  the 
same  right  as  if  they  had  been  born  in  the  tribe. 

The  discontent  and  opposition  shown  to   this  change,   par- Discontent  in 

•11,  1  A       ,  -r,      ,    1.1  •  111      Baghdad. 

ticularly  by  the  Arabs  at  Baghdad,  were  increased  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  citizens  were  treated.  The  soldiers,  says 
Mas'ddi,  rode  through  the  narrow  streets  and  markets  of  the 
city  without  the  slightest  consideration  for  the  citizens ;  old 
men  and  children  being  frequently  trodden  under  the  feet  of 
their  horses.  To  avoid  such  evils,  Al  Mu'tasem  proposed,  at 
first,  to  form  a  camp  at  a  spot  about  four  farsangs  from 
Baghdad;  but  the  soldiers,  considering  the  distance  incon- 
venient, after  fixing  on  different  sites  near  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris,  he  chose  Katul,  situated  on  a  canal  of  the  same  name,  Foundation  of 

,  ,  _  '  ,  Sammarran. 

which  was  inhabited  by  Xabatheans  and  Jeramikahs,  where  he 
built  a  palace  ;  and  so  many  of  the  people  of  Baghdad  removed 
thither,  that  the  capital  was  almost  deserted.  During  the  ^.D.  835. 
progress  of  the  work,  Al  Mu'tasem  chanced  to  spend  three 
days  in  the  Christian  convent  of  Sammarrah  ;^  when,  on  account 
of  the  salubrious  air,  and  the  good  hunting  around  it,  he  pur- 
chased it  of  the  monks  for  4,000  dinars,  and  there  built  a 
palace  and  barracks.  Having  the  assistance  of  labourers  and 
artisans  from  all  parts  of  the  East,  the  work  proceeded  so 
rapidly,  that  a  magnificent  city  was  erected  in  the  course  of  a 
few  months.  The  soldiers  were  quartered  at  the  Karkh  of 
Sammarrah,  two  farsangs  from  thence  on  the  way  to  Rakkah, 
which  place  subsequently  became  but  too  famous  in  the  annals 
of  rebellion  and  bloodshed.     In   order  to  avoid  contact  and  Arrangements: 

n     •  I'll-  11  11*  -for  the  settle- 

coniusion,    the   mhabitants   and  the  soldiers    were   separately  ment  of  the 
classed  according  to  the  places  or  cities  from  whence   they  '^^^' 
came,   each  section  having  its  own  market,  and  its  particular 
quarter  in  the  town  of  Sammarrah. 

The  khaliphdid  not  long  survive  the  completion  of  his  new  a.d.  842. 
city,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  El  Wathek  Bi'llah.    During  the  The  Norman 
reign  of  this  prince,  which  was  not  of  long  duration,  the  Nor-  ^"^^^  ^  ^^'°" 
mans  sent  a  fleet  to  drive  the  western  khaliph,  'Abd-el-Rahman 
'  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'Herbelot,  art.  Mu'tasem. 

VOL.  II.  2  H 


466  THE  NEW  PALACE  OF  MUTAWAKKEL.  [cHAP.  XIV, 

Ibn  el  Hakem,  out  of  Spain.     This  force  attacked  Seville  and 
Cadiz,  but  in  both  cases  were  repulsed,  and  on  the  approach  of 
Cartel  the  Arabs,  the  Xormans  hastily  quitted  the  peninsula/ 

arranged  with  .  .  i     i  i       ri         i  i  t  i  c  i 

the  Christians       i  his  rcigu  was  remarkable  tor  the  establishment  oi  a  cartel 

change  of       to  regulate  the  exchange  of  prisoners  between  the  Christians 

prisoners.        ^j-^^  Arabs,   CiUcia  being    the  place  selected  for  this  purpose." 

El  Wathek  imitated  his  uncle  Al  Mamiin  in  his  love  for,  and 

encouragement  of,  the  favourite  sciences  of  the  day,  and  he  was 

also   distinguished    by   his   liberality    and    charity.      He    was 

succeeded  by  his  brother  Jaafer  Abii-l-Fadl  Al  Mutawakkel, 

whose  reign  was  short  but  very  remarkable.     In  the  early  part 

of  it,  the  Greeks  penetrated  into  the  khaliphat,  by  the  route  of 

Sumeisat;    but  their  own  territories  \vere  in  return  speedily 

A.D.  860.       invaded  by  the  Arabs,  who  carried  off  70,000  prisoners  :^  their 

fleet  having  menaced  the   coast  of  Syria,    the   Greek  troops 

Mutawakkel    landed  and  seized  the  citadel  of  Antioch.     The  khaliph  was 

karaing^*      assassiuated  the  following  year:  he  is  described  as  having  been 

very  affable  and  munificent,  particularly  in  his  encouragement 

of  learned  men,  who  consequently  flocked  to  his  court  as  to 

The  Rawi       their   home.       Al    Mutawakkel    was    accustomed    to    beguile 

the  khaliph.     restless  uights,  by  sending  for  the  RawiV  who  either  narrated 

in  poetry  the  history  of  former  kings,  or  amused  the  monarch 

by  repeating  some  lively  tale.     One  of  the  latter,  by  giving  an 

account  of  a  battle  scene  as  represented  in  the  palace  of  Hirah, 

inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  erecting  a  similar  structure  ;  and 

the  result  of  this  sudden  thought,  was  the  most  splendid  archi- 

Paiace  erected  tectural  monuuient  that  had  been  erected  by  the  khaliphs. 

yt  e    a  ip  .      /j,j^^  palace  consisted  of  a  great  structure  in  the  centre,  and 

two  wings.     The  former  contained  the  grand  hall  of  reception ; 

in  addition  to  the  khaliph's  ordinary  apartments,  and  those  for 

his  robes.     The  right  wing  was  allotted  for  the  harem,  and  the 

left  contained  the  culinary  establishment.     In  addition  to  these 

buildings  there  were  two  others,  called  Kenien  (ambuscades) 

for  the  use  of  the  courtiers  and  gentlemen  in  waiting ;  both 

being  within  the  grand  enclosure  of  the  palace.     The  noble 

example  of  his  predecessors,  more  particularly  the  encourage- 

'  Roderic  Tolentanus,  Ilistoria  Arabuni,  cap.  XVII.,  p.  24. 

-  Abii-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  pp.  167,  168. 

'^  Ibid.,  ami.  Hijrah  256."  ■*  See  vol.  I.,    p.  663. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  THE  TURKS  ENTER  WESTERN  ASIA.  467 

ment  given  to  literature  and   science  by  El  Kashid  and  Al  impulse  given 
Mamiin,  now  began  to  produce  a  beneficial  effect.     Talents  and  civ'uiza- 
were  called  into  activity,   and   a  large  expenditure  had,    by  ^'°°' 
increasing  commerce  and  industry,   given  an  impulse  to  civi- 
lization and  literature.      The  assemblies  of   Al  Mutawakkel 
were  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  Al-Otahiah,  Al  Bohtari, 
Al-Siili,  and  Al  Mobarred ;  all  of  whom  were  remarkable  for 
elegance  of  style.     To  these  learned  men  must  be  added,  the 
families  of  Honain  of  Hirah,  and  Bakhtishura  of  Jondisabur, 
which    produced    the    most   skilful    physicians    of    that   time. 
There  were    also   seen    the   mathematicians  of  Haran ;    and 
among   them,    Al    Kinde,     the  greatest    writer    on    natural  Progress  of 
philosophy  of  whom  Arabia  could  then  boast.'     Subsequently,  Ld  UtM-afure. 
however,   intestine  wars  caused  some  interruption  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  literature  ;  and  during  the  reign  of  Al  Mo'tazz,  settlement  of 
the  third  in  succession  from  Al  Mutawakkel,  Turkish  influence  westem  AsL 
became  predominant.     It  was  only  a  century  earlier  that   a 
branch    of   this  people    from   Turkistan    passed   the    Caspian 
Straits,   and   entered   Armenia.     They  were  followed  during 
the  next  year  by  more  of  their  countrymen,  who  took^  up  their 
abode  in  western  Asia ;  and  at  the  period  now  in  question, 
their  descendants  constituted  the  chief  forces  of  the  empire, 
besides   being  all-powerful  in    the    khaliph's   counsels.       The 
animosities  between  the  two  sects  into  which  the  Turks  were 
divided,   tended  still  more  to  weaken  the  empire,  which  de- 
clined hi  consequence  during  the  reigns  of  Al  Mohtadi,  Al 
Mo'tamed,  Al  Mo'tadid,  and  Al  Moctasi ;  that  is,  from  869  to 
902.     But  during  the  time  of  the  last-mentioned  khaliph,   the 
empire   again    became   formidable.      Seleucia   was   recovered  Seieucia  aud 
from  the  Romans  ;  Syria  and  Egypt  were  likewise  conquered ;  rescued  from 
the  arms  of  this  prince  were  carried  into  Ma-wera-1-nahr,  and  *^^  Romans, 
his  successor,  Moktader  Bi'llah,  received  an  embassy  from  the  a.  d.  seo. 
Greek  emperor  to  obtain  a  cessation  of  arms  and  an  exchange 
of  prisoners.     The  beautiful  character  derived  from  the  Cufic 
belongs  to,  or  rather  was  renewed  at  this  period ;  in  which, 
also,  flourished  several  learned  men,  as  Al  Tabari,  Al  Battani,  a.  d.  0.32. 

'  Elraacinus,  p.  12o-loO-251  ;  Abii-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  pp.  171, 
173.  *  Theophanes,  Chronograpli.,  866. 

2  n  2 


468         ORIGIN  OF  THE  HUXNISH  OR  TURKISH  TRIBES.       [cHAP.  XIV. 

Deciiue  of  the  Al  Kazi,  and  Abu'l  Senna.'     In  other  respects,  however,  this 

khaiiphat  and  reign  was  not  prosperous.  Many  of  the  provinces  ceased  to 
acknowledge  the  supreme  government,  and  the  defection  in- 
creased to  such  an  extent,  that  the  actual  power  of  Al  Moctasi, 
the  fourth  in  succession  from  Moktader,  was  almost  confined 
to  the  district  around  Baghdad.     Yamana,  Bahrein,  and  the 

subdivision  of  eastern  parts  of  Arabia,  were  governed  by  Abii  Thaler,  the 
e  empire.  Kariuatiau  ;  Fars  acknowledged  another  chief  who  resided  at 
Shiraz;  and  Egypt  and  Syria  obeyed  a  third.  Africa  was 
ruled  by  the  Fatimites ;  Spain  by  'Abd-el-Kahman  ;  Sicily 
again  acknowledged  another  chief,  as  did  the  provinces  of 
central  Asia.^  But  Baghdad,  although  still  pre-eminent  as  the 
centre  of  learning,  declined  in  other  respects  during  the  fourth 
century  of  the  Hijrah ;  which  was,  however,  remarkable  for 
the  occurrence  of  some  important  events  towards  its  close. 

Origin  of  the       The  Huns  and  Turks  appear  to  have  been  derived  from  a 

Hunnish  ,  i  •    i  •     i  ■?        i     i 

tribes.  comuion   stocK,   which,  at  a  remote  period,    ruled  one  great 

empire  under  Oghuz  Khan,  extending  almost  from  the  shores 
of  the   Pacific    (Corea),   to    those    of  the   Caspian    Sea.     A 

The  northern   divisiou  Subsequently  took  place ;  one  portion  of  this  people 

HunsorTiirks.  ,  .,  ,  ^  iii  i  i 

The  southern  becouiing  kuowu  as  the  northern,  and  the  other  as  the  southern 
3100^015.  Huns,  each  having  a  chief  called  Taiijus,  or  Khan  (emperor). 
The  former  portion  was  driven  westward  towards  Europe,  by 
the  Chinese,  and  in  the  sequel  these  were  known  by  the  name 
of  Turks.  The  Persian  historians,  however,  from  aversion  to 
this  name,  substituted  that  of  Tartars,  giving  to  the  other 
section  that  of  Mongols.  The  latter  people,  according  to  the 
conclusive  authority  of  the  Chinese,  occupied  the  eastern  and 
smaller  portion  of  the  Hunnish  territories,  namely,  Khitan  or 
Khitay.  This  tract,  which  touches  Mongolia  proper,  extends 
from  Corea  to  Kashgar,^  and  was  occupied  by  the  Kin,  the 
ancestors  of  the  Manchous. 
Original  seat       The  othcr  braiich  of  the  Huns  had  their  seat  towards  the 

of  the  Turkish  .,  (>    .1         o  /m  /    ^    \  ^     n  1 

tribes.  wcsterii  siQc  01    the  oteppes,    (iuran);    and   irom  the   river 

'  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'Herbelot,   art.  Razi,  &c. ;  Abu-1-Faraj,   Hist. 
Dynast.  1663,  pp.  191,  192;  Elmaciiius,  pp.  185,  195. 
■■'  Abii-1-Faraj,  ann.  Hijrah  318. 
'  De  Guignes,  Hist,  des  Huns,  vol.  I,,  p.  213-272. 
*  Gaubil,  Hist,  de  Gench.  Turk.,  p.  2-11. 


CHAP.  XIV.]  CAMPAKJNS  OF  MAIIMUD  GHIZNI.  469 

Jaxartes,  they  spread  southward  and  westward,  bearing  occa- 
sionally the  name  of  Tartars,  but  more  generally  the  older 
appellation  of  Turks:  according  to  their  own  historians,  their 
common  ancestor  was  Turk,  a  son  of  Japhet. 

Oghuz  Khan,  his  descendant,  is  said  to  have  occupied 
Turkistan  about  the  time  of  Abraham.  His  descendants  formed 
numerous  tribal  branches,  of  which  the  Kiptshaks  or  Tartars, 
who  will  afterwards  be  noticed,  and  the  Oghuzes,  were  the  most 
remarkable.  The  latter  gave  rise  to  the  various  dynasties  which 
governed  Afghanistan,  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  Turks  appear  to   have  first  become  known  under  the  -Rhe  of 
distinguished  commander  Sabektekin,  the  governor  of  Khorasan.'  Q^i^X 
Mahmiid,  his  son,  soon  after  his  accession,  assumed  the  title  A.  D.  looi 
of  Sultan,  and  having  subdued  the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia, 
he  proceeded  to  attack  the  king  of  Lahore.     Being  successful 
in  this  expedition,  he  afterwards  penetrated  into  the  interior  of 
the  empire ;  when,  nothing  being  able  to  withstand  the  enthu- 
siasm of  his  followers,   he  forced  an  advantageous  peace  from 
the  sovereign  of  Hindustan,  and  returned  to  Ghizni  laden  with 
spoil.      The  subjection  of  Giirjistan   (Georgia)  followed,  and  "is  campaigns 

.  .  n    \     ^^  ^  i       •  i  •    ^"  Georgia aud 

two  years  later,  another  nivasion  oi    India;    but  durmg  this  India 
campaign  a  great  many  men  perished  in  a  flooded  district,  no 
doubt  the  Runn  of  Kach'h,  which,  however,  he  passed,  though 
with  exceeding  difticulty,  and  made  good  his  march  to  Kho- 
rasan.^     During  another  irruption,   a.h.  416,   he  subjected  the  A.  D.  1025. 
northern  parts  of  India,  and  after  putting  about  50,000  men 
to  the  sword,  he  returned  to  Ghizni  laden  with  the  inestimable 
treasures  of  the  Indian  temples,"^  and  a  vast  number  of  prisoners 
who  were  sold  as  slaves.*     His  subjects,  the  Afghans,   being  Nature  of  the 
chiefly  cavalry,  and  depending  for  supplies  upon  the  countries     ^  '^^  '^^^^' 
they  invaded,   a  distant  march  such   as  that  into  India  was    . 
speedily  accomplished. 

The  descendants  of  the  Khan  of  the  Sea,  the  head  of  theRiseofTognii 
second  branch  of  the  Turkish  Huns,  were  amongst  those  who  bilsiim'ent^of ' 
came  from  Transoxiana  at  this  period ;  and  one  of  these  was  *'**-'  Seijukides. 

'  Mirkhund,  apud  Teixeira,  p.  255 ;  and  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'Her- 
belot,  art.  Mahniiid  Ghizni. 

"^  Abu-1-feda,  Chron.,  ad  an.  nijrah  404. 

^  Tlie  celebrated  Gates  of  the  Somnath,  in  Guzerat.  wore  nmnngst  tlipsc, 

*  D'Herbelot  and  Mirkhund,  apnd  Teixeira,  p.  283. 


470 


THE  AFGHAN  CONQUESTS  IN  ASIA.  [CHAP.  XIV. 


Origin  of  the 

Seljukian 

dynasty. 


Conquests  of 
Togrul  Bei. 
A.  D,  1038. 


A.D.  1063. 

Accession  and 
conquests  of 
Alp  Arslan. 

A.D,  1070. 
A.D.  1071. 


A.D.  1073. 


A.D.  1092. 


Dominion  of 
the  Seljukides. 


Dohak,  the  father  of  Seljuk,  who  had  acquired  large  possessions 
near  Bokhara.^  The  latter,  who  was  brought  up  by  Bigii,  the 
khan,  is  considered  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  bearing  his  name, 
which  in  reality  commenced  with  his  grandson  Miihammed, 
M-ho  is  better  known  as  Togrul  Bei.  An  attempt  to  make 
terms  with  the  elder  Turkish  branch,  then  under  ISIahmiid 
Ghizni,  the  ruler  of  Khorasan,  appears  to  have  failed,  and  that 
province  being  successfully  invaded,  the  prince,  the  first  of  the 
Iranian  dynasty  of  the  Seljukides,  was  crowned  at  Nishapiir, 
A.H.  429.  The  conquest  of  this  place  was  followed  by  that 
of  Herat  and  Meru ;  and,  during  the  wars  with  the  Gaznevides, 
w-hich  continued  throughout  the  25  years  of  this  reign,'  many 
of  the  Persian  provinces  were  subjected;  'Irak,  and  conse- 
quently Baghdad,  being  of  the  number  :  this  city  was  taken 
A.  H.  455.  Alp  Arslan,  or  the  courageous  lion,  succeeded  to 
the  conquests  of  his  uncle  Togrul  Be'i ;  and  in  the  seventh 
year  of  his  reign,  he  defeated  the  Greeks  with  gTeat  loss  ; 
in  another  battle  the  following  spring  he  gained  a  still  more 
decided  victory  near  Malazkerd,^  when  the  emperor  Romanus 
Diogenes  was  amongst  the  prisoners.^  Alp  Arslan  was  slain 
two  years  subsequently  whilst  contending  with  an  assassin. 
His  son  Malik  Shah  succeeded  him  on  the  throne,  and  during 
his  reign,  Damascus,  with  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  was  added 
to  his  territories.  He  died  at  Baghdad.  This  prince  was  the 
greatest  of  the  Seljukian  conquerors,'*  being  sovereign  of  the 
different  countries  lying  between  Egypt  and  the  Jaxartes;  the 
whole  of  which  had  been  acquired  in  the  short  space  of  56  years. 
The  Shah  having  injudiciously  left  the  empire  to  the 
youngest  of  his  four  sons,  civil  dissensions  were  the  conse- 
quence;  but  long  before  a  separation  took  place,  and  whilst 
the  Seljukian  power  was  still  wielded  by  the  same  sovereign, 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  Muslim  people  was  raised  to  the  utmost 
height  by  a  war  of  religion  and,  it  may  be  said,  of  extermi- 
nation, which  will  presently  be  noticed. 

'  Bibliotheque  Orientale  d'Herbelot,  art.  Seljuk ;  Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist. 
Dynast.,  1663,  p.  225  ;  Renaudot,  pp.  439,  440;  Elmacinus,  pp.  267,  277, 
278. 

*  In  Persia. — Hist.  Orientale  d'Herbelot,  art.  Alp  Arslan. 

^  Abu-l-Faraj,  p.  227  ;  Renaudot,  p.  441  ;  Elmacinus,  p.  277. 

*  Abul-l-Faraj,  p.  237-239  ;  Renaudot,  pp.  447,  448. 


(     471     ) 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  WESTERN  ASIA  FROM  THE 
TWELFTH  TO  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

State  of  the  Seljukian  rulers  in  the  Eleventh  Century. — Peter  the  Hermit 
visits  Jerusalem,  and  urges  a  Crusade.' — The  state  of  Europe  favourable  to 
such  an  enterprise. — Progress  of  the  first  Crusaders  through  Europe  and 
Lesser  Asia. — Favourabledisposition  of  the  Fatimites. — Capture  of  Antioch. 
— Divided  state  of  the  Muslims.  — Capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  jNIassacre  of 
the  People. — The  Khaliph  Nur-ed-din,  and  ids  General,  Salah-ed-din. — 
Change  in  Salah-ed-din's  character. — Termination  of  the  Fatimite  dynasty 
of  Egypt.— Death  of  Nur-ed-din,  and  rise  of  Salah-ed-din. — Campaign  in 
Palestine. — Defeat,  and  return  to  Egypt. — Salah-ed-din's  Campaign  in 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Yemen. — Frank  and  Egyptian  Fleets  in  the  Red 
Sea. — Capture  of  Aleppo,  Sinjar,  Nisibin,  Damascus,  &c. — Defeat  of  the 
Crusaders  at  Hattin. — Salah-ed-din  takes  Jerusalem. — Tyre  is  retained  by 
the  Crusaders. — The  Franks  being  reinforced  besiege  'Akka. — Salah-ed-din 
encloses  the  besiegers. —  Progress  of  the  Siege. — Obstinate  defence  of  the 
Muslim  Garrison. — Salah-ed-din  marches  towards  Koniyeh. — The  Franks 
are  reinforced  from  Europe. — 'Akka  is  closely  pressed. — The  Kings  of 
France  and  England  arrive  to  assist  in  the  Siege. — Fresh  efforts  of  Salah- 
ed-din  to  relieve  'Akka.^Several  Battles  are  fought. — The  Fortress  ca- 
pitulates.— The  Crusaders  march  against  'Askulan. — Defeat  of  Salah-ed- 
din. — Treaty  of  Peace  with  Richard  Coeur  deLion, — Death,  and  Character 
of  Salah-ed-din, — The  Franks  are  joined  by  a  Fifth  Armament  from 
Europe. — They  are  repulsed  in  Egypt. — Frederic  II.  arrives,  and  makes  a 
Treaty. — Louis  IX.  is  defeated  near  Mansourah. —  Battle  between  the 
Templars  and  Hospitalliers. — Louis  IX.  lands  in  Africa,  and  dies  near 
Tunis. — The  Franks  are  driven  out  of  Palestine.—  Separation  of  the  Shi'ah 
and  Sunnie  Creeds.— Limits,  &c.,  of  Mongolia.— Rise  of  Genghis  Khan.— 
Origin  of  the  name. — Consolidation  of  his  Kingdom. — Invasion  of  China. 
—Subjection  of  Kharism,  Khorasan,  Persia,  &c.— Extent  of  his  territories. 
— Part  of  Russia  is  subjected. — Kiptshak  becomes  a  Russian  Province.— 
The  Persian  successes  of  Genghis  Khan. — Origin,  and  titles  of  Tamerlane. 
— Turkistan  subjected.— Fresh  Conquests  meditated  by  Tamerlane.— 
Khorasan  and  Southern  Russia  subdued. — Campaign  in  Siberia,  and  against 
Toktamish.— Taimiir  subjects  Southern  Persia,  Baghdad,  IMesopotamia, 
Armenia,  &c. — Taimiir's  Campaigns  in  India,  Anadoli,  vSyria,  &c. — 
Capture  of  Baghdad. —  Defeat  of  Bajazet.— Death  of  Taimiir.— Taimur 


4/2  INTERCOURSE  BETWEEN  ASIA  AND  EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV. 

and  Alexander  compared. — Taimiir's  Successors,  and  subdivision  of  his 
Territories. — Persia,  and  the  Sophi  Dynasty. — Nadir  Shah  and  his  Suc- 
cessors.— The  Seljukians  of  Riim,  and  rise  of  the  'Osmanli  Turks. — Sultan 
Murad  reigns  at  Adrianople,  and  conquers  most  of  European  Turkey. — 
Career,  and  death  of  Bajazet,  and  temporary  Restoration  of  the  Seljukides. 
— Success  of  Sultan  Murad  II. — Capture  of  Constantinople,  and  first  use 
of  Gunpowder. — Sultan  Suleiman  extends  his  Conquests  in  Europe,  trans- 
ports a  Fleet  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  sails  to  India. — Organization  of  his 
Empire. — Yemen,  Georgia,  Cyprus,  and  Daghestan  are  added  to  the 
Turkish  Territories. — Extent  of  the  latter  in  the  time  of  Muhammed  III. 
— Turkey  comes  into  warlike  Collision  with  European  Powers. — Treaties 
of  Belgrade  and  Kuchuk  Kaiuarji. — The  French  invade  Egypt  and  Syria. 
— War  of  Russia  and  England  against  the  Porte,  in  1806. — Accession  and 
Reforms  of  Sultan  Mahmud  II.— Effects  of  these  changes. — Rebellion  in 
Greece.— Battle  of  Navarino.— Russian  War  of  1828  and  1829.— Loss  of 
Territory,  and  present  Limits  of  Turkey. 


Extension  of  INTERCOURSE  to  a  Certain  extent  had,  from  very  early  times, 
betweeSTsia  taken  place  between  Europe  and  Asia ;  but  it  was  in  the  early 
and  Europe,  p^j.^  ^f  ^^q  period  now  to  be  considered,  that  a  more  intimate 
and  lasting  connexion  was  established  between  these  conti- 
nents. This  was  the  consequence  of  warlike  movements  con- 
verging in  opposite  directions  upon  the  regions  of  Western 
Asia ;  fi"om  which  ultimately  resulted,  as  it  were,  in  repay- 
ment of  the  calamities  of  war,  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
condition  of  mankind. 

During  more  than  two  centuries  one  inroad  of  mounted 
warriors  followed  another  from  Central  into  Western  Asia ; 
and,  Europe  having  been  armed  against  the  latter  continent, 
host  after  host  of  warlike  enthusiasts  was  poured  from  thence 
into  Palestine,  from  a.  d.  1097  to  a.  d.  1291,  which,  with  the 
conterminous  countries,  then  became  the  point  of  attraction  for 
the  nations  both  of  the  east  and  west. 

Local  associations  which  were  intimately  connected  with  the 
Christian  dispensation  had  long  caused  the  Holy  Land  to  be 
an   object   of  the   deepest  interest  to  the   people  of  Europe. 
Facilities        From  the  time  of  the  pious  visit  of  the  mother  of  the  great 
prims  visUing  Constautiue,  and  the  foundation  by  her  in  the  fourth  century 
Palestine.       ^f  various  rcligious  establishments  in  that  territory,  in  order  to 
A.D.  10G9.     facilitate  such  journeys,   pilgrimages    were  frequently  under- 
taken from  different  parts  of  Europe  to  Mount  Calvary.     At 


CHAP.  XV.]  CHANGE  IN  THE  SELJUKTAN  DYNASTY.  473 

a  later  period,  the  chivalrous  Abasside,  Hariin-el-Rashid  pre- 
sented his  brother  monarch  Charlemagne  with  the  keys  of 
Jerusalem  ;  and  such  were  the  facilities  afterwards  given  by 
the  Muslim  rulers,  that  on  one  occasion  the  pilgrims  who 
visited  the  Jordan,  &c.,  in  the  train  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Mentz,  numbered  7,000  persons.^ 

These  amicable   relations   were,   however,    seriously  inter- Separation  of 

11  1  .    the  Seljukiau 

rupted  by  the  political  changes  which  occurred  about  this  territory 
period  in  the  Seljukiau  dynasty.  Malik  Shah  having  incon- 
siderately left  his  empire  to  Mahmiid,  the  youngest  of  his  four 
sons,  the  contests  which  ensued  in  consequence  between  these 
princes  and  their  uncle,  led  eventually  to  the  division  of  the 
territory  into  numerous  governments,  the  four  principal  of 
which  were  under  as  many  sovereigns.  I'ran,  or  Persia,  the  most 
important  region,  constituted,  up  to  the  time  of  Malik  Shah, 
the  supreme  government.  That  of  Kirman  commenced  a.  d. 
1041,  under  the  Seljukiau  prince  Kaderd,  whose  ten  successors, 
in  addition  to  the  province  in  question,  ruled  over  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  third  was  that  of  Riim,  or  into  four 
Anadoli,  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  Suleiman,  the  cousin  of 
Malik  Shah,  and  the  fourth  was  that  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 
These  last  regions  were  the  seats  of  the  events  immediately  in 
question,  while  the  three  former  governments  became  of  im- 
portance only  at  a  later  period. 

Toucoush,  or  Tatash,  the  brother  of  Malik  Shah,  having  a.  D.  lore. 
wrested  Antioch,  and,  subsequently,  Jerusalem,  from  the 
hands  of  the  Christians,  entrusted  the  government  of  the  latter 
to  the  emir  Ortok,  and  with  this  ruler  commenced  the  harsh 
treatment  of  the  Christians.  An  episcopal  establishment  was, 
it  is  true,  still  tolerated  in  the  holy  city ;  but  the  choice 
between  tribute  oppressively  exacted,  and  conversion  to  the 
religion  of  Miihammcd,  was  offered  to  pilgrims  during  the 
seventeen  years'  dominion  of  the  Ortokites  in  Jerusalem.  a.d.  1094. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  city  at  the  time,  when  a  gentle-  Pilgrimage  of 
man  of  Picardy  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  it,   in  the  hope  of  Hermit, 
thereby  expiating  the   errors  of  his  youth.     Indignant  at  the 
treatment  which  he  witnessed  and  experienced,   he  indulged 
^  Gretser,  de  Sacris  Peregrin.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  vi. 


474 


PETER  THE  HERMIT. 


LCHAP.  XV. 


aud  his  success 
in  preaching 
the  crusade. 

A.D.  1095. 


Advantages 
promised  to 
those  who 
joined  in  the 
crusade. 


Numbers  of 
the  crusaders. 


A.D.  1097. 


his  ardent  temperament  on  his  return,  by  preaching  throughout 
Europe  the  deliverance  of  the  holy  sepulchre  from  the  infidels.^ 
Twenty-one  years  previously  to  the  appearance  of  this  enthu- 
siast, Pope  Gregory  VII.  had  endeavoured  to  arm  Europe 
against  Asia,^  and  Urban  II.,  taking  up  the  same  views,  sup- 
ported the  project  of  Peter  the  Hermit^  as  the  pilgrim  was 
designated. 

The  prospect  of  recovering  a  city  and  territory  hallowed  by 
the  presence  of  the  founder  of  Christianity,  enlisted  the  hier- 
archy in  its  favour.  Many  persons  joined  the  proposed  expe- 
dition in  order  to  indulge  their  ambition,  or  to  repair  their 
broken  fortunes  ;  whilst  various  immediate  advantages,  such 
as  immunity  from  incarceration  for  debt,  the  remission  of 
penance,  absolution  from  all  sins,  and  the  assurance  of  eternal 
felicity,  as  the  reward  of  martyrdom,  secured  the  support  of 
the  common  people.  The  sovereigns  of  Europe  did  not  per- 
sonally join  the  first  crusade ;  but,  in  less  than  two  years  from 
the  return  of  Peter  to  Europe,  multitudes  of  all  ranks  below 
the  crown,  women  as  well  as  men,  having  a  cross  of  silk  or 
cloth  sewn  on  their  garments  as  a  badge  of  their  enterprise, 
assembled  from  every  country  of  Europe,  and,  under  the 
standard  of  the  cross,  marched  towards  Palestine.^  The  want 
of  supplies  for  an  unorganized  rabble,  with  other  difficulties, 
soon  thinned  their  ranks,  still  100,000  horse  and  600,000  foot 
are  said  to  have  reached  the  plains  of  Bithynia.^  The  subse- 
quent march  to  Syria,  and  occasional  contests  w^ith  the  enemy, 
diminished  their  numbers  so  much  that  the  force  scarcely 
exceeded  300,000  men,  when  Eohemund  appeared  before 
Antioch.  This  city,  from  its  connexion  with  the  early  history 
of  the  Christian  Church,  had  become  a  primary  object  of 
interest,  and  it  was  carried  after  a  protracted  and  bloody  siege 
of  eight  months.'^ 

Shortly  after  the  return  of  Peter  the  Hermit  to  Europe, 
Palestine  again  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Fatimites.^ 

'   William  of  Tyre,  p.  638. 

*  Labbi.  Concilia,  torn.  X.,  p.  44.  '  Ibid. 

*  Willel.  Tyr.  de  Bello  Sacro,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xxi.,  and  lib.  III.,  cap.  xi. 

*  Ibid.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  ix.,  x. 

"  R^naudot,  Hist.  Patriarcli.  Alexandria,  p.  478. 


CHAP.  XV.]       ARRIVAL  OF  THE  CRUSADERS  IN  PALESTINE.  47''> 

But  circumstances  were  now  materially  changed :  Jerusalem, 
the  main  object  of  the  European  armaments,  being  now  under 
the  paternal  government  of  Moctadi,  the  khaliph  of  Egypt, 
instead  of  the  iron  rule  of  Ortok. 

The  crusaders  appearing  as  enemies  of  the  Sunnie  branch  to  Favourable  re- 
which  Moctadi  was  opposed,  this  high-minded  ruler  of  the  Fati-  rafseTbyThe 
mites  was   disposed   to  consider  them   as  friends,   and   made  i^'i^ofEgjpt. 
known  that  a  safe   and  liospitable  reception  awaited  them  at 
the  holy  sepulchre,  provided  they  laid  aside  their  arms.' 

A  haughty  answer  was  returned  to  this  proposal,  and  after 
some  delay  in  making  arrangements,  about  40,000  Franks^ 
continued  their  march ;  when,  having  taken  Ramla  and  mas- 
sacred a  considerable  number  of  Muslims,  they  proceeded 
onward  to  Jerusalem  or  Al  Kuds ;  and  the  object  of  their 
hopes  and  wishes  soon  appeared  crowning  the  bare  hills  of  this 
part  of  Judea.  The  city  stood  a  determined  siege  of  forty  capture  of 
days,  which  was  terminated  by  a  week  of  unrelenting  massacre  •'^'""s^i^'^'- 
in  cold  blood,  when  70,000  Muslims  perished,  of  whom, 
10,000  were  slaughtered  in  the  Mosque  of 'Omar.^ 

In  111/,  following  up  these  successes,  the  Franks  besieged 
Tripoli  and  attacked  Damascus.  These  places  resisted  all 
their  efforts  ;  but  they  were  more  successful  against  'Akka  and 
the  neighbouring  fortress  of  Ka'ifa,  both  of  which  were  carried 
by  storm. 

At  this  period  the  Muslim  people  were  divided  between  the 
contending  creeds  of  the  Shfah  and  Sunm'e  whose  differences, 
together  with  the  separate  interests  of  Syria,  Damascus,  and 
Egypt,  greatly  facilitated  the  reduction  of  the  country,  so  that 
the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  tjj^  j^a,in 
was  easily  established,  and  the  Franks  obtained  possession  of^'"^^""'"^ 

'^  ^  Jerusalem 

Tripoli,  Tarsus,  Adanah,  Sidon,  as  well  as  nearly  the  whole  of  established, 
the  coast.     This  took  place  after  a  second  crusade,  in  M'hich 
nearly  a  million  of  persons  had  wasted  away  through  famine, 

'  AYilliam  of  Tyre,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xxiv. 

*  The  effective  force  apjiears  to  have  been  nearly  22,000,  ibid.,  lib.  VIII,, 
cap.  V. 

^  Abu-1-feda,  vol.  III.,  p.  519,  ed.  Reiske,  compared  with  "William  of 
Tyre,  lib.  VIII. 


476  SALAH-ED-DIN  ASSUMES  THE  OFFENSIVE,  [ciIAP.  XV. 

A.  D.  1148.      pestilence,   and  the    sword,  during  their   march  towards  Da- 
mascus.' 
Successful  Niir-ed-din,  son  of  Sanguin,  a  worthy  representative  of  the 

SSr-Sii!^  earlier  khaliphs,  having  united  the  governments  of  Aleppo 
and  Damascus,  assumed  the  offensive  against  the  remains  of 
the  Frank  armies,  and  after  defeating  them  in  a  serious  battle, 
A.  D.  1167.  he  took  the  fortresses  of  Harem  and  Panias,  or  Banias,  by 
storm.^  Three  years  afterwards  the  castle  of  Moneidera  in 
Syria  fell,  and  subsequently  the  castle  of  Ja'ber  •,^  after  which 
the  towns  of  Kinnisrm  and  Seriij,  including  the  dependencies 
of  the  latter,  were  ceded  to  him.  In  the  following  year,  the 
forces  of  Niir-ed-din,  under  his  general  Shairacuk,  recovered 
Egypt  with  the  exception  of  Damietta  ;  the  youthful  Salah-ed- 
din,  nephew  of  the  latter,  being  one  of  the  emirs  who  were 
employed  on  this  occasion.* 

The  Latins  feeling  that  the  safety  of  their  position  required 
the  possession  of  Egypt,  and  being  reinforced  by  a  fleet  and 
v^rmy  sent  for  the  purpose  by  the  Emperor  Frederic,  they  pro- 
A.B.UG9.  ceeded  by  Tyre  and  'Askulan  to  the  mouth  of  the  Nile;  but 
after  an  ineffectual  siege  of  Damietta  for  nearly  two  months, 
they  were  glad  to  secure  an  unmolested  retreat  to  'Askulan.^ 
A.  D.  1170.  Salah-ed-din,  who  had   been  very  active  on  this  occasion, 

having  assumed  the  chief  command,  penetrated  into  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Franks ;  but  he  returned  to  Egypt  after  taking 
Gaza,  without  engaging  their  army.'     At  a  later  period  he 
made  another  inroad  as  far  as  Sobal  in  Syria,  and  returned  by 
Aelath  or  'Akabah  to  Egypt.' 
Saidh-ed-din        In  the  following  year,  a.  h.  567,  on  the  deposition  and  death 
rST/El^jTt.  of  Al  'Adhed,  the  last  of  the  Fatimites,  Salah-ed-dm  virtually 
A.D.  1171.      became  sovereign  of  Egypt,  though  he  was  still  nominally  a 
dependent   of  Niir-ed-din.     The    extensive    treasures    of  Al 
'Adhed  were  now  at  his  command,  but  Salah-ed-dm,  acting 
according  to  that  self-denying  principle   for  which  his  uncle 

'  Mill's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades,  vol.  I.,  cliap.  ix. 

*  William  of  Tyre,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  viii. 

»  Abu-l-fedd,  Cliron.  ad.  an.  ITijr.  564  ;  Ibn  Shonah  ad.  an.  Ilijr.   569 ; 
Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  Pocockio,  Oxou.,  1663,  p.  256-266. 

*  William  of  Tyre,  lib.  XX.,  cap.  vi.,  vii.  '  Ibid.,  cap.  xvi. 

<■  Ibid.,  lil).  XX.,  cap.  xx.  '  Ibid.,  cap.  xxix. 


I  HAP.  XY.]  AND  SUCCEEDS  TO  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  EGYPT.    4/7 

■was  remarkable,  distributed  them  amongst  the  emirs  and  judicious 
troops,  with  such  liberality  that  he  gained  their  unreserved  iJlitcI-^a. 
support,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  means  of  consolidating  his 
power.  Giving  way,  however,  to  ambition,  or,  as  stated  by 
historians,'  being  influenced  by  better  and  far  higher  motives, 
a  great  change  took  place  in  his  character.  From  that  time 
Salah-ed-din  not  only  carefully  abstained  from  the  vices  of 
wine  and  gaming,  but  as  an  expiation  of  his  former  crimes,"  he 
resolved  to  expel  the  so-called  unbelievers  from  the  territory 
which  they  had  so  long  defiled  by  their  presence. 

The  abolition  of  the  Fatimites  of  Egypt,  who  were  Shi'is  Projects  for 
was  celebrated  by  public  rejoicings  in  Baghdad,  in  the  belief  th^Mus/iiu 
that  there  would  follow  the  reunion  of  all  Muslims  under  one  po^*^'". 
spiritual  head,  as  well  as  the  humiliation  of  the  Franks,  whose 
successes  had  been  regarded  as  the  just  punishment  of  schisms 
amongst  the  true  believers.     Niir-ed-din,   although  aware   of 
the  real  motives   of  Salah-ed-din,   professed   himself  satisfied 
with  his  conduct ;  but  on  perceiving  a  favourable  opportunity, 
he  was  on  the  point  of  invading  Egypt  with  one  portion  of  his 
army  whilst  the  other  was  acting  against  the  Franks,  when  his  Death  of 
death    delivered   his    nominal    vassal    from   all   apprehension,  ^"■"■^'^-'i"!- 
Although    Salah-ed-din    was    now   firmly   established    on    the 
throne  of  Egypt,   he  still   acknowledged  himself  the  depend- 
ant of  Niir-ed-dm's  son  and  successor  Al  Saleh  Isma'il  Mii- 
hammed,  and  he  caused  prayers  to  be  offered  up  in  all  the 
mosques  for  the  deceased  monarch. 

Making  the  unity  of  religion  his  avowed  object,  Salah-ed-din  saiah-ed-dm 
proceeded  against  Damascus,    Ba'albek,  and  Hamath;  when,  p^^j^^^^^. 
having  signally  defeated  Al  Malik,  Al  Saleh,  and  his  allies,  Ba'albek.  &c. 
near  the  latter  places,  having  also  subjected  the  Assassins  of 
Lebanon,  Math  nearly  the  whole  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  he 
returned  to  Egypt,  where  he  assumed  the  title  and  prerogatives 
of  sultan,  founded  a  college,  built  an  hospital,  and  fortified  the 
city  and  castle  of  Misr.^ 

Previously  to  the  accession  of  Salah-ed-din,  the  Latin  king- 

'  Ism.  Abu-I-feda  in   Chron.  ad,   Hij.   060  ;    Ibn  Sliohnali,  ad.   an.  Hij. 
565  ;  Bib.  Orient.,  p.  742;  Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  p.  264-276. 
*  Al  'Adlied's  death  has  been  attributed  to  him. 
^  Abii-I-f  araj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  Pocockio,  Oxon.,  1663,  pp.  267,  268. 


478  Campaign  of  salah-ed-din  in  Palestine,     [chap.  xv. 


Salali-ed-din, 
as  sultan, 
takes  the  fielct 
against  the 
Franks. 


A.D.  1177. 


Defeat  of  the 
Muslims  nt-ar 
'Askulan. 


Kenewed 
campaign  in 
Syria,  fol- 
lowed by 
peace. 


Campaign  of 
the  Muslims 
in  Northern 
Syria. 


Maritime 
operatioi  s  on 
the  Ked  h'ea. 


dom  enjoyed  comparative  security,  owing  to  the  religious 
animosity  existing  between  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  govern- 
ments. But  the  Christians  having  broken  the  truce,  Reginald 
of  Chatillon  seized  a  fortress  on  the  borders  of  the  desert,  from 
whence  he  pillaged  a  caravan ;  and  satisfaction  having  been 
refused,  Salah-ed-din  led  a  formidable  army  of  80,000  horse 
and  foot  towards  Syria,  laying  siege  to  'Askulan  as  he  advanced. 
But  whilst  part  of  the  sultan's  forces  was  employed  in  foraging 
and  ravaging  the  country,  the  Franks  made  a  determined  and 
successful  attack  on  the  remainder ;  a  confused  retreat  of 
the  latter  across  the  intervening  desert  was  the  consequence, 
which  was  attended  with  great  loss  in  men  and  beasts  of  burthen 
before  the  fugitives  reached  the  confines  of  Egypt.^  Salah-ed- 
din,  notwithstanding  this  signal  discomfiture,  again  took  the 
field,  a.  h.  575,  and  after  carrying  by  storm  a  strong  fort,  which 
had  been  constructed  by  the  Franks  to  command  the  ford  of 
El  Arjan,  near  Banias,  he  marched  to  protect  the  sultan  of  Al 
Rum,  Kilij  Arslan,  against  the  Armenians.  A  general  paciti- 
cation,  which  included  Mosul  and  Diyar-Bekr,  was  the  result  of 
this  campaign,  and  Salah-ed-dm  returned  to  Egypt  towards  the 
close  of  the  following  year,  a.  h.  576.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
made  an  ineffectual  attack  on  Beirut  and  Mosul ;  but  he  was 
more  successful  during  the  remainder  of  this  campaign,  when 
he  reduced,  a.  h.  577,  Al  Rohah,  Rakkah,  Nisibin,  Seriij,  and 
subjected  the  country  as  far  as  the  Mesopotamian  Khabiir. 
During  the  following  year  a  part  of  Salah-ed-din's  forces  w'ere 
despatched  into  Yemen,  where  peace  was  established  and  his 
authority  recognised.^  The  next  operations  took  place  on  the 
adjoining  sea,  on  which  the  Franks  had  fitted  out  two  fleets,  with 
an  adequate  force  on  board.  One  blockaded  Aelath,  and  the 
other  ravaged  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  Aidab,  cutting  off  the 
communication  between  that  port  and  Salah-ed-din's  troops  in 
Yemen.  These  bold  undertakings  were  wholly  unexpected  by 
the  Muslims ;  but  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  Salah-ed-din's  brother, 
rapidly  equipped  a  fleet,  and  after  defeating  the  ships  blockading 


'   Abu-1-feda,  in  Cliron.,  ad.   aim.  Ilij.  573;  Ibn  Shonah,   ad.  ami.  Hij. 

.37  ;3. 

-  Abu-1-feda   in   Cliron.,  ad.   an.  Ilij.  o77  ;  Abii-I-Faraj,  Hist.   Dynast., 
1663,  pp.  270,  271. 


CHAP.  XV.]  NAVAL  OPERATIONS.  4/9 

Aelath,  he  encountered,  the  remainder  off  Rabig,  on  the  African  Destruction  of 
coast.      After    a  very   protracted    and    bloody    engagement,  crusaders! 
vigorously  sustained  on  both  sides,  victory  remained  with  the 
Muslims,  who  sunk  several  ships,  slew  many  men,  and  took  a 
great  number  of  prisoners.     From  579  to  582  operations  were 
continued  with  advantage  to  the  Muslims.     Amid  surrendered 
honourably  after  a  siege  of  eight  days,  and  Salah-ed-din  gained 
possession  of  Aleppo  and  its  dependencies  by  treaty  in  return 
for  Sinjar,  Nisibin,  Rakkah,  Seriij,  and  the  tract  along  the  river 
Khabiir ;  cifter  which  operations  he  took  possession  of  the  citadel 
of  Aleppo  and  marched  to  Damascus.^    But  a.h.  583  produced  Saiab-ed-dm 
still  more  decided  results.     Salah-ed-din  advanced  to  meet  the  crusaders 
Franks,  and  drew  up  in  order  of  battle  ;  but  finding  this  did  "'''"'  "''""'• 
not  entice  them  to  quit  their  position  on  the  plains  of  Sepphoris, 
now  El  Buttauf,  he  removed  to  a  spot  near  the  lake  of  Tiberias, 
and  this  measure  having  also  failed,  he  carried  the  town  of  that 
name  by  storm.      Both    armies   now    advanced    at   the   same 
moment,  and  a  fearful  engagement  commenced  near  Hattin, 
which  continued  till   night  parted   the   combatants.      On  the 
second  day  the  contest  still  remained  undecided,  but  on  the 
third,  victory  declared  for  the  Muslims,  who  sullied  their  laurels 
and  the  name  of  their  prince,  by  putting  to  death  230  knights 
after  the  engagement.     Guy  de  Lusignan,  the   king  of  Jeru- 
salem, fell  into  the  conqueror's  hands,  and  was  royally  received ; 
but  Beginald  de  Chatillon  was  decapitated  by  the  sultan  him- 
self for  the  violation  of  a  treaty,  and  the  further  perfidy  of 
intercepting   and    murdering    in    time    of  peace    the    persons 
belonging  to  a  caravan  going  to  Mekkah.     The  defeat  and  dis-  •.Akka',BeYrut, 
persion  of  the  Christian  army  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  'Akka,  ^c^^fulnli 
Beirut,  'Askulan,  and  some  other  towns  of  the  Frank  kingdom,  consequence. 
Jerusalem  was  forthwith  besieged,  and  the  hopes  entertained    a.d.  ii87. 
by  the  Christians  of  a  protracted  and  determined  resistance 
were  disappointed,  for   in  fourteen  days  the  Muslim  banners 
were  planted  on  the  walls  ;  and  Salah-ed-din,  generously  disre- 
garding his  vow  .to  revenge  the  massacre  of  his  people  when  the 
city  was   stormed   by  the   Franks,  granted   a  capitulation,   by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  the  garrison  should  pay  for  themselves 

'  Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dvimst.,  1663,  p.  1271  ;  Abu-1-feda,  Excerpta,  cap. 
XVIII.  p.  33. 


480 


SALAH-ED-DIN  TAKES  JERUSALEM 


[chap. 


XV. 


"by  a  fresh 
army  of 
crusaders 


Terms  of  the  ten  Tyrian  dinars  each,  for  each  of  their  wives  five,  and  for 
Jerus^iem.'^  ^  each  child  two  dinars,  and  should  then  be  allowed  to  quit  the 
city  in  peace.  Those  who  could  not  pay  were  to  be  made  slaves. 
The  conqueror,  however,  modified  these  terms  by  accepting  a 
smaller  sum,  and  allowing  between  2,000  and  3,000  to  depart 
without  any  ransom  whatever.^ 

Salah-ed-dm's  first  care  was  to  release  the  Muslim  prisoners; 
the  next  to  restore  the  Temple  to  its  former  state  ;  and  the  third, 
and  most   important,   was   the   establishment   of  schools    and 
colleges.     This  prince  was  now  master  of  the  whole  of  Syria, 
with  the  exception  of  one  fortress,  which  still  held  out.     This 
siege  aflbrds  a  striking   example  of  the  protracted  resistance 
which   may  be   made    by  a    fortress,   even    when    completely 
Tyre  relieved  isolated.     Owiug  to  the  uoblc  defence  of  Conrad  of  Montserrat, 
the  ancient  city  of  Tyre  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  the  Muslims 
under  Salah-ed-din  till  the  third  army  of  crusaders  reached  the 
coast  of  Syria  in  the  early  part  of  1191.    This  timely  reinforce- 
ment not  only  saved  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Christians,  but 
it  put  the  Franks  in  a  condition  to  commence  the  siege  of  the 
neighbouring  fortress  of  'Akka,  with  a  force  of  30,000  infantry 
and  2,000  cavalry.     This   army  was,  however,  in  turn  placed 
almost  in  a  state  of  blockade  by  the  enterprising  Salah-ed-din, 
who  for  this  purpose  occupied  the  places  in  its  rear  from  El 
Nahr  Al  Halu,  to  Tell  Ayadhiya.     By  drawing  troops  from 
Hamah   and  other    places,    the    Muslim  prince  acquired    the 
superiority  in   point  of  numbers,  when  a  bloody  but  indecisive 
engagement  of  two  days  took  place,  which  was  followed  by 
another.     This  last  was  disadvantageous  to  the  Franks,  and 
Salah-ed-din   was  enabled   to  reinforce   the  town,   though  the 
siege  still   continued.     The  concentrated  fire  of  a   numerous 
artillery,  and  the  support  afforded  by  means  of  parallel  trenches 
of  attack,  were  then  unknown  ;  and  siege  operations  consisted 
chiefly  in  manual  combats  between  the  opposing  parties,  which 
were  attended  with  much   bloodshed  on  both  sides.     Scarcely 
a  day  was  allowed  to  pass  without  a  powerful  sortie  being  made 
from  the  place,  or  an  attack  being  made  by  the  besiegers  on 
the  covering  army.     In  one  of  these  the  Franks  penetrated 

William   of  Tyre.  p.  1019,  et  seq.  ;  Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663, 
p.  273. 


Battle  under 
the  walls  of 
'Akka. . 


CHAP.  XV.]  OPERATIONS  BEFORE  'akKA.  481 

almost   to    the  Sultan's    tent,   but,   according    to  the  Muslim  Second  battle 
writers,  they  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men.     The  wauJ^oV 
subsequent  retreat,  however,  of  the  sultan  to  Kheruba,  in  con-  '^^^''^ 
sequence,  it  was  said,   of  a  bilious  attack,  affords  ground  to 
believe  that  the  Franks  had  a  fair  claim   to  the  victory.     Be  Renewal  of 
this  as  it  may,  the  necessity  of  defending  Constantinople  against  'Akklf^  ° 
Barbarossa,  who  was   marching  against  that  city,  prevented 
Salah-cd-din  from  giving  any  further  assistance  to  the  garrison 
of  'xVkka.     The  siege  was  then  renewed  and  continued  on  both 
sides  with  unabated  valour.     Lofty  towers  were  as  usual  em- 
ployed to  enable  the  besiegers  to  gain  the  tops  of  the  walls,  and 
the  operations  were  aided  by  the  Christian  fleet.     The  former 
structures   were,    however,   destroyed   by  naphtha,   under   the 
direction  of  an   engineer   from   Baghdad,   and  the  latter  was 
defeated  by  the  fleet  of  the  Egyptians,  at  the  moment  when  the  The  Christian 
garrison  was  reduced  to  extremities. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  a  formidable  sally  took  place, 
which,  being  supported  by  an  attack  from  part  of  the  sultan's 
troops,  caused  the  Franks  considerable  loss.  This,  added  to  the 
effects  of  a  pestilential  distemper  which  appeared  in  the  camp 
about  the  same  time,  would  probably  have  caused  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  siege  had  it  not  been  for  an  opportune  diversion  by 
Frederic  Barbarossa,  who  had  defeated  two  Muslim  armies  and 
taken  Iconium,  which  obliged  the  principal  part  of  Salah-ed-dm's 
forces  to  march,  in  order  to  meet  this  exigency.' 

The  Franks  being  at  the  same  time  reinforced  by  10,000  men  Mutual  eflforts 
under  Count  Henry,  and  again   by  other  troops  from  Europe,  besiegers  and 
redoubled  their  efforts,  and  large   stones  were  thrown   so  sue-  ^^^'^s*^^- 
cessfuUy  from  powerful  machines,  that  the  garrison  must  have 
been  overcome  had  they  not  succeeded,  during  a  well-timed 
sally,  in  setting  fire  to,  and  reducing  to  ashes  one  of  the  principal 
engines  erected   by  Count  Henry.     Two  other  large  engines 
were  afterwards  consumed  by  fire-darts,  having  red  hot  points. 
Provisions,    however,  began  to  fail   in   the  town,  when  a  tem- Stratagem  of 
porary  supply  was  introduced  by  a  stratagem  :  vessels,  of  which  toVrovLiMf 
the  sailors  were  disguised  as  Franks,  with  ensigns  bearing  the  *^'*^  ^'^*^^' 

'  Abvi-1-feda  in  Cliron.  ad    an.   Ilij.   586;    Alb.  Sclinlt.  in  vit.  Salad. 
Bibliotheque  Orientale,  art.  Salah-ed-din, 

VOL.  II.  2  I 


482 


CAPITULATIOX  OF    AKKA. 


[chap.  XV, 


The  sultan 
succeeds  in 
relieving  the 
garrison. 


Kichard  I 
joins  the 
besiegers. 


Capitulutiou 
of  'Akkii. 


A.  D.  1192. 


cross  and  having  hogs  on  board,  so  deceived  the  Christians, 
that  they  v/ere  allowed  to  pass  into  the  port.  Subsequently 
other  vessels,  bringing  every  thing  necessary  to  sustain  a  siege 
till  the  succeeding  spring,  entered  in  like  manner.  On  the  part 
of  the  besiegers,  scaling  ladders,  with  additional  machines, 
including  a  prodigious  moveable  tower,  were  brought  close  to 
the  walls ;  but  these  were  burnt  as  before  during  a  sally ;  and 
in  the  following  season,  a.  h.  587,  a  storm  having  driven  away 
the  vessels  of  the  besiegers,  the  sultan  was  enabled  once  more  to 
reinforce  the  garrison  of 'Akka. 

Although  labouring  under  the  disadvantages  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  walls  being  levelled,  two  general  assaults  were 
repulsed,  and  the  breaches  were  again  repaired  by  the  IMuslims. 
The  Franks  now  began  to  suffer  from  want  of  provisions  as  well 
as  from  disease,  when  (a.  d.  1192)  reinforcements  came  from 
Europe  under  Philip  II.  of  France  ;  and  later  the  lion-hearted 
Plantagenet,  called  by  the  Arab  writers  Malik  El  Argetar 
(king  of  England),  arrived  with  a  considerable  force,  brought 
thither  in  twenty-live  ships  of  war.  Such  a  state  of  things 
was  calculated  to  discourage  the  garrison  ;  but  on  the  other 
hand  the  sultan  was  by  this  time  sufficiently  recovered  from 
his  protracted  illness  to  display  some  of  his  wonted  energy. 

Salah-ed-din's  exertions  to  raise  the  siege  were  commen- 
surate with  those  of  the  besiegers  to  carry  the  fortress ;  and  the 
contending  armies  being  animated  by  the  presence  of  their 
sovereigns,  who  were  rivals  in  bravery  and  skill,  nine  battles 
were  fought  with  various  success,  and  many  atrocities  were 
committed  on  both  sides.  At  length  the  Muslim  garrison 
capitulated,  under  the  sanction  of  their  sultan,  upon  honour- 
able terms.  But  in  consequence  of  some  misunderstandhig 
and  mutual  failure  in  carrying  out  the  stipulated  terms,  the 
king  of  England,  with  the  ferocity  of  that  time,  caused  3,000 
prisoners  to  be  put  to  the  sword.' 

Richard,  as  generalissimo  of  the  invading  forces,  now  pro- 
ceeded towards  'Askulan ;  the  king  of  France  leading  the  van 

'  Abi'i-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  274-276 ;  Historiarum  Patriarchoruni 
Alexandrinorum  Jakobitoruin,  &c.,  by  Renaudot,  1713,  p.  545;  and  Bib- 
liotlieque  Orientale,  art.  Saldh-ed-din. 


CHAP,  XV.]   UEATII  AND  CHAUACTER  OF  SALAH-ED-DIN.       483 

during  this  march  of  about  115  miles,  which  was  accomplished  March  of  the 

.  .  •  n  crusaders 

in  ten  days,  and  durnig-  that  time  a  succession  of  engagements  against 
took  place  with  Salah-ed-dm,  who  constantly  led  his  forces. 
The  Franks  having  demolished  the  walls  of  the  fortress  of 
'Asknlan,  as  well  as  those  of  Ramlah  and  other  places, 
Salcih-cd-din  encountered  them  once  more  in  a  general  action 
on  the  plains  of  Arsiif,  and  being  defeated,  with  great  loss,  he 
was  prepared  to  listen  to  terms.  The  health  of  the  rival 
princes  had  suffered,  and  each  being  required  elsewhere,  nego- 
tiations were  commenced.     The  personal  interview  proposed  by  Peace  con- 

T>*ii  1  IT!   11  1/  ^  r  1  eluded  with 

Kichard  was,  however,  declined  by  the  sultan  ;  but  acts  oi  royal  the  Muslims. 
courtesy  were  occasionally  exchanged,  and  a  truce  was  at  length 
concluded.     By  its  conditions,  the  sultan  retained  Jerusalem, 
Mith  its  dependencies,   in  addition  to  part  of  the   territory  of 
Palestine,  the  rest  of  the  latter  being  ceded  to  the  Franks.^ 

Richard  now  returned  to  England,  and  Salah-ed-din  to 
Damascus,  where  he  disbanded  his  followers  after  liberally 
rewarding  their  services ;  but  the  constant  toil  to  which  he  had 
for  some  years  been  subjected  brought  on  a  bilious  fever,  which 
terminated  his  life  shortly  after,  a.d.  1194.^  This  prince  was  Death  and 
a  striking  exemplification  of  the  character  of  an  eastern  poten-  saiah-ed-din. 
tate,  being  a  man  who  possessed  some  of  the  darkest,  and 
many  of  the  brightest,  qualities  of  human  nature.  His  rapid 
rise  was  followed  by  ingratitude,  if  not  by  other  crimes,  towards 
the  family  of  his  early  benefactor,  Niir-ed-din  ;  and  he  rapa- 
ciously seized  the  territory  of  many  Muslim  princes  to  gratify 
his  ambition :  in  some  instances  he  exhibited  cruelty,  as  well  as 
rapacity,  particularly  with  regard  to  prisoners ;  but  he  was 
otherwise  mild,  humble,  patient,  liberal,  and  rigidly  just,  being 
ready  at  all  times  to  attend  to  the  complaints  of  the  meanest 
suppliant;  and  the  empty  treasury  at  his  death  sufficiently 
proves  that  there  was  not  anything  selfish  in  the  character  and 
actions  of  this  chivalrous  and  distinguished  warrior.  He  com- 
menced his  career  as  the  son  of  a  simple  Kurd  of  Tekrit,  and 
closed  it  in  his  fifty-seventh  year  as  sovereign  of  an  empire, 

'  Abii-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  419;    and  Bibliotheque   Orientale,  art. 
Salah-ed-din. 

*  De  Guignes'  Histoire  des  Huns,  p.  237  ;  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  art. 
Salah-ed-din. 

2  I  2 


484 


OPERATIONS  AGAINST  EGYi'T. 


[CIIAP.  XV 


Al-Assaal 

succeeds 

Salah-ed-di'n, 


A  fifth  and 
sixth  arma- 
ment join  the 
crusaders. 


A.  D,  1216. 

Expedition  of 
the  Crusaders 
into  Egj-pt. 


.Icmsalem 
occupied  by 
the  Franks. 


A.D.  1228. 


Treaty  con- 
cluded by 
Fredericli  II. 


which  extended  from  Barbary  to  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  and 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  mountains  of  Armenia. 

Ere  long  Al  Assaal,  the  son  and  successor  of  Salah-ed-din, 
lost  a  considerable  portion  of  his  dominions,  which  were  seized 
by  his  relatives  and  competitors,  particularly  by  his  uncle,  Al 
Malik  Al  'Adel,  who  secured  the  kingdoms  of  Egypt,  Damascus, 
and  Jerusalem ;  and  hostilities  between  Syria  and  Egypt  being 
renewed,  the  hopes  and  prospects  of  the  Franks  revived. 

A  fourth  armament  of  crusaders  being  assembled,  and  the 
tedious  march  through  Europe  accomplished,  the  Latins  took 
Constantinople  by  storm,  a.  d.  1204;^  and  having,  after  three 
day's  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants,  placed  Baldwin  on  the  imperial 
throne,  they  proceeded  to  divide  the  Greek  territories  amongst 
the  princes  of  the  crusades.  Few  changes  occurred  in  Palestine 
for  some  little  time,  but  a  fifth  armament,  composed  chiefly  of 
Hungarians,  being  equipped,  the  Franks  landed  at  'Akka,  and 
advanced  to  Nabulus.  Here  discord  breaking  out,  a  part  of 
them  proceeded  to  Damietta,"  and  after  having  laid  the  country 
waste  as  far  as  Cairo  they  returned  to  Palestine.  They  sub- 
sequently renewed  this  expedition  and  captured  Damietta,  but 
having  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Cairo,  they  finally  agreed  to 
restore  Damietta,  and  to  liberate  the  captives,  with  an  under- 
standing that  the  invading  forces  were  to  return  without 
molestation  to  Palestine.^ 

In  Syria,  however,  the  efforts  of  the  Franks  were  subse- 
quently more  successful,  and  in  a.h.  625,  Jerusalem  was  occu- 
pied, on  condition  that  the  city  should  continue  dismantled, 
and  the  Muslims  have  free  access  to  the  two  grand  temples. 
Several  maritime  places  were  ceded  to  the  Franks  at  the  same 
time.  Subsequently*  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  arrived  in 
Syria,  and  by  his  intervention  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which 
the  Muslims  restored  to  the  Christians  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem, 
and  the  rest  of  the  country  as  far  as  Jaffa  and  'Akka,  together 
with  the  towns  and  fortresses  of  the   maritime  part  of  Syria, 


'  Villeliardouin,  120,  130. 

«  William  of  Tyre,  p.  682;  God.  Mon.  II.,  p.  388. 

'  AVilliam  of  Tyre,  688,  694;  Herold,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vii.,  ix. 

■*  A.  II.  626,  according  to  Ibu  Sholiiiah,  ad  ami.  Ilij.  628. 


CHAP.  XV.]       LOUIS  IX.  PREPARES  A  SECOND  EXPEDITION.  485 

and  even  some  places  in  the  interior  ;  the  liberation  of  prisoners 
was  likewise  to  take  place  on  both  sides.^     Peace  appears  to 
have  continued   till  a.  ii.  645,   when   the   Karismians  entered 
Jerusalem  and  razed  the  fortifications  of  'Askulan  and  Taba- 
riyeh."     This  led  to  the  sixth  crusade  in  the  following  year,  _4_£)_  1049. 
when  Louis  IX.  of  France  landed  his  force  at  'Akka,  and  after 
a  short  rest,  assumed  the  offensive  by  sailing  towards  Egypt, 
where  he  occupied  Damietta  without  resistance.^     But  at  this 
place  his  success  terminated,  for  after  advancing  to  Mansourah,  Defeat  of  the 
and  passing  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile,  he  was  defeated  in  Saf  mS-^*^^^ 
an  obstinate  battle,  with  that  stream  in  his  rear :  great  slaughter  sourah.  _ 
ensued,  and  a  number  of  prisoners  were  taken,  amongst  whom 
was  St.  Louis  himself*     By  the  treaty  that  followed  the  king 
restored  Damietta,  and  having  paid  a  million  of  dinars  he  was 
allowed  to  return  to  Palestine,  from  whence  he  proceeded  to 
France,  where  he  was  warmly  received,  notwithstanding  the  a.  d.  1 253. 
signal  failure  of  his  enterprise.^     The  inactivity  that  followed  Battle  between 
the  departure  of  the  monarch  ripened  those  jealousies  which  andHos?^^'^^ 
had  been  in  abeyance  among  the  crusaders,  and  their  energies  pitaUiers. 
being  no  longer  exercised  against  an  enemy,  a  battle  was  the 
consequence  among  themselves,  in  which  the  Templars  were 
almost  destroyed  by  their  rivals,  the  Hospitalliers.^ 

By  this  time   Louis  had  prepared  another  army,  hoping  to  a.  D.  1270. 
wdpe  away  his  previous  reverses ;  but  Henry  III.  of  England, 
taught  by  experience,  was  opposed  to  any  fresh  expedition, 
and  only  consented  to  give  partial  support,  by  permitting  his  Edward 
son  Edward,  and  the  Earls  of  Warwick  and  Pembroke,  to  join  ^hJ^eSsT? 
the  sovereign  of  France.  "Warwick  and , 

In  the  year   1271   the  king  sailed  at  the  head  of  60,000  Louis  lands  in 
men,  like  himself  full  of  ardour,  so  that  much  might  have  been  Africa  and 

,  1  •        1  11'  '^  whilst 

accomplished  had  he  not  changed  his  plan  and  landed  in  Africa  besieging 
instead  of  Syria.     At  the  siege  of  Tunis,  which  followed  the 
capture  of  Carthage,  Louis  died,'^  and  a  fatal  sickness  caused 

'  Annalum  Boiorum  Libri  Septem.,  Joanne  Aventino  auctore,  Ingoldstadt, 
1554,  p.  665.  *  Matthew  of  Paris,  p.  683. 

^  Joinville,  126.         *  De  Guignes'  Histoire  iles  Huns,  IV.,  177,  191. 

5  Ibid. ;  Abu-l-Faraj,  Hist.  Dynast.,  1663,  pp.  322,  324. 

*  Matthew  of  Paris,  p.  684.  "  Histoire  et  Chronique  du  roi  St.  Louis, 

par  Ch.  du  Fresne  Sr.  du  Conge,  Paris,  1668,  p.  28-128. 


486  EXPULSION  OF  THE  CRUSADERS.  [CHAP.  XV. 

such  severe  loss  among  the  troops  that  the  commander  of  the 

army  returned  to  France.     The  force  under  Edward  of  only 

1,000  men  alone  proceeded  and   landed   at  'Akka  in  1271. 

Prince  ^         The  reputation  and  daring  character  of  the  prince  soon  in- 

caiTp^aigns  in  crcascd  his  little  band  to  7,000  men ;  and  after  a  succession  of 

Lan?.°^^        desultory,    yet,    on    the   whole,   successful    expeditions  to  the 

interior,   during  which  his   bravery  was  frequently  sullied  by 

much  unnecessary  bloodshed  in  sacrificing  his  prisoners,  Edward 

returned  to  England,  after  making  a  truce  with  the  sovereign 

of  Egypt  for  ten  years.'     This  proved  to  be   the  last  effort 

made  in  the  cause,  for  another  crusade,  which  was  sanctioned 

by  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1276,  fell  to  the  ground. 

The  Franks  in      The   Franks   of  Palestine,    however,   instead   of  prudently 

bring  on        abstaining  from  aggression  at  the    moment  when  they  were 

another  ^ar.   (jgpgj^(jgj-^l-  ^^  j-\^q[j.  q^j^  resourccs ;  by  attacking  certain  Muslim 

merchants,  provoked  a  war,   which  was  fatal  to  their  cause. 

Tripoli  was  taken  by  the  Muslims  in    1289,"   and  two  years 

later,  after  a  bloody  siege,  'Akka  surrendered  to  them.     They 

soon  afterwards  obtained  possession  of  Jerusalem  and  the  rest 

A.D.  1291.      of  the  Holy  Land.'^     Syria  and  Palestine  have  ever  since  been 

The  Muslims  subjcct  to  the  rule  of  Muslim  princes,  and,  in  the  beginning  of 

p2elt?ne.        the  sixteenth  century,  they  were  united  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

From  that  time  those  regions  have  suffered  only  temporary 

convulsions    in   consequence   of  the  efforts  of  the   pashas   to 

become  independent  of  the  sultan,  to  whose  authority,  however, 

the  provinces  of  the  empire  have* always  reverted. 

Thus  terminated  a  desultory  and  desolating  warfare,  carried 
on  by  the  chivalry  of  Europe  for  more  than  two  centuries, 
without  securing  any  of  the  objects  for  which  they  contended. 
But  though  the  ends  were  not  gained,  good  has  resulted  ;  for  the 
expeditions  of  the  crusaders  have,  by  opening  new  fields  of 
inquiry,  been  the  means  of  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  the 

'  Annals  of  Waverley,  in  Gale,  vol.  II.,  p.  225  ;  Continuation  of  Matthew 
of  Paris,  859. 

^  Sanectus,  lib.  III.,  pars  12,  cap.  xx. ;  De  Guignes'  Hist,  des  Huns, 
livre  XXI. 

^  Sanectus,  lib.  III.,  pars  12,  cap.  xxii.,  xxiii.  ;  De  Guignes'  Histoire 
des  Huns,  livre  XXI.  ;  Hist,  of  the  Siege  of  'Akka,  in  Martenne,  Vit. 
Perip.  Amp.  Coll.,  vol.  I.,  p.  782. 


CHAP.  XV.]  POSITION  AND  LIMITS  OF  MONGOLIA.  487 

East,  and  thus  conferring  important  benefits  on  mankind  with 
respect  to  science  and  commerce. 

But  if  the  intercourse  with  Europeans  made  little  alteration 
in  the  social  state  of  Syria  and  Palestine  during  the  two 
centuries  of  cruel  warfare  to  which  these  provinces  had  been 
subjected,  most  important  changes  occurred  in  the  Muslim 
dominions  elsewhere,  both  with  respect  to  political  power  and 
religious  doctrine. 

The  changes  produced  in  matters  of  faith  were  far  more  The  Muslims 
permanent  in  their  influence  than  those  which  were  brought  becom^two 
about  by  the  sword ;  for,  in  the  sequel,  they  became  the  means  ^"'P*''^^- 
of  separating  the  Muslim  "world  into  the  Shi'ah  empire  of  Persia, 
and  the  Sunnie  empire  of  the  Osmanlis,  each  of  which  will 
require  a  brief  notice,    on  account   of  their   influence   upon 
western  Asia  and  eastern  Europe. 

The  superficies  of  the  plateau  of  Mongolia  is  very  similar  to  Limits  and 
that  of  Arabia,  and  the  habits  of  its  people  correspond  to  Mongolia!  '^ 
what  is  known  of  those  of  the  Kirgis  Kazaks,^  in  their  normal 
state.  The  plains  of  Mongolia  lie  between  the  Chinese  terri- 
tory in  about  27°  45'  N.  L.,  and  Siberia  in  52°  30'  N.L.,  and 
stretch  from  the  borders  of  Tartary  in  about  84°  E.  L.  to  those 
of  Mandshouria  in  122°  E.  L.,  giving  for  the  air  line,  in  the 
former  direction,  nearly  1,500  miles,  and  in  the  latter  about 
1,200.  Its  superficies  exceeds  1,200,000  geographical  square 
miles.  The  population  is,  however,  very  limited,  scarcely 
exceeding,  it  is  supposed,  3,000,000  souls. 

In  order  to  give  some  account  of  the  Turk  or  Tartar  branch  The 
of  the  Huns,  which  is  known  by  the  general  name  of  Mongols,  Huns°"^''^° 
the  Scythians  of  Herodotus,"  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  almost 
to  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  at  which  time  the  most 
remarkable  period  of  their  history  may  be  said  to  commence 
with  Genghis  Khan,  or  Yesoncay  or  Temiigin,  the  chief  of  some 
30,000  families,  who  was  then  in  his  fourteenth  year.     This 
prince  being  unable  to  defend  his  possessions  against  the  inroads 
of  the  Mongolian  khans,  a.h,  566,  sought  protection  from  Oungh,  A.  d.  ino. 
the  khan  of  the  Keraites,  and  the  Prester  John  of  Europeans,  who 

'  See  above,  pp.  9,  10. 

*  Lib.  I.,  cap  ciii. ;  .Teremiah,  chap.  V.,  v.  15,  VT.,  v.  1,  22,  23. 


488  EARLY  CONQUESTS  OF  GENGHIS  KHAN.  [CHAP,  Xy 

A.  D.  1175.     bestowed  his  daughter  on  his  guest,   raised  him  to  a  suitable 

Rise  of  rank,  and  gave  him  the  command  of  his  army,  with  which,  in 

KMn/^         two   pitched  battles,  Temiigm  defeated  the  allied  Mongolian 

khans,  who  had  conspired  against  him  and  his  father-in-law. 

A.  D,  1192.     Some  years  afterwards  he  fled  to  his  own  territories,  a.h.  588, 

being  either  justly  or  unjustly  suspected  of  plotting  against  his 

benefactor.     It  appears  that,  at  this  time,  he  rallied  round  him, 

in  addition  to  his  own  legitimate  followers,  many  of  the  tribes 

which  had  been  subject  to  Oungh  Khan ;  and  at  the  head  of 

these  forces  he  defeated  his  former  protector,  and  usurped  his 

a. D.  1202.     dominions,  a.h.  599. 

Projects  of  At  the  close  of  the  same  year,  having  succeeded  in  bringing 

Genghis  ,  ....  . 

Khan.  over  to  his  cause  the  principal  tribes  of  this  part  of  Asia,  he 

summoned  a  great  council  of  the  Mongol  and  Tartar  chiefs,  by 
whom  he  was  proclaimed  Khan  of  Khans,  i.  e.,  Genghis  Khan, 
which  name  he  henceforth  adopted,  instead  of  that  of  Temiigin. 

A. D.  1203.  He  next  defeated  the  Naimans  and  subjected  their  country; 
and  A.  H.  602,  he  declared  his  intention  of  invading  China,  as 

A.  D.  1205.  well  as  southern  Asia,  as  parts  of  the  world  which,  by  Divine 
appointment,  he  was  commissioned  to  conquer.  Following  in 
other  particulars  the  steps  of  his  Muslim  prototype  Miihammed, 
Genghis  Khan  promulgated  a  code  of  laws,  and  organized  his 
forces  into  bodies  of  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  and  tens  of 
thousands.'  The  advantages  of  this  formation  were  tested 
immediately  afterwards,  upon  a  rising  of  the  Mongol  chiefs 
against  his  authority  :  five  years  were  consumed  in  this  warfare 
before  he  was  free   to  undertake  the  projected  expedition  to 

A.D.  1210.     China,  which  took  place  a.  h.  607. 

His  first  and        Being  succcssful   in  this  campaign,  the  sovereign  of  China 

sions  of  China,  made  peacc  with,  and  bestowed  his  daughter  on  the  khan. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  latter  invaded  China  three  years 
later ;  and,  after  conquering  the  Kiptshak  territory,  he  again 
invaded  the  former,  and  added  the  northern  provinces  of  that 
empire  to  his  possessions  :  the  authority  of  the  chief  was  thus 

A.D.  1215.     extended  eastward  almost  to  Pekin.^ 

'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  674,  and  above,  p.  101. 

*  Ant.  Gaubil.,  Hist,  de  Gentchise  Khan,  pp.  23,  24  ;  Ibn  Shohnah,  ad 
an.  Ilijrah  611. 


CHAP.  XV.]        CENTRAL  ASIA  AND  KHORASAN  SUBDUED.  4S9 

Genghis  Khau  was  now  solicited  to  give  assistance  to  the  Gengis  KWn 
khaliph    of  Baghdad     against    Muhamnied    Kothbeddin,    the  Kharism. 
ruler  of  Kharism.     The  predecessors  of  this  prince  had  esta- 
blished a  powerful  monarchy  in  a  part  of  the  Seljuk  dominions, 
having  its  capital   at   Kharism  ;    and  some  ambassadors   and 
merchants  of  Genghis  Khan  having  been  murdered  in  this  ter- 
ritory, the  desired  occasion  for  hostilities  was  thus   afforded, 
A.H.  615.     Genghis   Khan    proceeded    towards    the   Jaxartes,  a.d.  1218. 
accompanied  by  his  four  sons,   and  a  prodigious  force.     An  He  takes 
undecided  battle  took  place  with  Muhammed  near  that  river ;  and^BdiS 
notwithstanding   which,    Transoxiana   was    subjected    in    the 
course  of  the  next  two  years,   and  Samarkand,  although  gar- 
risoned, it  is  said,  with  110,000  men,  fell  after  a  lengthened 
siege.     The    city    was   pillaged  by   the    conqueror,   who   put 
30,000  of  the  garrison   to  death.     Genghis  Khan,  continuing 
his  conquests,  then  advanced  to  Balkh,  a.  h.  618,   and  having  a.d.  1221. 
massacred  the  inhabitants  on  account   of  the  assistance  they 
had  given  to  the  son  of  Miihammed,  he  crossed  the  Paropa- 
misus,    stormed   Bamyan,    and   took   Tiiz,    Herat,   and    other 
cities,  overcoming  everything  like  opposition  with  extraordinary 
rapidity. 

During  the  years  619  and  620,  the  khan,  partly  by  means  a.d.  1222. 
of  his  lieutenants,  continued  his  successful  career ;  and  having  Conquests  and 
subdued  Great  Bokhara,    Kharism,   Khorasan,    Mesopotamia,  S-hil 
and  part  of  Azerbaijan,   he  advanced  beyond  the  Caspian  Sea  ^^°* 
to  the  banks  of  the  Wolga ;  after  which,  returning  southward, 
he  reduced  Kandahar,  Multan,  and  Ghizni.' 

During  this  expedition   he  held  a  diet  of  the  khans  and  A,  D.  1224. 
generals  of  his  empire,  as  well  as  of  the  ambassadors  of  con- 
quered countries,  whose  number  on  this  occasion,  it  is  said 
exceeded  500. 

After  this  display  of  his  power,  he  marched  against  China,  a.d.  1226-7. 
and  died  whilst  attacking  the  province  of  Kin,  then  in  his 
seventy-second  year,  a.  h.  623,  bequeathing  his  immense  pos- 
sessions to  his  assembled  sons  and  grandsons,  with  these  words : 
"  I  leave  you  the  mightiest  empire  in  the  world,  but  if  you 
wish  to  preserve  it,  be  united."  He  was  interred  with  great 
*  Ibu  Shohnah,  ad  an.  Hij.  623. 


490 


SUCCESSORS  OF  GENGHIS  KHAN. 


[chap.  XV. 


Character  of 

Genghis 
Khan 


Batiis  terri- 
tories in 
Europe.  . 


A.D.  1313. 


The  dynasty 
called  the 
White  Horde. 


pomp,  and  a  noble  monument  was  afterwards  erected  over  his 
grave :  trees  being  planted  by  those  who  visited  the  spot,  it 
became  one  of  the  finest  sepulchres  in  the  world.' 

In  addition  to  great  prudence,  a  penetrating  judgment,  and 
unconquerable  resolution,  Genghis  Khan  possessed  temperance, 
patience,  and  a  degree  of  fortitude  which  was  proof  against 
all  difficulties  ;  and  being  gifted  with  natural  eloquence  to  per- 
suade as  well  as  to  command,  he  had  all  the  qualities  requisite 
for  a  great  conqueror.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  was  bloody 
and  cruel ;  and  even  when  this  propensity  was  not  indulged, 
he  was  disposed  to  treat  his  enemies  with  insolence  and  rigour. 

Notwithstanding  the  dying  advice  of  Genghis  Khan,  his  ter- 
ritories, which  extended  westward  from  China  to  the  river 
Euphrates,  were,  like  those  of  Alexander,  after  a  little  time, 
divided  amongst  his  generals.  Of  these  the  two  principal  ruled 
over  the  Chinese  and  the  Mongols.  Another  had  Tiiran, 
Avhile  the  fourth  and  fifth  possessed  Persia  and  a  part  of  Europe. 

It  appears  that  during  the  lifetime  of  Genghis  Khan,  his 
grandson  Batii  carried  his  arms  across  the  frontiers  of  Ger- 
many, and  having  conquered  some  of  the  Sclavonian,  Turkish, 
and  Finnish  tribes,  he  made  the  princes  of  Russia  his  vassals. 
To  the  territories  thus  acquired,  the  principal  portion  of  which 
was  situated  between  the  rivers  Don  and  Wolga,  he  gave  the 
name  of  Kaptshak,  or  Kiptshak.  The  chiefs  Becke,  Meugku 
Timiir,  Talabugha,  and  Toktay,  continued  to  occupy  the  seat 
of  government  in  the  Crimea,  which  was  afterwards  known  as 
the  Golden  Camp ;  and  Hungary,  Poland,  and  even  Germany, 
suffered  from  their  ravages.  The  last  of  these  princes,  who 
made  himself  remarkable  by  the  abandonment  of  the  Arabian 
creed  for  that  of  Sabaism,  was  succeeded  by  the  Uzbek,  Mamay, 
and  the  third  successor  of  the  latter  was  Toktamish  Khan,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  White  Horde.  He  carried 
Moscow  by  storm,  and  ravaged  Bussia.  He  also  renewed  the 
treaties  with  the  Genoese  and  Venetians,  and  was  proceeding  to 
restore  the  ancient  power  of  the  Kiptshak,  when  Taimur  engaged 
in  battle  and  destroyed  his  forces  on  the  banks  of  the  Kama. 

'  Histoire  du  Grand  Genghis  Can,  1"^  Empereur  des  Anciens  Moguls  et 
Tartars,  «S;c.,  par  Sherif-ed-din,  traduite  par  Potisde  la  Croi.x  ;  Paris,  1710. 


CHAP.  XV.]  ORIGIN  AND  RISE  OF  TAMERLANE.  491 

Some  Tartar  chiefs  afterwards  gained  the  ascendant,  and  The  Crimea, 
maintained   themselves  in  the  Crimea,   on  the  Yaik,   and  at  geuiements  of 
Great  Serai,  one  of  them  assuming  the  title  of  Khan  of  the  ^'"^  Russian 

'  ^  _  provinces. 

Golden  Horde.  In  the  contests  which  followed,  the  Russian 
princes  began  gradually  to  gain  power,  and  the  war,  which 
proved  to  be  the  last  with  the  Golden  Horde,  was  brought  to 
a  close,  by  the  defeat  of  the  great  Khan  at  Oka  on  the  Don, 
near  Azov.  The  khanat  of  Astracan  was  afterwards  subjected, 
and  two  centuries  later  that  of  the  Crimea  was  added  by  the 
Empress  Catherine  to  her  territories :  thus,  in  1/74,  the  once- 
powerful  kingdom  of  Kiptshak  became  a  Russian  province. 

Persia  fell  to  Hulakii,  another  grandson  of  the  great  con-  Huiaku  aud 
queror ;  and  the  sou  of  Hulakii  extended  his  authority  over  o^overrPereia. 
the  Seljukian  princes  of  Anaddli.  Ghazan,  one  of  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  latter,  threw  off  his  allegiance  to  the  great  khan 
of  Tartary,  and  he  and  his  subjects  embraced  the  Muslim 
faith.  This,  however,  was  of  short  duration,  for  during  the 
reign  of  Aljapta  Khan,  the  eighth  from  Huiaku,  Persia  ceased 
to  be  a  state,  being  then  divided  among  several  petty  dynasties, 
one  of  which  possessed  Baghdad,  another  Trak,  and  a  third 
Shiraz ;  and  thus  it  continued  till  there  appeared  on  the 
theatre  of  the  world  a  conqueror  who  eclipsed  the  warlike 
achievements  of  his  ancestor  Genghis  Khan. 

This  was  Taimiir-Bec,  or  Taimiir-Lenk  (the  lame),  the 
Tamerlane  of  Europeans,  under  whom  the  tide  of  conquest 
flowed  towards  that  part  of  the  world,  which  comes  more  par- 
ticularly within  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

This  prince,   called  by  Eastern  writers  the   fortunate,   the  Taimiir 
axis  of  the  faith,   and   the   conqueror  of  the  world,    was    offrom^^eughis 
Mongol   origin,    being   descended    in   the   female    line   from^*'^"- 
Genghis    Khan.'     He   quitted   Turkistan    in    his  twenty-fifth 
year  to  share  in  the  contests  consequent  on  the  division  of  the 
Persian  empire  into  separate  kingdoms.     Having  declared  war 
against  the  emir  Husein,   chief  of  Khorasan,   in   consequence 
of  the  treachery  of  this  prince,  who  had  previously  been  his 
dearest  friend,  and  whose  sister  he  had  married,  Taimiir  cap- a.d.  ises. 

'  Preface  to  Sherif-ed-din  Ali's  Historj'  of  Timiir  Bee,  by  Mons.  Petis  de 
la  Croix. 


492     TAIMUR  SUBJECTS  PART  OF  PERSIA  AND  ARMENIA.  [cHAP.  XV. 

tured  the  town  of  Nakhshab,  and  subsequently  defeated  Husein 
himself  near  Balkh  ;^  being  afterwards  declared  khan  of  Ju- 
A.  D.  13G9.     gatai,  Samarkand  became  his  capital.^ 

Taimiir  Some  cause  of  hostility  having  arisen  against  the  khan  of 

Turkisu'in.  Khinda,  war  was  declared ;  and  in  five  well-contested  campaigns, 
not  only  was  the  territory  of  that  khan  subjected,  but  also 
the  part  of  Siberia  and  Great  Tartary,  now  called  Turkistan.^ 

These  successes,  by  feeding  the  ambition  of  Taimiir,  did  but 
prepare  the  way  for  greater  enterprises ;  for,  about  this  period, 
he  seems  to  have  formed  the.  design  of  making  conquests 
exceeding  those  by  which,  a  little  more  than  a  century  pre- 
viously, his  ancestor  had  astonished  the  eastern  world. 
Takes  the  The    new   operations    commenced   in   Khorasan    and    the 

town  of  Herat.  g^^JQj^-j-j-jg  ^^^^  q£  Persia.     Herat  having  been  taken  by  storm, 

and  the  rest  of  the  towns  and  fortresses  having  surrendered 
without  resistance,  the  whole  of  the  kingdom  became  subjected 
to  the  authority  of  Taimiir.*  Southern  Persia  was  now 
attacked,  and  subsequently  Mazanderan  and  the  other  pro- 
vinces lying  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
The  rest  of  the  kingdom  followed.^  Armenia  offered  no  re- 
sistance, but  Van,  and  the  surrounding  country,  as  well  as 
EeTOit  St  Diyar  Bekr,  were  defended  for  a  time.''  A  revolt  at  Ispahan 
imssacre^of  was  puuishcd  by  the  massacre  of  70,000  persons,  whose  heads 
ti!£  people  ^gpg  piled  on  the  walls  by  the  orders  of  Taimiir,  each  soldier 
having  been  required  to  furnish  a  certain  number.  Many, 
however,  unwilling,  it  is  said,  to  kill  the  Muslims,  bought  heads 
of  the  executioner,  and  carried  them  as  if  cut  off  by  them- 
selves, paying  at  first  the  high  price  of  twenty  Copaghi  dinars 
per  head ;  but  when  the  required  number  was  nearly  obtained, 
their  price  fell  to  half  a  dinar,  until  at  length  they  found  no 
purchasers.' 

'  Ilistoire  de  TimurBec,  par  Sherif-ed-din,  traduite  parPetis  de  la  Croix; 
Paris,  1722,  liv.  I.,  cliap.  xv.,  xvi. 

*  Ibid.,  liv.  II.,  cli.  i.,  ii.  "  Ibid.,  chap.  xix. 

*  Ibid.,  chap,  xxx.-xxxiv.  *  Ibid.,  chap,  xxxvii.-xl. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  Iviii.,  lix. 

'  Ibid.,  chap.  Ix.  Schildberger,  in  his  Wuiiderbarliche  und  Kurzweilige 
Gescliichte,  &c.,  Frankfurt-ou-the-Maine,  1554,  says,  when  Ta'imur  took 
Ispahan,  he  ordered  about  7,000  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  to  be 
trodden  down  by  his  cavalry. 


CHAP.  XV.]       TAIMtJll's  CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  THE  KIPTSllAKS.         493 

Taimilr  now  turned  his  arms  against  the  Kiptshak.     De-  TaVmur's 
parting  from  the  Gihon   ( Jaxartes),   which  he  crossed  on   a  campaign 
bridge   of  boats,    and    passing   Kara-suma,    he   continued   his  T^ok't'amisii. 
march  in  a  northerly  direction  as  far  as  the  great  range  of  the  a.d.  1389. 
Altai.     Here  he   turned   north-west,   and   crossed    the    upper 
part  of  the  Tobol  river  in  Siberia ;  from  thence  proceeding 
westward,  he  crossed  the  Ural  mountains,  and  eventually  drew 
up  his  forces  on  the  Biclaya,  an  affluent  of  the  Wolga.     Here  ^■^-  i^^o. 
he  encountered,  and  totally  defeated,  the  army  of  his  opponent 
Toktamish,  who  had  hastened  thither  from  Orenberg  to  meet 
him.^ 

Leaving  the  prosecution  of  the  war  to  his  lieutenants,  Ta'imur 
returned  to  Samarkand ;  but,   in   the  following  year,  he  took  a.d.  1392. 
the  field,   and  engaged  in  a  war  which  continued  during  five 
years.     Disturbances  also  broke  out  at  this  period  in  northern  Taimiir 
Persia,   which    were    quelled    by  his  generals,   who    exercised  southern 
the  greatest  cruelties   on  the  people.     Taimur  now  marched  takeT'^° 
towards  southern  Persia,   and  entered  Fars  through  Luristan.  ^^s^^^^^- 
Taking   Shiraz    and   Kal'ahssefid    on    the  way  he   proceeded 
towards  Baghdad,  which  surrendered  without  resistance.     On 
this  occasion  his  troops  swam  across  the  Tigris,  and  thereby 
impressed    the    inhabitants   with    an   opinion    that  they   were 
invincible.     Ahmed/  the  khaliph  of  Baghdad,   who  had  fled 
on  his  approach,  was  overtaken  by  Taimiir's  generals  before 
he   reached    the  Euphrates,    and   being   defeated,  he  lefl   his 
harem  and  his  sons  in  the  possession  of  the  conquerors.     The 
scholars  and  artists  of  Baghdad  were  removed  to  Samarkand, 
and  as  a   means  of  preserving  discipline  amongst  his  troops, 
Taimur  caused  the  wine   found  in  that   city  to  be  thrown  into 
the  Tigris.'  a.d.  1392. 

His  operations  were  now  directed  towards  Upper  Mesopo-  Subjection  of 
tamia.     Passing  the  Tigris  at  Tekrit,  which  he  took  by  storm  Me^^tamia, 
after  a  most  obstinate  defence,  he  proceeded  towards  Diyar '^^^'-'"''^  *'*^- 
Bekr,  and  having  plundered  the  town  he  continued  his  march 
to  Edessa;    but  he  returned  subsequently  to   Mardin,   being 

'  Histoire  de  Timur  Bee.  par  Sherif-ed-din,  trad,   par  Potis  de  la  Croix, 
livre  III.,  cliap.  x-xiv.  *  Ibid.,  cliap.  xvii.,  six.,  xxi.,  xxii,,  xxiv.,  xxx. 

^  Ibid.,  liv.  III.,  chap,  xxxii. 


494  INVASION  OF  INDIA,   CAPTURE  OF  DELHI,  ETC.      [cHAP.   XV. 

unwilling  to  leave  an  unsubdued  foe  in  his  rear.     He  laid  siege 
to  this  place   ineffectually,  but  the  prince  of  Mardin  having 
submitted,  Taimiir  imposed  the  usual  annual  tribute ;  and  pro- 
ceeding by  Bitlis  through  part  of  Armenia  and  Georgia,  he 
fought  a  great  battle  with  the  khan  of  Kiptshak  on  the  river 
Terek.^     Having  subjected  this  territory  he  advanced  as  far  as 
Moscow,^  from  whence  he  returned  to  Samarkand,  to  prepare 
for  the  invasion  of  India.^ 
Taimur  passes      After  receiving   congratulatory  embassies   on  the   occasion 
traverses  the    froui    many  of  the    countries  of  the   east,   Taimur   marched 
Panj-ab.         agaiust  Mahmiid,  who  had  recently  usurped  the  empire  of  the 
A.  D.  1398.     late  monarch  of  India,  Firus-shah.     Traversing  the  lower  part 
of  the  Hindu  Kiish,  towards  its  western  extremity,  he  passed 
the  Indus,   and  proceeded   across  the  Panj-ab,  nearly  in  the 
line  followed  by   Alexander    the    Great ;   from   thence,   after 
putting  to  death  100,000  prisoners  that  his  Tartar  forces  might 
Captnreof      be  Unencumbered,   the  march  was  continued  towards  Delhi.'* 
return  to         The  army  of  the   Indian   monarch   was  completely  defeated 
Samarkand,     ^^^^j,  ^.j^-g  ^jj^^   ^-^q  immense  treasures  of  which   fell  into  the 

hands  of  the  conqueror;   and   Taimur  pursued  the  fugitive, 
Mahmud,  almost  to  the  banks   of  the  Ganges.     Having  esta- 
blished his  authority  in  the  country,  he  returned  to  Samarkand 
before  the  expiration  of  the  year.^ 
Campaigns  in       His  assistauce  being  solicited  against  Mirza  Miran  Shah,  the 
Auadoii,' and    luuatic  govcmor   of  Georgia,  whose  conduct  had  excited  his 
^"^'  subjects  to  revolt,  Taimur  again  took   the  field,  and  entering 

Georgia,  he  razed  the  temples,  ravaged  the  country,  and  took 
the  towns  and  fortresses.  The  haughty  conduct  of  Bajazet, 
the  Turkish  sultan,  having  excited  his  displeasure,  Taimur 
inarched  into  Anaddli,  when  Si'vas  was  taken  after  a  siege  of 
eighteen  days.  The  'Osmanli  inhabitants  appear  to  have  been 
spared  on  this  occasion,  but  the  conqueror  indulged  his  savage 
cruelty  by  burying  4,000  of  the  Christian  defenders  alive." 

'  Hist,   de  Tiiuur  Bee,  par  Sherif-ed-din,  trad,  par  Petis  de  la  Croix, 
liv.  III.,  chap,  xxxiii.,  xxxv.,  xxxvi.,  1.,  li.,  liii. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  Iv.  ^  Ibid.,  chap,  Ixv. 

*  Ibid.,  livre  IV.,  chap,  i.-xx.  *  Ibid.,  chap,  xx.-xxxix. 
Ibid.,  liv.  v.,  chap.  xv. 


CHAP.  XV.]    CAFFURE  OF  ALEPPO,  DAMASCUS,  AND  BAGHDAD.       495 

From    Si'vas,    Taiuiur   proceeded    into   Syria    against   the  Conquests  of 
Egyptian  sultan  Ferruj.     'Ain-tab,  which  was  feebly  defended,  syria. 
surrendered  on  his  approach,'  when,  continuing  his  march,  he 
routed  the  enemy  near  Aleppo.     The  Tartars  entered  the  city 
with  the  flying  Egyptians,  and  plunder,  with  much  bloodshed, 
ensued."     Leaving  Aleppo,   he   proceeded   against,  and   took 
Emessa;  he  also  took  Ba'albek,  which,  according  to  Sherif-ed- 
di'n,  was  built  by  Solomon.^     Damascus  was  taken  soon  after- 
wards, and  its  workmen  carried  into  Turkistan."     Advancing 
towards  Baghdad,  Taimiir  constructed,  at  Mosul,  a  bridge  over 
the  Tigris,  which  the  whole  of  the  army  crossed  in  a  week.  a.  d.  1402. 
The  inhabitants  of  Baghdad,  who  had  revolted  in  favour  of  Revolt  of 

^  '  •11  caghdad  and 

the  Egvptian  monarch,  were  cruelly  punished ;  90,000  human  punishment  of 
heads  having,  it  is  said,  been  piled  in  heaps  in  the  town.^  ^  ^  ^^°^  ^' 

Taimiir  was  now  to  meet  a  more  formidable  enemy  in 
Bajazet.  Assembling  his  forces  near  Aleppo  he  crossed  the 
great  range  of  the  Taurus,  and  penetrating  into  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor,  he  found  the  Turkish  sultan  near  Angora,  at  the 
head  of  a  well-appointed  army,  but  inferior  in  strength  to  his  own. 

Bajazet,  who  had  already  filled  Europe  with  the  terror  of  his 
name,  had  been  lately  besieging  Erzingan :  ^  he  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  overcome  the  warriors  of  Hungary,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, and  now  he  did  not  hesitate  to  meet  the  Tartars  of  Taimiir. 

A  fearfully  bloody  and  protracted  struggle  at  length,  how- 
ever, terminated  in  the  route  of  the  'Osmanlis,  and  the  capture 
of  sultan  Bajazet.''     After  taking  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  and  Taimiir 
ravaging  the  country,   Taimiir  returned  to  Samarkand ;  ®  but  captures 
he  died  not  long  afterwards,   in  his  seventy-first  year,  while  at  Jj,J^^J"^' °'-'^'' 
the  head  of  an  expedition  proceeding  against  China. ^ 

The  sovereign  of  the  Tartars  and  Mongols  has,  with  much 
reason,  been  compared  with  the  great  warrior  of  Macedon,  who  A-  D.  1405. 

'  Histoire  de  Timur  Bee,  par  Sherif-ed-din,  trad,  par  Petis  de  la  Croix, 
liv.  v.,  chap.  xix. 

*  Ibid.,  chap.  xx.  ^  Ibid.,  chap,  xxiii, 

*  Ibid.,  chap,  xxvii.  *  Ibid.,  chap,  xxxi.,  xxxii. 
®  Ibid.,  chap,  xxxiv. 

"  Ibid.,   chap.  Ivi.,  compared  with  Plans  Schiklberger's  Wunderbarliche 
und  kurzweilige  Geschichte,  &c.     4to.     Frankfurt-on-the-Maine,  1554. 
"  Ibid.,  liv.  VI.,  chap.  xxiv.  ^  Ibid.,  chap.  xxx. 


496 


TAIMUR  AND  ALEXANDER  COMPARED.  [cHAP.  XV. 


Taimur 
compared 
■with 

Alexander 
the  Great. 


TaiTBTir's' 
saceessors. 


Persia,  &c., 
retained  by 
his  son. 


A.D.  l.")02. 


almost  eighteen  centuries  before,  traversed  the  steppes  of  Tartary 
and  the  plains  of  India.  But,  if  the  rise  of  Taimiir,  and  his 
subsequent  success,  appear  more  surprising  than  the  brilliant 
career  of  a  conqueror,  who  had  the  inheritance  of  a  kingdom 
as  the  basis  of  his  great  achievements,  it  must  be  remembered, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  Alexander  had  to  contend  with  well- 
organized  and  mighty  empires,  whilst  the  Asiatic  leader  was 
almost  always  engaged  with  undisciplined  hordes,  governed  by 
chiefs  who  were,  in  most  instances,  hostile  to  one  another. 

Great  atrocities  marked  the  career  of  Taimur,  while  such 
deviations  from  the  laws  of  humanity  were  the  exceptions  in 
Alexander's  course.  In  many  particulars,  however,  the  con- 
querors were  alike.  An  organized  plan  was  pursued  by  each, 
and  the  territories  subjected  differed  but  little  in  extent.  Both 
protected  and  encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  were 
remarkable  for  the  judicious  organizations  of  their  territories. 
The  extension  of  Eastern  commerce  shows  the  enlarged  mind  of 
the  European  conqueror,  whilst  the  Tufukat,  or  Code  of  Laws,^ 
distinguished  the  later  monarch  of  the  Eastern  world. 

Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Asia  jNIinor,  Armenia,  and  the  Kipt- 
shak,  were  lost  almost  immediately  after  the  death  of  Taimiir, 
but  the  rest  of  the  accumulated  territories  of  the  sultan  were 
divided  and  shared  among  his  thirty-six  sons  and  grandsons 
and  their  competitors.  His  descendants  were  the  prmces,  de- 
signated the  Great  Moguls,  who  reigned  over  northern  India 
for  about  three  centuries. 

Shah  Bokh,  his  son,  retained  Transoxiana,  Tartary,  Khorasan, 
and  Persia.  The  three  first  provinces  were  held  by  his  descend- 
ants" till  these  were  expelled  by  the  Uzbecks  at  a  later  period ; 
but  Persia,  and  the  provinces  lying  to  the  westward,  were  con- 
tested by  two  races  of  Turkomans,  the  one  called  the  black 
sheep,  the  other  the  white  sheep.  The  latter  race,  however, 
under  Uzun  Hasan,  acquired  the  ascendancy  over  the  other 
tribe,  and  obtained  the  greater  part  of  Persia. 

The  descendants  of  Uzun  contended  for  his  extensive  terri- 
tories till  these   were  themselves  supplanted  by  Isma'il  Shah, 

'  Instituts  Politique^  et  Militaires  do  Tamerlan.     Longles,  Paris,  1787. 
-  Arabshali,  Coiitiiniatioii  of  Hist.  Timur,  p.  116. 


CHAP.  XV.]  NADIR  ShXh's  SUCCESSES.  497 

the  first  of  the  Sophi  dynasty.     This  prince,  during  the  greater  The  sophi 
part  of  his  reign,  was  almost  entirely  occupied  in  subduing  the  "^"^  ^" 
various   provinces  of  the  empire;'    but,  by  establishing  the 
Shi'ah  faith  in  his  kingdom,   he  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
enmity  which  has  become  national  between  the  Persians  and 
the  Turks. 

Notwithstanding  the  wars  with  the  Uzbeks  on  one  side,  and  Nadir  Sh^ 
the  Turks  on  the  other,  the  Persian  monarchy  was  consolidated  successors, 
during  the  reign  of  Isma  iTs  successor.  Shah  Tamasp,  and  the 
dynasty"  continued  unbroken  till  the  accession  of  Nadir  Shah.   a.d.  i736. 

This    daring   and    talented  leader,  who  as   the  general  of 
'Abbas  III.  had  distinguished  himself  against  the  Turks,^  having 
established  a  rigid  system  of  discipline  in  the  army,  conquered 
Afghanistan  and  Kandahar.     After  these  successes  he  pene- 
trated into  the  Indian  territories  as  far  as  Delhi,  from  whence  , 
he  returned  with  booty  ^  valued  at  thirty-two  millions  of  pounds 
sterling.     His  death  was  followed  by  dissensions  which  caused 
the  loss  of  the  Afghan  kingdom,   but  the  various  competitors  a.d.  1747. 
at  length   acknowledged  the   authority  of  Kerim  Khan,  who^.  D.  1759. 
held  the  supreme  power,   and  ruled  equitably  and  mildly  till 
his  death.     Russia  took  advantage  of  the  contests  which  fol- A.D.  1779. 
lowed  the  decease  of  Kerim  Khan  to  take  certain  portions  of 
the  Persian  territory  under  her  protection.     The  sovereignty  a.d.  1 783. 
was  at  length  acquired  by  the  reigning  dynasty,  the  Kajar,  the  A.D.  i789. 
second  prince  of  which  was  Futteh  'All  Shah,  the  grandfather  a.d.  1796.; 
of  the  present  sovereign.  Shah  Miihammed. 

Reverting  now  to  the  Seljukians:  after  the  time  of  Malik 
Shah  their  territories  in  Anaddli  were  divided  into  a  great 
many  small  districts,  as  Kara-si,  Sarii-Khan,  Aidin,  &c.,  which, 
under  the  'Osmanlis,  still  retain  their  names  and  their  limits.^ 

This  people,   the  third  branch  which  descended  from  the  Origin  of  the 
original  Turks,  continued   for  some  time   unknown,  but  they  branch  of 
became  in  the  sequel  more  important  than  either  the  Turkoman  ^urks. 
or  Tartar  races.     Their   history  may  be    said  to  have  com- 
menced with   Kayf,  a  chief  of  Khorasan,  who  fled  from  the 

'  Texeira,  cap.  XLVIII.,  p.  339. 

^  Hanway,  Eevolut.  Pers.,  vol.  IV.,  p.  40.  ^  Ibid.,  pp.  112,  121. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  134,  150.  *  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  309,  310,  314. 

VOL.  II.  2  K 


498  FOUNDATION  OF  THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.        [cHAP.  XV, 

A.D.  1234,  arms  of  Genghis  Khan,  a.h.  621,  and  conducted  50,000  of  his 
tribe  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Erzingan.  Three  sous  of  this 
prince,  and  their  followers,  afterwards  returned  to  Turkistan ; 
but  the  fourth,  Ertoghrul,  continued  in  the  same  place,  and 
obtained  of  his  countryman,  'Ala-ed-dm,  the  Seljuk  sultan  of 
Kdniyeh,  the  small  track  of  Sultan  Oiii,  as  a  fief  ^     Ertoghrul 

A.D.  128S.  died  A.H.  687,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  'Osman,  who 
founded  the  Turkish  empire.  A  dream  that  a  tree  grew  out  of 
his  lap  and  overshadowed  the  earth  led,  it  is  said,  to  his  bril- 

Successof       liant  career,     The  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Melangena,  now 

first  Suitiin  of  Kara  Hisar,  was  his  earliest  achievement ;   Nice  and  Briisah 

the  Tnrt.:.  foUowcd  ;  aud  at  a  later  period  he  even  beleaguered  Constanti- 
nople." Urklan,  his  son  and  successor,  became  independent  of 
.  the  Seljukian  sultan  of  Koniyeh,  and  his  reign  was  rendered 
remarkable  by  the  introduction  of  coined  money,  and  likewise 
by  the  formation  of  the  corps  of  Janizaries.^  The  advantages 
of  this   organization  soon   became  manifest.     He   forced  the 

A.  D.  1330.  Emperor  Andronicus  to  take  refuge  under  the  walls  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  he  also  conquered  Bithynia,  and  the  greater  part 
of  Mysia.  Subsequently,  the  Asiatic  Greek  provinces  were 
subjected,  JNicoea  became  the  capital  of  Urklan,  and  Gallipoli 

A.D.  1333.     was  also  taken.^ 

Conquests  of        Murad  or  Amurad  succeeded  Urklan,  and  Adrianople  being 
u^ni  ura  •  ^^].gj-j    ^^yQ  years  later,   it  became   his  capital.     This  brought 

A.D.  1359.  ^         n        "  -rr  1  •  i        r\  n?i 

A.D.  1.361.  Oil  the  first  European  league  against  the  Ottomans.  Ihe 
A.D.  1363.  Hungarians,  led  by  their  king,  and  assisted  by  the  Bosnians, 
Servians,  and  Wallachians,  crossed  the  Balkan ;  but  being 
signally  defeated  by  Murad,  near  Adrianople,  the  greater  part 
of  what  is  now  called  European  Turkey  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  conqueror. 
A.D.  1386.  At  a  later  period  he  carried  his  arms  into  Asia,  where  a 
victory  gained  near  Kdniyeh,  led  to  the  subjection  of  'Ala-ed-din, 
the  Seljukian  prince  of  Karamania.     His  career  was  tenni- 

'  For  this  track,  see  vol.  I.,  p.  321. 
General  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  from  the  beginning  of  the  Nation,  by  Richard 
Knollys,  O.xford,  1610,  pp.  142,  143,  161. 
^  Yeni-clieri,  or  the  "  new  troops." 
*  General  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  &.c.,  by  Richard  Knollys,  p.  18S. 


CHAP.  XV.]      sultXn  bayazid  extends  his  empire.  499 

nated  three  years  later  by  tlie  dagger  of  an  assassin,  after  he 
had  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  confederate  Hungarians, 
Poles,  &c.,  near  Kossova.' 

Bayazid  (Bajazet),  his  successor,   overran  Greece,  and  ex-suiirmMayazid 
tended  his  dominions   towards   the   south-eastern  provinces  of  gJJ^plJ.'^^  ^'^ 
Germany,  as  well  as  over  the  Seljukian  principalities  in  Asia,  a.d.  isso. 
with  such   rapidity,  that   he   gained   the  name  of  Lightning 
(Ilderim).^     He  was  attacking  Constantinople  for  the  second 
time,  w^hen  he  was   called   to  defend  his  possessions  in  Asia 
against  the  famous  Taimiir. 

The  fatal  battle   already  mentioned,  which  took  place  near  Temporary 
Angora,  led  to  the  re-establishment  of  the  Seljukian  princes  in  tl^e  seij'ukians. 
Asia,  and  also  to  a  series  of  contests  for  the  succession  amongst 
the  three  sons  of  Bayazid,  which,  after  an  interregnum  of  nearly 
twelve  years,  ended  in  favour  of  Miihammed  I.,  who  regained  a.d.  uis. 
the  Asiatic  territories  by  expelling  the  Seljukians  from  Kara- 
mania. 

Murad  II.,  his  successor,  though  loving  and  seeking  the  quiet  Success  of 

I,  1        ,  •  ,  1         .  i  •  J 1  1   •  Sultan  Mur^ 

01  peace  and  retirement,  was  almost  incessantly  engaged  in  wars,  n. 
partly  in  Asia  Minor,  but  chiefly  in  Greece  and  Thessaly,  and  a.  d.  1422. 
subsequently  with  the  Hungarians,  who  were  defeated  in  a  great 
battle  near  Vascape  (Varna) .^ 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Greece  was  subdued  by  Murad ;  but  the 
prince  of  Epirus,  the  well-known  Scanderbeg,  maintained   his 
province  by  his  fertile  military  genius  and  great  intrepidity.* 
The  reign  of  Miihammed  II.  commenced  A.  h.  855,  and  became 
memorable  b^  :he  overthrow  of  the  Greek  empire.     Having 
taken   Bulgaria  and  the  fortresses  of  Sophia,   Rutschuk,  and 
Silistria,   the  Turks  commenced   making  preparations  for  the 
siege  of  Constantinople.     The  fall  of  the  splendid  capital  of  Use  of 
Constantine  took  place  after  a  resistance  of  fifty-three  days,  and  Muhaiumed 
it  was  accelerated  by  the  use  of  siege  artillery  of  vast  calibre.  constS-"^ 
The  employment  of  an   explosive    power    had   been    already  "°p^^-' 
known,   according  to  the   Turks,  for  some  centuries.     Their 
account   states    that   the    castle   of   Alexandria   was    reduced 

'  General  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  &c.,  by  Richard  Knollys,  pp.  1S9-201. 
''  Ibid.,  pp.  203-211.  =*  Ibid.,  pp.  296,  297. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  315,  316. 

2  K  2 


First  use  of 
gunpowder. 


500    USE  OF  SIEGE  ARTILLERY  AGAINST  CONSTANTINOPLE.  [cHAP.  XV, 

A.  H.  244,  245,  by  means  of  a  kind  of  gun,  which  had  been 
excavated  in  the  rock.^  Among  the  warlike  machines  prepared 
for  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  was  one  of  those  gigantic  pieces 
of  ordnance  which  still  defend  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles. 
This  immense  weapon  of  destruction,  which,  by  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder,  threw  a  stone  ball  of  100  pounds  weight, 
was  cast  at  Adrianople  under  the  superintendence  of  a  rayah, 
and  being  transported  from  thence  by  150  yoke  of  oxen,  it 
was  placed  in  battery  before  the  walls  of  Constantinople.' 

The  province  of  Servia,  and  the  city  of  Otranto,  in  Italy, 
were  also  added  to  the  Turkish  dominions  during  the  reigu  of 
Miihammed  ;  but  his  successor,  Bayazid  II.,  added  nothing  to 
the  extent  of  the  empire.  During  the  reign,  however,  of  the 
next  monarch,  Selim  I.,  which  proved  to  be  short  and  cruel, 
though  glorious,  a  part  of  Persia,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  were  sub- 
jected.^ 

Sultan  Suleiman  succeeded  and  commenced  his  career  by 
taking  Belgrade  from  the  knights  of  St.  John  ;  he  subsequently 
captured  Buda  ;  after  which,  having  defeated  Lewis,  king  of 
Hungary,  he  overran  his  kingdom,  and  advanced  to  the  gates 
of  Vienna.  He  was  compelled,  however,  to  raise  the  siege  of 
that  city ;  but  in  1562,  Charles  V.  and  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
ceded  to  Suleiman  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  and  paid  him 
a  tribute  of  30,000  ducats.  The  successes  of  this  prince  were 
not  confined  to  his  land  forces  :  his  navv,  then  the  finest  in  the 
world,  participated  largely  in  them.  One  of  his  fleets  scoured 
the  coasts  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  and  another  was  floated 
on  the  Bed  Sea.  The  timber  for  its  construction  being  cut  in 
from^th?Red  the  forcsts  of  Cilicia,  was  transported  from  the  port  of  Adalia 
Sea  to  India.  ^^  Pelusium,  and  from  thence  carried  up  the  Nile  to  Cairo. 
Here  it  was  prepared  in  frame,  and  M'hen  ready  to  be  put 
together  and  floated,  the  whole  equipment,  including  cordage, 
guns,  anchors,   provisions,   &c.,  was  transported  on  camels  to 


A.  D.  1512. 


Conquests  of 
Sultan 
Suleiman  in 
Europe. 


A.D.  1.529. 


Suleiman's 


*  An  officer  of  Artillery,  the  Ka'ia  Bei  of  the  Piisha  of  Widdin,  read  tliis 
circumstance  to  the  Author,  from  tiie  books  of  Acklat  Minoree,  and  Halet 
Tary. 

*  General  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  &c.,  by  Robert  Knollys,  p.  343. 
»  Ibid.,  pp.  517,  o26,  530,  531. 


CHAP.  XV.]    SULEIMAN  RETURNS  FROM  HIS  INDIAN  EXPEDITION.     .501 

Suez  for  this  purpose.  Seventy-five  large  ships,  besides  smaller 
vessels,  being;  launched,^  Suleiman's  admiral  sailed  down  the 
Red  Sea  to  Tor,  Jiddah,  Camaran,  and  'Aden,  from  whence  he 
proceeded  through  the  Indian  Ocean  to  attack  the  Portuguese 
at  the  island  of  Diu,  in  the  gulf  of  Cambay ;  but  although  he 
had  sixty-two  galleys,  with  a  number  of  smaller  vessels,  and 
upwards  of  20,000  men  in  addition  to  the  fleet  and  army  of  the 
king  of  Cambago,  he  failed  in  the  attack,  and  retreated,  leaving 
his  tents,  artillery,  and  1,000  wounded  men.  After  this  dis- 
comfiture he  returned  to  'Aden.^ 

In  the  economy  of  his  government,  Suleiman  appears  to  have  Military  and 
followed  the  examples  of  the  earlier  khaliphs,  particularly  those  ^/Jq  ^orgamza- 
of  'Omar  and  'Abd-el-'Aziz,  in  regulating  most  judiciously  the  Suleiman. 
civil,  religious,  and  military  polity  of  the  empire.     Poetry,  as 
well  as  the   arts  and  sciences,  were  also   encouraged,  and  the 
laws  concerning  property  were  wisely  established.     Suleiman 
was  the  most  distinguished  of  the  'Osmanli  Sultans,  and  wasA.D.  i56(. 
deservedly  surnamed  the  Great. 

During  the  reign  of  Selim  II.  who  succeeded  him,  Yemen  Seiim  ii.  con- 
and  Cyprus  were  added  to   the  Turkish  dominions,   and  the  an^Cyprus. 
Turkish  navy  was  superior  to  the  united  Christian  fleets  in  the 
Mediterranean.     On  the  establishment  of  peace  in  Europe,  the 
Sultan  commenced  a  canal  to  unite  the  river  Don  and   the 
Wolga. 

Murad  III.,  or  Amurad,  the  son  of  Selim,  again  increased  Georgia  ana 
the  Turkish  territories  by  the  acquisition  of  Georgia,  Daghestan,  subdued?'^ 
&c.     His  troops  having  afterwards  crossed  the   Caucasus  to  a.  d.  1574. 
support  the  khan  of  the  Crimea,  they  made  their  way  through 
Southern  Russia  and  Bessarabia  to  Constantinople,  having  in 
fact,  perhaps  for  the  only  time  in  history,  rounded  the  Black 
Sea.     During  this  reign  diplomatic  relations  were  established 
with  the  principal  nations  of  Europe,  and  a  commercial  treaty  Political  and 
with  England  was  concluded  by  Edward  Berton.     This  formed  Jei™?ons"^ 
the  basis  of  the  existing  friendly  and   advantageous  mercantile  ^^i^fjl' '/he  rest 
relations  of  this  country  with  Turkey.  of  Europe. 

Sultan  Muhammed  III.,  on  his  accession,  found  himself  at 

'  General  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  &c.,  by  Richard  Knollys,  j).  670. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  676,  compared  with  Maflaei;  Indica,  pars  II.,  lib.  II..  cap.  xv. 


502  FORMER  EXTENT  OF  THE  TURKISH  EMPIRE.       [cHAP.  XV. 

Extent  of  the  the  head  of  a  more  extensive  empire  than  that  under  Justinian  ; 

dominLns  in    foF,  including  the  tributar}^  principalities  of  Moldavia,  Walla- 

Mfihammed     ^^^"^j  Ragusa,  and  the  khanat  of  the  Crimea,  it  extended  from 

^i^-  Barbary  northward  to  Poland,  and  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  east- 

ward to  the  extremity  of  Arabia.'     A  rebellion  in  Asia,  sup- 

A.D.  1C03.  ported  by  Persia,  and  some  reverses  in  Hungary,  caused  a 
diminution  of  the  Turkish  power  in  the  next  reign,  that  of 

A.  D.  1623.  Sultan  Ahmed.  Mustafa  I.,  'Osraan  II.,  Mustafa  II.,  and 
Murad  IV.,  were  the  succeeding  sultans.  The  reign  of  the 
last,  which  commenced  at  twelve  years  of  age,  was  in  the  begin- 
ning unfortunate  for  Turkey.     Asia  Minor  was  ravaged,  Bagh- 

A.D.  1C24.  dad  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  and  150  vessels,  manned  by 
Cossacks,  appeared  even  before  the  walls  of  the  seraglio.^  But 
towards  its  close  Baghdad  and  most  of  the  Asiatic  provinces 
were  recovered.  Ibrahim  I.,  a  prince  given  up  to  luxury,  suc- 
ceeded, and  perished  during  a  revolt  of  the  Janizaries.  Mii- 
hammed  IV.,  who  followed,  lost  the  greater  part  of  Hungary 
to  the  Imperialists,  and  was  afterwards  deposed.^ 

Turkey  was  from  this  time  in  closer  contact  with  the  prin- 
cipal European  powers,  and  wars  with  them,  particularly  with 
Russia  and  Austria,  were  frequent  during  the  reigns  of  Sulei- 
man III.,  Achinet  IL,  and  Mustafa  III.  But  the  stirring 
campaigns  of  this  period,  in  some  of  which  Charles  XII.  and 
Prince  Eugene  shared,  produced  little  change  in  the  extent  of 

A.  D.  1718.  the  Ottoman  empire  previously  to  the  peace  of  Passarowiez; 
when  the  Venetians  and  Poles  recovered  part  of  their  terri- 
tories, and  the  Austriaus  regained  the  whole  of  Hungary,  with 

A.D.  1730.     the  exception  of  the  Banat  of  Temeswar. 

Chief  cause  of      During  the  reigns  of  Mahmiid  I.,   'Osman  III.,   'Abdu-1- 

these  ^vars.  Haiuid  I.,  Seliiu  III.,  Mustafa  IV.,  Mahnnid  IL,  and  'Abdu-1- 
Mejid  I. ;  that  is,  from  1730  to  the  accession  of  the  present 
sultan  in  1840,  frequent  and  by  no  means  inglorious  contests 
were  carried  on  by  Turkey,  principally  with  Russia,  which, 
however,  have  been  followed  by  a  considerable  diminution  of 
territory. 

'  See  Sultan  Suleiman's  letter  to  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  KnoUys'  Hist., 
p.  789. 

==  Cantemir,  Olli.  Hist.,  p.  243.  '    Ibid.,  p.  284. 


CHAP.  XV.]        RUSSIAN  WAR  WITH  THE  LATER  SULTANS.  503 

The  war  which  coiiiinenced  in  1/36  was  carried  on  by  Russia  Treaties  of 
and  Austria  jointly  against  the  Porte,  and  terminated  in  1 739  Kudlui^- "" 
by  the  double  treaty  signed  at  Belgrade  and  Nissa.     The  two  ^^i^^^^J^- 
powers  restored  to  the  Porte   the  provinces  of  Wallachia  and 
Servia,   which  had   been   conquered  by  Prince  Eugene ;    but 
Russia  gained   some  advantages.      These,  at   the  subsequent 
treaty  of  Kuchuk-Kainarji,  were  again  increased  \  and,  besides 
the  great  and  little  Kabarda,  she  acquired  the  protectorship  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,   and  that  of  the  Crimea.     In  conse- 
quence of  the  campaign  of  Prince  Potemkin,  the  Crimea  was 
incorporated  with  Russia  at  the  peace  of  Jassy.     Austria  had  a.d.  1792. 
previously  taken  the  fortress  of  Belgrade,  and  secured  the  pos- 
session of  it  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  that  place. 

A  new  enemy  now  appeared   in  the  southern  part  of  the  The  French 
Turkish   empire  ;   for   the  French,  under  their  great  leader  andTsyri^^ 
Napoleon,   invaded  Egypt,  and  besieged  'Akka  with  a  view  toA.  d.  1798. 
ulterior  designs.     These  designs  were,  however,  defeated  by  the  a.d.  1802. 
well-timed  efforts  of  the  British  and  Turkish  forces. 

Another  war   commenced  with  Russia  in   1806,  in  \vhich  Russia  and 
England  look  a  part.     The  British  fleet  passed  the  Dardanelles  waf  a^inst 
and  threatened  Constantinople  at  a  moment  when  the  city  w^as  Turkey. 
quite   unprotected;   but   the    Turks,   under    the    direction    of   "    ' 
Count  Sebastiani,  by  extraordinary  efforts,  mounted  upwards  of 
1,000  heavy  guns   in  the  short  space  of  36  hours;  so  that,  the 
city  being  now  protected,  and  the  retreat  being  likely  to  be 
endangered,  the   British  fleet  repassed  the  Dardanelles  with 
some  difficulty.     The  Russians,  however,  continued  their  ope- 
rations on  the  land  side  with  much  success,  and  even  reached 
the  Balkan ;  but  the  energetic  exertions  of  Sultan  Mahmild  at 
length  forced  them  to  retreat  beyond  the  Danube,  and  peace 
was  concluded  wdth  England  about  the  same  time.  A.  u.  iout>. 

Sultan  jSIahmud  11.  carried  out,  but  on  a  more  extensive  Reforms,  &c., 
scale,  the  reforms  w^hich  had  been  projected  by  Selim  III. ;  but  Mahmad. 
the  changes  which  were  made  in  the  organization  of  the  army 
and  in  the  civil  departments  of  the  state,  were,  as  is  usual  with 
innovations,  ill  received  by  the  people  at  large,  and  there  were 
risings  in  Albania,  Damascus,  Baghdad,  and  Egypt,  for  the 
purpose  of  opposing  the  plans  of  the  sovereign.     Under  these  a.d.  1812. 


504 


IMPORTANT  POSITION  OF  TURKEY.  [CHAP.  XV. 


Effects  of  the 
battle  of 
Navarino. 


Campaigns 

against 
Turkey  in 
1828,  1829. 


Existing 
extent  of  the 
Turkish 
empire. 


discouraging  circumstances  the  sultan  concluded  a  peace  at 
Bucharest,  by  which  the  country  beyond  the  Pruth,  and  the 
Eyalet  of  Childir  near  the  Caucasus,  were  ceded  to  Russia. 
Some  years  later  the  fatal  battle  of  Navarino  was  followed  by 
the  separation  of  the  Greek  provinces,  and  by  another  war,  in 
which  the  young  and  imperfectly-organized  troops  of  the  sultan 
were  opposed  to  a  powerfiil  Russian  army,  which  had  at  the 
same  time  the  command  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  line  of  the  Danube,  supported  by  Varna,  Schumla,  and 
the  grand  mountain  barrier  of  the  Balkan,  was  bravely  defended 
by  the  new  levies  till  towards  the  close  of  a  second  campaign, 
when,  Silistria  and  Varna  being  at  length  taken,  Count  Die- 
bitsch,  by  a  skilful  manoeuvre,  passed  the  mountains,  and  occupied 
Adrianople,  the  second  capital  of  European  Turkey.  Peace  was, 
however,  made,  and  five  millions  of  ducats  were  paid  to  Russia 
as  an  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

By  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  and  those  which  preceded  it, 
the  power  of  Turkey  has  been  impaired,  but  less  seriously  than 
may,  perhaps,  be  supposed.  Her  principal  territorial  losses 
were — in  Europe,  Greece,  the  remaining  portion  of  Hungary, 
and  the  country  beyond  the  Pruth :  in  Asia,  a  portion  of 
country  near  the  Caucasus :  and  in  Africa,  Algeria.  It  must 
be  observed  however,  that  the  Porte  still  retains  Egypt  and 
Syria,  with  the  rest  of  the  countries  lying  between  Eastern 
Barbary  and  the  Danube  ;  and  thus  occupies  an  important 
position  between  the  western  parts  of  Europe  and  the  eastern 
parts  of  Asia,  on  her  retention  of  which  the  peace  of  the  world 
mainly  depends. 


(     505     ) 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

INTERCOURSE  BETWEEN  EUROPE  AND  ASIA. 

Settlement  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Egyptian  races. — The  similarity  of  the 
Monuments  of  Art  denotes  a  common  origin  of  the  People. — First  settle- 
ment in  Bactria. — Spread  of  Religion  and  Knowledge  from  thence  to 
Hindustan,  to  China,  tiie  Indian  Archipelago,  and  America. — Resemblance 
of  the  People  of  the  latter  country  to  those  of  Central  Asia. — The  Syro- 
Arabian  race,  and  extent  of  their  Territory. — The  Scythian  people  and 
tlieir  early  Conquests. — Character,  Government,  &c.,  of  the  ancient  Scy- 
thians.— Their  settlement  in  Mesopotamia,  and  on  the  borders  of  Egypt. — 
Affinity  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  Languages. — Inroads  of  the  Kira- 
merians,  the  Scythians,  and  Franks,  into  Europe. — Connexion  of  the  Scan- 
dinavians and  Normans  witli  the  East. — Settlements  in  Europe  previous 
to  the  Irruption  of  the  Black  Sea. — Settlement  of  the  Celts  in  diti'erent 
parts  of  Europe. — The  Scandinavian  worship  handed  down  from  Asia. — 
Colonies  from  Spain  and  Barbary  settle  in  Ireland. — Central  Asia  con- 
nected with  Greece  through  Asia  Minor. —  Relations  of  the  latter  countn,- 
with  Persia. — Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  derived  their  knowledge 
in  part  from  Asia. — The  Grecian  Sages  seek  instruction  in  Asia. — De- 
mocritus. — Philosophy  and  Astronomy  first  cultivated  in  Asia. — Orpheus 
the  supposed  founder  of  the  Greek  religion. — Thales  studied  in  Phoenicia 
and  Egypt. — Pherecydes  the  Tutor  of  Pythagoras.  —  Solon  visits  Egypt 
and  Lydia. — Ctesias. — Hecateus. — Hellanicus,  the  cotemporary  of  Hero- 
dotus, writes  a  history  of  Persia  and  Babylon. — Pythagoras  visits  the 
Egyptians,  the  Chaldeans,  Persians,  and  Scythians,  and  returns  to  Greece. 
— Plato  visits  Egypt,  acquires  Eastern  learning,  and  makes  Philosophy- 
attractive. — Aristotle  derived  his  knowledge  from  the  East. — Plato's  phi- 
losophy was  founded  upon  that  of  the  Persians  and  Indians. — Deniocritus 
is  instructed  by  the  Magi  and  Chaldeans,  and  travels  to  India  and  Ethiopia. 
— Antiquity  of  the  Magian  and  Indian  tenets. — The  Greeks  improve  upon 
Eastern  Literature. — Herodotus  and  his  Acquirements. — Isocrates  and  his 
Pupils. — Astronomy,  Mechanics,  Geometry,  Mineralogy,  Botany,  and  Me- 
dicine, derived  from  the  East. — Hippocrates. — Galen. — Intercourse  with 
the  East,  by  Merchants  and  Travellers. — Journey  of  Marco  Polo. — Genoese 
commerce. — Queen  Elizabeth  encourages  Commerce  with  Babylon,  &c. — 
Tiie  French  Republic  attempts  to  open  a  Commerce  through  Egypt. — 
Travels  of  Jenkins. — Benjamin  of  Tudela,  and  others. — The  Author  visits 
Asia,  and  descends  the  Euphrates  in  1830. 

The  rise  and  progess  of  the  European  nations  were  little  more  Asiatic  foun- 
than  the  continuation  of  the  state  of  advancement  previously  iJJopean 
attained  in  eastern  countries  ;  the  history  of  the  latter,  there-  ^^i^tory. 
fore,   becomes   an    introduction  to  that  of  the  former.      The 
languages  of  all,  and  the  religion  of  most  Asiatic  races,  are  so 


506     MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS  EXTENDING  INTO  CHINA.  fcHAP.  XVI. 

closely  linked,  that  they  must,  according  to  Diogenes  Laertius,^ 
have  had  a  common  origin ;  and  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted, 
that  the  noble  structure  of  European  civilization  was  based 
upon  the  science,  commerce,  and  industry  of  Asia. 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  intercourse  between  the  eastern 

and  western  nations  has  been  occasionally  noticed,  but  a  more 

connected  view  of  the  subject  will  now  be  taken,  with  reference  to 

the  influence  which  that  intercourse  has  had  upon  Europe  itself. 

The  Taurus         The  first  great  change,  which   was  the  consequence  of  the 

fng  plain?'"' spread   of  the  pastoral  tribes   from    the  banks   of  the    Hid- 

reguiated  the   (Jekcl  and  the  Frat,  was  no  doubt,  in  a  great  measure,  brought 

progress  of  the  .  , 

pastoral  tribes,  about  by  the  waiits  of  the  people  and  the  physical  structure  of 

the  earth.     The  progress  of  the  human  race  from  Shinar,  in  a 

northerly  direction,  till  it  encountered  the  first  natural  barrier, 

has   already  been    noticed,"   and   elsewhere    will   be    found   a 

description  of  theTauric  chain,  which  probably  influenced  their 

subsequent  progress.^     The  plains  bordering  this  vast  barrier 

afforded  to  the  first  wanderers  an  almost  continuous  and  suitable 

Extent  of       Huc  of  country,  stretching  to  the  confines  of  the  Indo-Chinese 

byThe'iSr'^  races  in  143°  E.  longitude;  whilst  the  plains  of  Arabia  served 

Chinese  races,  ^q  carry  the  Mizraim  branch  of  the  same  people  into  Africa.^ 

The  ancient  remains  towards  the  extremities  of  these  lines 

are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  social  state  of  the  people  in 

The  Indian     thosc  placcs  was  far  advanced ;  and  that  their  temples,  excava- 

moiiumentr'^  tious,  and  othcT  works  of  art,  were  nearly  alike.     And  since 

testify  a         there  has   not  been  at  any  period  a  colony  sent  from  either 

common  origin  ....  . 

of  the  people,  region  to  the  other,  this  similarity  of  their  monuments,  which 
has  been  so  frequently  noticed  by  travellers,  can  scarcely  be 
explained  in  any  other  way  than  by  assuming  a  common  origin 
for  the  people  who  had  been  so  long  and  so  completely  sepa- 
rated. And  may  not  the  knowledge  of  arts  and  sciences  which 
was  manifestly  possessed  by  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  eastern 
Asia,  and  by  the  people  of  Egypt,  be  considered  as  a  proof 
that  when  those  regions  were  first  occupied,  mankind  was  not  in 
a  savage,  but,  on  the  contrary,  in  a  civilized  state,  such  as  may 
be  supposed  to  have  been  the  result  of  instruction  derived  from 
a  common  line  of  ancestors  ? 

'  Lib.  I.  *  See  above,  pp.  35,  36. 

'  Vol.  I.,  pp.  67-71.  *  See  above,  pp.  21,  22,  50,  51. 


{ 


om 


CHAP,  XVI.]    CENTRAL  ASIA  ONCE  THE  SEAT  OF  THE  SCIENCES.    507 

The  circumstances  connected  with  the  settlement  of  the  sons 
of  Mizraini^  are  sufficiently  well  understood ;  but  not  so  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  Cushites,  in  connexion  with  which  several 
circumstances  of  interest,  which  have  not  been  already  noticed, 
may  now  be  mentioned. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  tracts  lying  between  the  ihe  banks  of 
rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  were  once  inhabited  by  a  people  J^^^^re  once  Uie 
whose  dominion  extended  overBactria  and  Maraiana,  and  who  ??^',^^^  *^j'*'^" 

.  .        Jizeu  people. 

spread  civilization  from  thence  into  other  countries,  at  a  period 

long  anterior  to  the  mytho-historical  age.'      M.   Bailly,    the 

celebrated  astronomer,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  source 

of  the  sciences,  particularly  of  astronomy,  was   in  this  part  of  The  Indians 

Asia,   and   that   the   Indians   and  Chinese  had  derived  their  supposed ^^ 

religious  and  other  knowledge  from  thence.^  ]'J^\*^  derived 

^  °  _  their  know- 

It  appears  that  the  day  on  which  the  sun  enters  Aries  was  i^dge  fr 

chosen  for  the  foundation  of  Persepolis :  it  was  observed  also 
in  connexion  with  some  of  the  most  remote  events  of  Chinese 
history ;  and  these  facts  may  serve  to  prove  that  the  duration 
of  the  solar  year  had  then  been  determined,*  and  was  made  sub- 
servient to  chronological  purposes. 

I'raii^  afforded  an  easy  intercourse  with  India  and  China 
during  the  earlier,  and  with  western  countries  during  a  later, 
period  of  the  world.  The  position  of  Aryavarta,  the  holy  land 
of  the  Brahmins,  and  the  admission  of  the  Hindus  themselves,® 
show  that  they  derived  their  sciences  from  the  north-west ;  and 
the  similarity  of  their  religion  and  language  to  those  of  the 
Persians,  strengthens  the  belief  that  the  region  in  question,  the 
country  of  the  Arians,'  was  the  seat  of  their  ancestors. 

'  See  above,  pp.  21,  22,  50,  51. 

*  Antiquitus  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  Langue  des  Celtes,  par  le  R.  P.  Dom. 
P.  Pezron,  Docteur  en  Tiieologie,  Paris,  1703. 

^  Lettres  sur  I'Origiiie  des  Sciences,  et  sur  celles  des  Peuples  de  I'Asie,  par 
J.  S.  Bailly.     8vo,  Paris  et  Londres,  1777,  pp.  18,  19. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  42-44. 

*  In  its  largest  sense  it  extended  from  the  Upper  Euphrates  to  the  Indus. 
Vol.  I,,  p.  65. 

^  Institutes  of  Menu,  book  II.,  17,  18;  and  Elphinstone's  Hist,  of  India, 
vol.  I.,  p.  388. 

''  Or  Arias.  This  was  the  designation  both  of  the  Persian  and  Indian 
branch.  Commentaire  sur  le  Yania,  par  M.  Eugene  Burnouf,  4to,  Paris; 
and  Herod.,  lib.  VIT.,  cap.  l.\ii. 


508  SPREAD  OF  THE  MAGI  EASTWARD.  [CHAP.  XVI. 

The  religion,   like  the   philosophy  of  a  nation,   frequently 
determines  its   origin.     That  of  the  Magi,  for  instance,  who 
followed  the  mysteries  of  Mithras,  is  more  ancient  than  that  of 
the  Egyptian  worship ;  ^  and  the  Magi  gave  birth  to  the  Gym- 
nosophists  or  Brahmins  of  India.^ 
The  Brahmins      The   dominant   tribes   appear   to   have   accompanied    their 
india*^^"        leaders   from  Persia  to  India;  the  Brahmins   themselves  not 
being  natives  of  the  latter  territory,  but  individuals  who  brought 
thither  a  foreign  language  and  foreign  sciences.^     The  sages  in 
question  were,  in  reality,  only  the  preservers  of  ancient  meta- 
physics, which,  as  well  as  the  arts  in  general,  had  been  handed 
down  by  a  people  of  higher  antiquity/     At  a  period  anterior  to 
regular  history,  a  civilized  empire  existed,  it  is  believed,  in 
Philosophy     higher  Asia  ;  for  massive  foundations  of  walls,  gold,  silver,  and 
science^sde-     coppcr  vcsscls,  diadcms,  weapons,  ornaments  of  dress,   which 
rived  from      Jjave  been  discovered  in  the  Tartarian  tombs,  with  instruments 

higher  Asia. 

of  bronze,  such  as  knives,  swords,  spear-heads,  statues,  remams 

of  miners'  tools,  and  various  domestic  utensils,  have  been  found 

in  the  steppes  of  Asia.     Some  of  these  have  been  deposited  in 

the   Museum  of  the    Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St. 

Petersburg,  and  by  their  execution  it  is  evident  that  they  must 

have  belonged  to  a  civilized  nation.^ 

Spread  of  I^    addition    to   the  Hindus,   the   people    of  Central  Asia, 

to^asTern"'^'^  including  the  Mongol  races,  are  supposed,  according  to  some 

Asia  and         authorities,  to  have   spread  into  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and 

even  to  the  New  World,  which  they  may  have  reached  by  the 

way  of  Behring's  Straits. 

It  is  admitted  that  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
two  distinct  races  were  found  inhabiting  that  continent.  One 
appears  to  have  come  from  the  north,  and  to  have  constructed 
the  yet  existing  remains.     Three-fifths  of  the  various  dialects 

'  Aristotle  de  Philosopliia,  lib.  I. 

*  Clearchus  apud  Diogenein  Laertium,  lib.  T. 

*  Lettres  sur  I'Origine  des  Sciences  et  sur  celles  des  Peuples  de  TAsie,  par 
J.  S.  Bailly.     Paris  et  Londres,  1777,  p.  89. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  152,  153. 

*  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Antiquities  of  America,  by  J.  Dela- 
field,  Cincinnati,  1839,  p.  85,  compared  with  View  of  the  Russian  Empire 
during  the  Reign  of  Catherine  11.,  by  "William  Tooke,  F.R.S.,  Wogan. 
London,  1801.  Vol.  I.,  pp.  256,  2o7.' 


CHAP.  XVI.]  SPREAD  OF  AN  EARLY  RACE  FROM  ASIA  TO  AMERICA.  509 

of  the  American  Indians  resemble  the  Mongolian  languages  of  Affinity  of 
northern  Asia;  and  the  remaining  two-fifths  have  an  affinity  to  language  and 
the  dialects  of  Scythian  origin.    With  respect  to  the  other  race,  of*scVhia^°^^ 
from  a  careful  examination  of  their  language,  mythology,  hiero- 
glyphics, astronomy,  architecture,  religion,  and  customs,  as  well 
as  the  cranial  formation,  ample  evidence  is  deduced  that  they 
came  from  Southern  Asia/    As  the  arts  and  sciences  just  men-  Supposed 
tioned  correspond  M'ith  those  which  were  common  to  Hindiistin  origin  of  the 
and  ancient  Egypt,  the  American  people  must  have  descended  E^^^^ans"^ 
from  some  race  which  had  imparted  their  peculiar  ideas  and 
manners  to  these  two  oriental  regions.     Egypt  and  Hindustan 
appear  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  branches  of  one  powerful 
family,  which  established   in  each  country  its  peculiar  system 
of  astronomy,  and  there  built  cities,  and  erected  temples  and 
pyramids,    which    they   covered    with    hieroglyphic   carvings, 
whose  remains  are  splendid  monuments  of  their  greatness." 

Almost  coeval  with  the  dawn  of  history,  another  race,  the  The  Syro- 
Syro-Arabian,   appears   to   have  occupied   the   tract    between  Semitic  race. 
Assyria  and  Egypt.    This,  which  is  considered  as  the  principal 
Semitic  race,  is  particularly  known  by  its  two  leading  branches, 
the  iSTabatheans,  who  extended  across  the  peninsula,  and  the 
Chaldeans.     It  has  been  seen,'  that  one  portion  of  the  latter 
was   seated  in   Babylonia ;    whilst  others,   such   as   the   Beni 
Khaled,  preserved  their  warlike  habits  by  continuing  a  nomad 
life.    The  steppes  of  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  belonged 
to  this  race ;''  and  besides  preserving  the  Semitic  language,  and 
handing  down  the  great  truths  connected  with  the  early  history  Their  state  of 
of  mankind,    they   applied    themselves    to   medicine,    natural  advancement, 
history,  mathematics,   and  other  branches  of  learning,  which 
found  their  way  from  thence  to  Europe,  particularly  through 
Barbary  and  Greece. 

The  other  great  section  of  mankind,  the  people  of  Tiiran,  People  of 
are  first  noticed  in  early  history  as  the  ancient  Scythians  ;  and  ^"ond  °Jction 
according  to  Justin,  they  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  of  mankind. 

'  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  tiie  Antiquities  of  America,  by  John  Dela- 
field,  J.  E.,  Cincinnati,  1839,  p.  25-32. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  102-104. 
^  See  above,  pp.  31,  40,  b2,  &c.  *  Ibid.,  p.  53. 


510  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SCYTHIAN  PEOPLE.       [cHAP.  XVI. 

about  1500  years  before  Ninus.^  At  the  height  of  their  power 
the  territories  of  this  people  embraced  about  110  degrees 
of  loDgitude,  or  5000  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  more 
than  200  miles  of  latitude  northward  from  the  borders  of 
Persia. 
Their  fra-  Yirtucs,  which  the  Greeks  acquired  by  learning  and  philo- 

martiai  spirit,  sophy,  wcrc  natural  to  the  Scythians ;  whose  laws  were  calcu- 
lated to  prevent  luxury,   fraud,   and  wickedness,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  cherish  that  martial  spirit  for  which  they  were  so 
justly  famed  in  history .■     Scythia  had  a  regal  government,  and 
the  crown  was  hereditary,  but  the  monarch  might  be  deposed, 
or  even  put  to  death,  if  he  violated  the  laws.     The  people  were 
The  Scythisns  Satisfied  with  covered  waggons,  drawn  by  oxen  or  horses,  which 
waggons  as      scrvcd  for  dwellings,  and  likewise  to  convey  their  families  and 
dwellings.       furniture    from   place    to   place.      Like    the   Egyptians,   they 
embalmed  the  bodies   of  distinguished  individuals,  and  their 
interments  were  conducted  with  great  pomp  and  solemnity.^ 
Bodily  The  Scythians  possessed  great  bodily  strength,  being  inured 

strength,  and  i    i  *^  i  t   i  i  .*i      •  •  i 

moderation  of  to  labour ;  Dut  although  prouc  to  war,  their  passions  were  under 
this  people.  ^^^^  control,  that  they  made  no  other  use  of  victory  than  to 
increase  their  fame.  Theft  was  considered  such  a  crime,  and 
so  severely  punished,  that  their  flocks  wandered  from  place  to 
place  in  perfect  security ;  while  they  subsisted  on  their  milk  and 
were  clothed  with  their  skins.* 

The  spread  of  such  a  people  could  not  fail  to  have  an  influence 
on  those  countries  in  which  they  settled :  their  migrations  were 
extensive ;  and  one  of  the  earliest  of  these  took  place  under 
Finiusa,^  the  chief  of  a  Scythian  tribe,  who  is  said  to  have 
proceeded  into  Shinar,  where  he  established  schools  in  which 
the  sciences  and  languages  were  taught;  and  he  invited  Gadel, 
son  of  Eathoii  and  Cavik  Jar,  son  of  Neamha  the  Hebrew,  to 
superintend  them.     He  afterwards  returned  to  Scythia,  leaving 

'  Lib.  II.,  cap.  iii. 
^  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xlvi. 

^  Justin,  lib.  IT.,  cap.  ii. ;  Herod.,  lib.  IV.,  cap.  xlvi. 
*  Justin,  lib.  II.,  cap.  ii.,  compared  with  Thucydides,  lib.  II.,  p.  200. 
'""  From  tliis  prince,  according  to  Delafield,  tlie  name  of  Phoenicia  had  its 
orijiin. 


CHAP.  XVI.]       SCYTHIAN  COLONIES  SPREAD  INTO  EG YPr.  511 

his  son  Niul  in  Mesopotamia.  The  latter  proceeded  to  Egypt, 
and  received  as  a  dowry  with  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  a  ter- 
ritory along  the  Red  Sea,  called  Capacerunt.' 

Not  heing  an  idolater,  this  prince  is  said  to  have  favoured  Niui  favours 

1  r-    1        T  T  111-  •  11*         *^^'^  escape  of 

the  passage  oi  the  Israelites  through  his  territory ;  and  having  the  Israelites. 
given  umbrage  to  his  father-in-law  in  consequence,  he  avoided 
his  wrath,  by  embarking  on  the  Red  Sea.  After  the  death  of 
Pharaoh  he  returned  to  Egypt,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Gadelus,  whose  grandson  Sru,  with  his  followers,  proceeded  to 
Spain,  and  thence  to  Ireland. 

This  fabulous  account  at  least  shows  the  belief  that  in  ancient  Scythia  sup- 
times    there    had    existed  a  connexion    between    Scythia  and  been counected 
Egypt,  which  appears  to  have  embraced  other  countries  also.  ^'^^  ^sjp'- 
The    affinity  between   the  Persian    and   Hindu  dialects,    and 
again,  between  these  and  the  western  languages,  particularly 
those  derived  from  the  Scandinavian  German,   added  to  the 
resemblance  between  the  mythology  of  the  latter  country  and 
that  of  the  Persians  and   Hindus,  seem  to  prove  that  both  the 
religion  and  the  people  were  derived  from,  or  at  least  connected 
with,  a  common  stock. 

Amongst  the  earliest  people  noticed  were  the  Kimmerians,  The  Kim- 
who  came  from  Ma^otis  and  settled  between  the  Don  and  the  ™^Eu?opr."^^ 
Donau,"  and  were  succeeded  in  the   sixth  century  B.C.  by  the 
Skythinians   or  Scythians,   to   whom  as  the   more  permanent 
possessors  of  the  country  there  will  be  occasion  to  revert.     Still 
greater  interest,   however,   belongs  to  another  tribe,  which  is 
stated  to  have  come  into  this  part  of  the  world  after  the  Trojan 
war.     It  appears  that  one  portion  of  this  Asiatic  race  remained 
on  the  upper  Don,  under  a  chief  named  Turchi,  whilst  the  re- 
mainder were  led  by  another  called  Franco,  to  the  banks  of  the  Franks  settle 
Rhine,   where  they  commenced  building  a  city,  which  was  to  ^'^    ermany. 
have  been  called  after  their  leader,  but  which  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  been  completed."*     Both  the  Franks  and 

'  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Antiquities  of  America,  by  J.  Dela- 
fielci,  Cincinnati,  1839,  p.  76-78;  and  Keating's  History  of  Ireland,  London, 
1733. 

^  Herod.,  lib.  I,,  cap.  ciii.,  civ. 

^  Fridegarius  Scholasticus,  Hist.  Franc.  Epist. 


512  EARLIEST  COLONIES  FROM  ASIA  TO  EUROPE.        [CHAP.  XVI. 

the  Dardanians^  seem  to  have  been  connected  with  the  history 
of  Troy  ;^  for  it  is  stated  that  some  of  the  Trojans  were  led  by 
Antenor  into  Europe,  and  having  at  length  reached  the  upper 
part  of  Italy,  they  settled  between  the  Alps  and  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  gave  the  name  of  Troya  to  a  part  of  this  tract.  Again, 
there  was  at  one  time  near  Asburg,  in  Cleves,  a  city  called  the 
The  Franks     holv  or  lesscr  Troia.     Another  writer  connects    the   Franks 

AAA 

from^he        with  the  fugitivcs  from  Troy,  who  came,  it  is  said,  into  Europe 
Trojans.         |^y  ^^^y  q£  MsBotis  and  the  Tanais,   after  the  fall  of  that  cele- 
brated, city  .^     Moreover,  it  appears  that  a  belief  of  a  descent 
fi'om  the  Trojans  prevailed  among  the  Scandinavian  pirates;* 
Also  the         and,  according  to  a  similar  tradition,  the  ancient  Normans  built 
and  Normans,  a  palacc  in    Swcdcn,   called  Trojenburg,   also  a  city  named 
Troja,   which  was   situated  between  the  river  Hackeguaw  and 
the  lake  Hartgrepos  Lagetrog.^     Near  to  the  latter  is  the  farm- 
house called  Troja-mala,  and  the  Troja  forest. 
Europe  It  is  vcry  probable   that  part  of  Europe  was  peopled   by 

Asia  before"^  Asiatic  tribes  antecedently  to  the  change  which  took  place  in 
onhe^iJiS  ^^^  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,^  in  consequence  of  the  irruption 
Sea.  of  the  Black  Sea  through  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  subsequent 

passage  of  the  waters  into  the  Atlantic  by  the  Gaditanian 
straits ;  the  Greek  islands  being  the  remains  of  the  submerged 
country,  over  which  the  wanderers  had  passed.  But  of  other 
branches  which  spread  westward  from  northern  Scythia,  till 
arrested  by  the  Atlantic,  there  are  more  particulars.  One  of 
these  Scythian  tribes  has  been  known  by  various  names,  as 
The  Celtic      gaccs,  Sacks,  or  Sacoe,  Celtse,  Gauls,  Galatai,  Cimbrians,  and 

tribes  settle  in  '  '  '      ,  '  '  '  .       . 

Kimper.''     Traces  of  this  race,   whose  name    Celts,   signifies 
potent,  valiant,  and  warlike,  are  found  at  various  places  between 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxx. 

°  Traduut  multi  eosdem  (Francos)  de  Paiinonia  fuisse  dcgressos,  writes 

the  Frank  historian  Georgius  Turonensis. 

'  Ptolemy,  lib.  III.,  and  Dio  Cassius,  lib.  LV. 

*  Dudo,  Willemus  Gemmeticensis  Orderic  Vitalis,  ibid. 

*  Tliese  traditions  were  related  to  the  Author  by  a  learned  Swede. 

*  Cosmos,  by  Alex,  von  Humboldt,  vol.  II.,  p.  117. 

^  Antiquite  de  la  Nation  et  de  la  Langue  des  Celtes,  autrement  appcles 
Gaulois,  par  le  R.  P.  Doni.  I'.  Pezron,  Docteur  en  Thcologie.  Paris,  1703, 
pp.  8-12. 


CHAP.  XVI.]    IMMIGKATIOX  OK  TIIK  CELTS  AND  OTHER  TRIBES.     513 

the  Danube  and  the  extremity  of  Spain ;'  but  previous  to  their 
departure  from  the  region  situated  between  Media  and  Bactria, 
they  were  called  Gomerians.^  Without,  however,  going  back 
to  the  sons  of  Gomer,  it  would  appear  that  an  immigration  into 
Europe  took  place  about  590  b.  c,  when  Bellavese''  led  a  portion 
of  this  people  from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  into  Italy,  various  parts 
Their  colonies  were  also  found  in  the  lower  part  of  Germany, 
along  the  Danube,  extending  into  Pomerania,  and  likewise  into 
Illyria,  Helvetia,  and  Gaul.  From  the  latter  country,  they 
invaded  the  British  islands,  and  originated  the  Picts  or  Cale- 
donians, Welsh,  and  Irish  :  the  branches  of  this  stem  were 
numerous,  and  continued  to  be  powerful  throughout  Europe, 
till  they  were  broken  by  the  Boman  power.^ 

The  government  of  the  Celts  was  monarchical :  the  Curetes,  Government 
Druids,  Bards,  &c.  interpreted  the  laws,  and  administered  the  j^^  Europe.^ 
sacred  rites.  Spacious  groves,  and  those  singular  altars  of 
massive  unhewn  stones  that  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
countries  just  mentioned,  belonged  to  their  primitive  ceremonies, 
which,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Dews  and  images  of  darkness 
belonging  to  the  ancient  Scandinavian  worship,  appear  to  have 
handed  down  the  mythology  of  Zoroaster,  or  rather  that  of 
Ahriman. 

Colonies  from  Asia  appear  to  have  reached  the  most  western  Asiatic 
portion  of  Europe  by  two  different  routes ;  the  earlier  people  Ireland  by  the 
entered  Ireland  through  Germany  to  the  north,  and  the  later,  a^'^t'ile^so^th.^ 
called  Milesian,  at  the  south-western  extremity,  having   come 
thither  by  sea  from  the   Mediterranean.     The  numerous  cir- 
cular entrenchments  throughout  Ireland  are  coimected  with  the 

'  It  lias  been  observed  that  a  resemblance  exists  between  the  names  of  the 
ancient  provinces  of  Spain  and  certain  words  of  Persian  origin.  Thus  Tur- 
detani,  Lusitani,  Basitani,  Carpetani,  &c.,  answer  to  Kiioristan,  Farsitan, 
Kurdistan,  Dahistan,  &c.  Hence  several  philologists  have  inferred  the 
Asiatic  origin  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  Peninsula.  Histoire  comparee  des 
Litteratures  Espagnole  et  Franraise,  par  Adolphe  de  Puibusque  (Paris, 
1844),  compared  with  Researches  into  the  Physical  History  of  Mankind, 
by  J.  C.  Prichard,  vol.  III.,  p.  44-47. 

*  The  Kimmerians,  already  noticed,  whose  seat  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy, 
lib.  VII.,  cap.  xi.,  xiii. 

^  Meaning  in  vSclavonlc,  White-beard. 

*  Researches  into  the  Physical  IIi.story  of  Mankind,  by  J.  C.  Prichard, 
vol.  III.,  p.  49-62. 

VOL.  II.  2  L 


514 


EARLY  SETTLEMENTS  IN  IRELAND.  [cHAP.  XVI. 


The  Tuatha 
De  Danaiin 
people. 


Traces  of  a 
colony  from 
Barbary. 


The  Huns, 
Bulgarians, 
and  Hun- 
garians, settle 
in  Europe. 


former  race,  and  traditionally  with  the  Danish  invasions.  But 
as  the  conquests  of  this  people  do  not  appear  to  have  extended 
either  to  the  south  or  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  as  the  remains 
go  farther  back  than  the  invasions  in  question,  in  the  eighth 
century,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  chains  of  forts  may  have 
derived  their  name  from  the  supposed  Asiatics,  who  are  called 
in  Irish  history,  Tuatha  De  Danann  :^  by  this  people  they  may 
have  been  constructed  as  inclosures  for  their  flocks,  and  also  in 
part  for  the  protection  of  their  families. 

Passing  over  the  traditional  history  of  Boath,  Gadelian,  and 
the  Milesian  race,  it  appears  that  Lughaidh,  with  a  view  to 
recover  the  Irish  possessions  of  his  cousin  Milesius,  proceeded 
thither  with  a  fleet  and  army  of  Gadelians ;  and  about  1300 
B.c,  according  to  Keating,  overcame  the  Tuatha  De  Danann. 
Many  local  circumstances  confirm  the  belief  of  a  connexion 
between  Spain  and  the  south-western  coast  of  Ireland,  and  an 
impression  prevails  that  at  one  time  a  colony  came  thither  also 
from  Barbary.  During  a  visit  made  to  Ireland  in  1821  by 
Sadi  Omback  Benbei,  then  envoy  from  Morocco,  this  indi- 
vidual overheard  some  people  in  the  market-place  at  Kilkenny 
making  remarks  on  his  person  and  dress  in  a  dialect  which  was 
intelligible  to  him :  he  recognized  it  as  one  which  was  spoken 
in  the  mountains  to  the  south  of  Morocco,"  and  with  which  he 
had  been  familiar  as  a  boy. 

Besides  the  preceding,  other  Asiatic  tribes  subsequently  came 
into  Europe ;  namely,  the  Massagetae,  the  Gets,  the  Sarmatians, 
and  finally,  the  Alamians,  led  by  fourteen  different  chiefs,  who, 
with  their  followers,  settled  between  the  Dnieper  and  the  Don. 
To  these  succeeded  the  various  Hunnish  tribes  whose  inroads 
and  conquests  have  already  been  noticed.  These  were  fol- 
lowed in  succession  by  ihe  Bulgarians,  Hungarians,  and  others; 
so  that  from  about  80  b.  c.  to  the  Mongol  invasion  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  one  horde  after  another  poured  into  Europe  from 
central  Asia;  thus  probably  connecting,  through  the  ancient 
Scythians,  the  remains  of  the  central  Asiatic  empire  with  the 
western  nations. 


'  Royal  Genealogies,  by  James  Anderson,  D.D.    Lond.,  1776,  fol.  p.  777. 
*  Tlie  circumstance  was  related  to  Professor  Ilinks,  LL.D.,  of  the  Munster 
College,  by  the  individual  himself. 


CHAP.  XVI.]  ASIA  MIN'OU  CONNECTRD  WITH  i'rAN.  515 

Besides  the  population  thus  drawn  from  Asia,  there  were  Knowledge 
other  sources  of  civiHzation  which  could  not  fail  to  have  aaud^i^Egypt.^ 
lasting:  influence  on  the  development  of  the  human  mind.  A 
thirst  for  knowledi^e  carried  the  ancient  sages  either  into  Asia, 
as  the  original  seat,  or  to  Egypt,  which  had  become  the  depo- 
sitory of  the  learning  of  the  east.  From  the  remotest  period 
Asia  Minor  has  served  as  the  high  road  between  Asia  and  ^ 

Europe,   and  having  been  peopled  chiefly  from  Armenia  and 
Assyria,  two  of  the  provinces  of  I'ran,  it  continued  in  a  great 
measure  dependent  upon  the   latter,   even  when  its   political 
importance  had  almost  ceased.     The  establishment  of  numerous 
Grecian  colonies  on  the  shores  of  this  territory  at  a  later  period, 
made,  therefore,   but  little  change.     The  mass  of  the  people 
continued  as  before  more  Persian  than  Greek.^     Asia  Minor  Asia  Minor 
was  no  less  distinguished  for  its  wealth  and  civilization,  than  pJJ-sfa  with 
for  the  number  of  great  men  to  whom  it  gave  birth,  and  who  Greece. 
imparted  the  knowledge  which  they  had  drawn  from  the  east  to 
their  neighbours  in  the  west. 

Our  early  associations  too  frequently  foster  the  belief  that  the 
brilliant  productions  of  Greece  were  entirely  original,  although 
most  of  the  early  authors  of  the  country  itself,  as  well  as  those 
who    afterwards    examined    the    subject   dispassionately,    were  philosophy 
aware  that  the  most  remarkable  works  were  but  the  reflex  of  s^)'',^*^p'g  ^^_ 
the  eastern  literature,  &c.,  obtained  from  Asia,  either  directly  ^f'"^'^  ^'""'^ 
or  through  Egypt.     Herodotus  says,"   "  I  think  Melampus  was 
a  wise  man,  who  introduced  many  things  into  Greece,  which  he, 
had  previously  learnt  in  Egypt,  and  amongst  others  the  mys 
teries  of  Dionysius,  which  he  taught  with  some  alterations  of 
his  own.     At  all  events,"  adds  this  candid  writer,   "  I  am  sure 
that  the  Egyptians  have  not  borrowed  this  or  anything  else  from 
the  Greeks,  for  if  any  knowledge  or  institutions  exist  in  Greece 
similar  to  those  of  Egypt,  w^e  may  be  certain  that  they  were 
borrowed  from  the  latter  country." 

Diodorus  Siculus,  taking  the  same  view,  but  stating  it  still  Several  Greek 
more  strongly,  gives  a  list  of  those  Greeks  distinguished  by  Xla!  ^^"  ^  ^" 
their  wisdom  and  learning  who  had  gone  to  study  the  laws  and 

'  The   Carians,  according  to  Thucydides,   spoke  Persian   as  fluently  as 
Greek. 

"  Lib.  TI.,  cap.  xlix. 

2  l2 


516      THE  GRECIAN  SAGES  SEEK  KNOWLEDGE  IN  EGYPT.    [ CHAP.  XVI. 

Sciences  of  Egypt'  It  is  recorded  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
priests,  that  Orpheus,  Musaeus,  Melampodes,  Daedalus,  Homer, 
and  Lycurgus  of  Sparta,  travelled  to  Egypt;  and  at  a  later 
period,  Solon,  Plato,  Pythagoras,  Eudoxus  (the  mathematician), 
Democritus  of  Abdera,  and  Inops  of  Chios,  also  resorted 
thither.^  Some  memento  of  each  individual  has  been  preserved 
^  in  that  country ;  and  in  some  cases,  likenesses  are  shown,  and 

even  places  named  after  them  or  the  science  they  pursued.     It 
cannot,  therefore,  be  doubted  that  they  had  been  to  Egypt,  and 
acquired  everything  for  which  the  country  was,  at  that   time, 
celebrated. 
The  hymns         It  is  said  that  Orplicus  borrowed  from  thence  most  of  the 

of  Orpheus;  i  ti  i  •  •  i     i        p  i  i 

hymns  to  the  gods,  as  well  as  his  orgies,  and  the  tables  respect- 
ing the  lower  regions.^  But  be  this  as  it  may,  the  ceremonies 
of  Osiris  and  those  of  Isis  and  Ceres  differ  only  in  name.*  The 
same  author  states^  that  Melampodes  imported  the  service  of 
Dionysus  (Bacchus),  the  fables  relating  to  Saturn,  those  of  the 
battle  of  the  Titans,  and  almost  the  whole  Grecian  mythology 
the  Grecian  from  Egypt.  Pythagoras,  he  tells  us,^  borrowed  much  informa- 
myt  0  ogy ;  ^^^^^  froiu  the  sacred  books  ;  and  the  remarkable  fact  is  added, 
that  he  was  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for  his  knowledge  of 
geometry,  as  well  as  of  arithmetic,  and  his  system  of  meta- 
physics. 

Democritus  is  said  to  have  acquired  extensive  knowledge  of 

astronomy  during  the   five   years  he  resided  in  Egypt ;'   and 

Inops,  who  lived  a  long  time  with  the  priests  and  astronomers 

of  that  country,  imported  from  thence  into  Greece  the  signs  of 

astronomy       the  zodiac,  the  fancied  orbital  motion  of  the  sun,  and  many 

and  the  other        ,  .  •  s 

sciences  Other  circumstanccs. 

K^p?'^'^  ^^°^  Diodorus  Siculus  likewise  proves  that  Greek  sculpture  owed 
its  origin  to  Egypt ;°  and  Jamblichus'"  goes  so  far  as  to  deny 
that  civilization  derived  any  benefit  from  the  Greeks  ;  but  it 
may  be  observed  that  this  author  was  much  prejudiced  against 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  sec.  ii.,  cap.  xxii.,  xxxvi. 

^  Ibid.,  cap.  xxxvi. 

"  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.  *  Ibid.  «  Ibid. 

^  Diog.  Laert.  de  Vit.  Pliilos.,  lib.  IX.,  seg.  xxxiv.  et  seq. 

"  Ibid.  '  Lib.  I.,  sec.  ii.,  cap.  xxxvi. 

'"  De  Mysteriis,  lib.  I. 


CHAP.  XVI.]         ASTRONOMY,  ETC.,  DERIVED  FROM  ASIA.  517 

tliem,  in  consequence  of  their  upholding  paganism  in  opposition 
to  Christianity. 

Diogenes  Laertius,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  the  history  Philosophy, 
of  philosophy,  literature,  and  civilization  generally,  begins  his  dciivLci  from  ' 
book  by  stating  that  most  authors  maintain  that  philosophy  had  ^^fj^'," 
its  origin  among  nations  foreign  to  the  Greeks ;  for  it  was  cul- 
tivated among  the  Persians  by  the  Magians,  among  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians  by  the  Chaldeans,  among  the  Indians  by 
the  Gymnosophists,  and  among  the  Celts  by  the  Druids,  who 
w^ere  likewise  called  Semnothu  or  prophets.'     Aristotle^  and 
Sotion^  say  that  Phoenix,  Ochus,  Zamolxis  the  Scythian,  Atlas  Sabaism  and 
of  Libya,  and  Vulcan,  the  son  of  Nilus,  an  Egyptian,  were  the  invented  by 
first  philosophers,  and  their  followers  were  called   priests   or   ^^  ^^  ^"''^  * 
prophets.     Clemens  of  Alexandria  repeats  the  words  of  Dio- 
genes Laertius,  adding  many  curious  details ;  and  Plato,  in 
speaking  of  the  origin  of  astrology  and    Sabaism,  says  that 
astronomy   was    invented   by    the   barbarians,    but    had    been 
improved  by  the  Greeks/ 

An  individual,  however,  bearing  the  name  of  Orpheus,  and 
belonging  to  a  much  earlier  period,  claims  attention  before  this 
philosopher,  as  having  had  a  great  influence  on  the  poetry  of  the 
Greeks. 

According  to  Plato,  the  first  religion  of  the  Greeks  was  very  Sabaism  the 
simple  ;  and  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  nature  in  general,  were  wor- g/on'^of Greece, 
shipped  among  ihem  as  among  the  barbarians.^  Philo  Judeeus 
adds,  that  their  rites  were  composed  from  the  religions  of  differ- 
ent nations ;  the  idolatry,  fables,  and  superstitions  of  the  Greek 
mythology  dating  from  a  later  period.  Orpheus,  who  intro- 
duced foreign  doctrines  and  ceremonies, '^  may  be  considered 
the  founder  of  the  religion  of  the  Greeks,  as  well  as  of  their 
poetry ;  and  it  has  been  supposed,  with  much  probability,  that 
the  actions  of  several  individuals  have  been  ascribed  to  Or- 

'  Diog.  Laert.  de  Vit.  Philos.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  i.,  ii. 

*  Magic,  lib.  I,,  apud  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  i. 

^  De  Successionibus,  lib.  XXIII.,  apud  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  L,  seg.  i. 

*  Epinomis,  pp.  987,  988. 

*  Plato,  De  Legibus,  pp.  886,  887. 

*  Aristoph.,  Kan«,  v,  1030 ;  Plato,  Protag.,  p.  216. 


518  SETERAI.  INDIVIDUALS  CALLED  ORPHEUS.        [cHAP.  XVI. 

Orpheus         pheus  himsclf.^     Cicero,^  however,  considers  the   name   to  be 

mythical^      fabulous ;  but  the  opinion  just  mentioned  appears  to  be  highly 

name.  probable.     An  individual  bearing  the  name  of  Orpheus,  was 

one   of  the   principal  Argonauts,   and   this  person   would,    on 

returning  home,  have  an  opportunity  of  introducing  in  Greece 

the  doctrines  which  may  have  been  brought  from  central  Asia 

by  means  of  the  great  mercantile  route  leading  thither  from 

Orpheus  and    Trebizondc.     It  appears  that  Orpheus  and  his  master  Linus 

shipped  in       wcre  worshippcd  as  demigods  by  the  Scythians  as  well  as  the 

Scythia,  Greeks ;    and   it  is  asserted  by  Diogenes  Laertius^   that   the 

former  belonged  to  Scythia.    He  is  said  to  have  been  the  most 

ancient  philosopher  ;"*  yet  it  may  easily  be  imagined-  that  the 

name  in  question  was  applied  to  all  those  persons  who,  about 

the  same  period,  took  an  active  part  in  introducing  philosophy 

into  Greece  from  the  mere  enlightened  countries  of  the  east. 

Jamblichus  says,^  that  the  hymns  of  Orpheus  were  derived 

from   Egypt.     This  Orpheus,  however,   seems   to    have  been 

a  later  person  than  the  Scythian  above  mentioned ;  and  he  is 

said  to  have  been  initiated  by  the  priests  of  Egypt  into  their 

The  mysteries  rcligious  rltcs."     He  fouudcd  the  mysteries  of  Ceres  in  Sparta, 

isifbSd^on    ^^^^  ^^^0  thosc  of  Hccatc  at  ^gina,''  in  imitation  of  the  mys- 

those  of  Egypt,  ^^^.^gg  of  Isis  in  Egypt. 

Philosophy  Linus,   who  was   the  master,    or,    according    to   some,    the 

Scy^hian.^  ^    brother  of  Orpheus,  and  the  instructor  of  Hercules  in  music, 
is  also  said  to  have  invented  the  sphere,  and  to  have  first  pro- 
pounded the  belief  that  everything  emanated  from  one  source, 
and  returned  to  the  same.* 
Names  of  But  whether  Orpheus  Avere  a  Scythian  or  a  European,  there 

cil'er  Henncs  ^^  reason  to  bclieve  that  the  earlier  mythological  names,  as 
&c.,  from  the  MussBus,  Hcrculcs,  Hemies,  Apollo,  Vulcan,  &;c.,  were  known 
in  the  east  long  before  they  were  in  use  among  the  Greeks. 

'  Varro,  apud  Augustin  de  Civitate  Dei,  cap.  XXIV.,  p.  383.     Ant- 
werpia,  1701. 

*  De  Natura  Deorum,  lib.  I.,  pp.  38,  39.  "  Lib.  I. 

*  Tertullian,  de  Anim.,  cap.  II.,  p.  569. 

*  De  Mysteriis,  lib.  I.  '  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xx.,  \xxvi. 
'  Pausaiiias,  in  Lacon,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xiii.,  xiv. 

*  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  iii.     Ed.  Amsterdainii. 


CHAP.  XVI.]  THALES  STUDIES  IN  EGYPT.  519 

But  instances  of*  a  more  direct  intercourse  with  Asia  may 
now  be  mentioned.  Thales  of  Milet,  whose  mother  Mas  a 
native  of  Phoenicia,'  learned  the  art  of  navigation  in  that 
country,  and  having  made  the  Greeks  acquainted  with  the 
Little  Bear,  by  which  the  Phoenicians  directed  the  course  of 
their  vessels,  he  was  considered  the  first  who  had  observed  that 
constellation.  Callimachus  unintentionally  makes  this  fact 
clear  by  stating  that  Thales  first  observed  the  stars  on  the 
Plaustra,  by  which  the  Phoenicians  are  guided  in  navigation ; 
adding,  that  some  ascribe  to  him  the  work  of  Phocus  of  Samos 
on  nautical  astronomy.  This  book  is  lost ;  but  the  circumstance  A  work  on 
of  ascribing  it  to  Thales  goes  far  to  show  that  it  had  a  Phocni-  ^cribe™u> 
cian  source.  Thales. 

Thales  had  no  preceptor,^  or  at  least  none  is  mentioned ;  but  it 
is  admitted  that  he  studied  geometry  in  Egypt,  and  measured 
the  height  of  the  pyramids  by  their  shadows.     In  addition  to 
founding  the  Ionian  school  of  philosophy,  he  introduced  much 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  east  into  Greece — as  the  use  of  the 
solar  year,  and  the  calculation  of  eclipses  ;  he  also  compared  the  Use  of  the 
size  of  the  moon  with  that   of  the   sun.^     The   belief  of  the  caicuiatUms^of 
immortality  of  the  soul,  as  propounded   in  Egypt,^  was  intro-  ^^^^^^l  f^.^^^ 
duced  into  Greece   by  Thales  and  his  contemporary  Phere-  the  East. 
cydes  ;^  and  it  was  subsequently  adopted  and  warmly  supported 
by  Plato.     The  theory  of  Thales,  that  water  is  the  origin  of  all 
things,^  is  as  old  as  the  philosophy  of  the  east :  it  was  not  only 
believed  by  the  ancient  Persians,  but  it  prevailed  amongst  the 
Bedawin  ;    and   the    oriental   nations  peopled  the  world  with 
demons  many  centuries  before  the  time  of  Thales.     As  it  is  Opinion  in  the 
clear  that  Thales  studied  in  Egypt,"  we   may  fairly  conclude  wateHfthe 
that  his  ideas,  and  those  of  his  contemporaries,  were  borrowed  origin  of  all 
from  that  country  and  others  lying  more  eastward. 

'  Clemens  of  Alexan.,  Stromat.  I.,  p.  300  ;  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  wii., 
xxiv. 

*  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Stromat.  I.,  p.  300,  et  scq. 
^  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  .>eg.  xxiv. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cup.  cxxiii. 

*  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  cxvi. 
■^  Aristotle,  Metaph.,  1,  3. 

^  Josephus,  Contra  Apion,  lib.  I.,  p.  283. 


520       PHERECYDES  STUDIES  IN  EGYPT  AND  CHALDEA.     [CHAP.  XVI. 


Pherecydes 
the  tutor  of 
Pythagoras, 


and  his 
philosophy. 


Solon  studies 
in  Egypt  and 
visits  Croesus. 


Pherecydes  the  philosopher,  who  should  be  distinguished 
from  the  Athenian  historian  of  the  same  name,  was  either  a 
native  of  Scyros,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  Syria  or 
Assyria  ;^  and  he  was  the  tutor  of  Pythagoras  in  the  sixth 
century  b.  c.^  Suidas,^  Philo  of  Byblus,  Clemens  of  Alexandria,* 
Hesychius  of  Milet,  Eustathius,  and  Cicero,^  agree  in  stating 
that  he  acquired  his  philosophy  in  Phoenicia;  and  Cedrenus 
adds,  that,  like  Thales  and  Pythagoras,  he  visited  Egypt  and 
Chaldea  in  pursuit  of  knowledge.*^  According  to  Theopompus, 
Pherecydes  was  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who  wrote  on  the 
nature  of  the  gods."  He  also  MTote  a  work  on  cosmogony, 
intitled  'ETrraV^x^^'  '^vhich  contains  the  Chaldean  theories  on 
ether,  the  earth,  time,  and  the  four  elements.^  Galen  assigns 
to  this  author  the  work  "  De  salubre  virtus  ratiouis,"  which  is 
commonly  printed  with  the  works  of  Hippocrates ;  and  if  this 
be  correct,  it  would  clearly  prove  that  medicine  has  an  oriental 
origin. 

Solon,  the  Athenian  legislator,  who  died  in  the  fifty-fifth 
Olympiad,  or  549  B.C.,  went  to  Egypt;  and  after  being  hos- 
pitably received  by  Amasis,'  he  proceeded  to  visit  Crcesus,  who 
though  a  sovereign  of  Asia  Minor,  was  surrounded  by  an 
oriental  court. '°  Herodotus  states,''  that  a  thirst  for  knowledge 
caused  those  journeys,  and  that  the  one  to  Egypt  had  the  par- 
ticular object  of  collecting  materials  for  a  history,  which,  agree- 
ably to  ancient  custom,  was  to  be  written  in  verse.  On 
returning  from  Egypt,  he  expressed  his  conviction  that  neither 
himself  nor  any  other  Greek  had  any  knowledge  of  antiquity.'^ 
It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  how  far  the  institutions  of  Solon  were 
influenced    by   the    philosophy    of  Egypt,    but    although    the 


'  Cicero,  Tusculum,  lib.  I.,  16;  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  cxvi. 
^  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Stromal.  I.,  p.  300  ;  Suidas,  Lexicon,  in  Phere- 
cydes. 

^  Lexicon,  in  Plierecydes.  ''  Stromal  I.,  p.  300,  et.scq. 

*  Tusculum  Disputat.,  lib.  L,  16. 

*  Synopsis  Hist.,  I,,  p.  94  ;  Joseplius,  Contra  Apion,  lib.  I.,  p.  283. 
^  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  cxvi, 

»  Preface  to  Mas'iidl,  p.  35.  "  Plato,  Tiniaeus,  vol.  III.,  p.  21. 

"*  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  T.,  seg.  1.,  li. 

"  Lib.  I.,  cap.  xxix.,  xxx.  '-  Plato,  Timyeus,  vol.  IIL,  p.  22, 


CHAP.  XVI.]  SOLON  VISITS  EGYPT  AND  LYDIA.  521 

intended  history  ^vas  not  completed,  the  moral   influence  and 
example  of*  Solon,  and  his  impressions  as  to  the  superiority  of  Admitted 

11  •  1  p  -1     1  'J  superiority  of 

oriental  learning,  could  not  have  tailed  to  promote  its  advance-  oriental 
ment  among  the  Greeks.    INIuch  of  the  knowledge  he  acquired,  ^'^'■"'"S- 
though  not  written,  was  preserved  traditionally,  and   one  frag- 
ment is  given  by  Plato.' 

Ctesias,  during  his  residence  of  seventeen  years  as  physician  Position  and 
at  the  court  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  had  great  opportunities  ctesias  with 
of  ascertaining  the  state  of  the  eastern  countries,  and  he  wrote  *^^  ^^*" 
twenty-three  books  on  the  history  of  western  Asia.  The  first 
six  contained  an  account  of  the  Assyrians,  and  of  the  times 
preceding  the  Persian  conquest ;  and  the  remainder  contained 
the  history  of  the  Persians.  As  his  account  differs  from  that 
given  by  Herodotus,  in  his  first,  second,  and  third  books, 
opinions  regarding  this  author  are  very  conflicting.  But  in 
comparing  the  extracts  preserved  by  Diodorus  Siculus"  wdth 
the  Shah  Nameh,  it  is  found  that  his  account  approaches  that 
of  the  Persian  writers  more  nearly  than  that  of  Plerodotus ; 
and  as  he  had  the  use  of  the  royal  archives,  his  materials  must 
have  been  of  the  best  description.  His  Indian  history,  how- 
ever, had  not  the  same  advantage,  and  is  therefore  more  ques- 
tionable ;  yet  there  is  much  to  show  that  an  intercourse  must 
have  existed  between  Persia  and  India,  and,  therefore,  indirectly 
between  the  latter  and  Europe. 

Hecateus  was   born  549   b.c.,^  and  died  49/    b.c;   conse- Hecateus 
quently  he  was  one  of  the   earliest  Greek  historians  and  geo-  EgyptVnd 
graphers.      Herodotus*   and  Agathemerus^  inform  us  that  he  ^^^'^^^' 
received  instruction  from  the  Egyptian  priests ;  and,  according 
to  the  latter,  he  subsequently  visited  Persia.     On  returning  to 
his    native   place,    Milet,   he    persuaded   his    countrymen    to 
abandon  the  conspiracy  which  had  been  formed  to  throw  off" 
the  Persian  yoke.     The  arguments  he  used,  namely,  the  power 
of  the    sovereign  and  the    number  of  kingdoms    which   were 
subject  to  his  authority,  show  that  he  was  well  acquainted  with 

'  Titneeus,  vol.  III.,  pp.  22-25.  °  Lib.  II.,  cap.  iii.,  et  seq. 

^  Larcher's  Herodotus,  tome  II.,  note  505  ;  Charles  and  Theodore  Miiller 
fix  the  same  year. 

*  Lib.  II.,  cap.  cxliii.  *  Hudson's  Minor  Geographers. 


522       PYTHAGORAS  VISITS  THE  CHALDEANS  AND  MAGI.    [cHAP.  XVI. 


and  ■was  the 
first  Greek 
historian. 


Hellanicus 
studies  in 
Egypt  and 
visits  Persia, 


and  -writes  a 
history  of 
Persia  and 
Babylon. 


Pythagoras 
visits  the 
Egyptians, 
Cl)aldeans,and 
Magi, 


the  extent  of  the  vast  empire  then  under  either  Cyrus  or  Cam- 
byses.^  This  traveller  and  pupil  of  the  oriental  school  should 
be  considered  the  father  of  Greek  history,  and  the  fountain 
from  which  so  much  relating  to  the  geography  and  history  of 
the  east'  was  borrowed ;  and  so  highly  was  he  esteemed,  that 
Cereidas  of  Megalopolis^  professed  his  readiness  to  die,  because 
he  hoped  after  death  to  meet  Pythagoras  and  Hecateus.  No 
less  than  380  quotations  from  this  author  are  collected  in  the 
"Fragmenta  Historicum  Grsecorum,  Paris,  1841." 

Hellanicus,  a  contemporary  of  Herodotus,  and  one  of  the 
most  influential  of  the  Greeks,  wrote  a  history  of  the  east,  but 
little  more  regarding  his  life  has  come  down  to  us.  It  appears, 
however,  from  Plutarch,^  that  he  visited  Egypt,  where  he 
received  instruction  in  history  from  the  priests.  It  is  probable, 
though  not  quite  certain,  that  he  also  visited  Persia,  for  the 
fragments  which  remain  regarding  the  Getes  agree  with  the 
accounts  given  by  Herodotus^  of  this  people.  It  is  a  curious 
circumstance  that  Hellanicus  speaks  of  a  Historia  Sacerdotum 
of  the  Greeks ;  therefore  something  like  a  hierarchy  must  then 
have  existed  among  them.  Besides  a  work  on  ethnography, 
which  showed  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  of  eastern  nations,  and 
which  has  been  quoted  under  various  titles,  Hellanicus  wrote  a 
history  of  Persia,  and  another  of  Babylon ;  and  it  is  very 
curious  that  he  followed  a  system  which  may  be  considered 
peculiar  to  the  Arabs  and  Shemitic  people  generally,  of 
expressing  the  relationship  of  two  nations  or  tribes,  by  calling 
their  rulers  or  founders,  brothers :  thus  they  would  say,  Saxo, 
Francus,  and  Hessus,  were  three  brothers,  and  sons  of  Ger- 
manicus,  who  was  the  brother  of  Anghis. 

Pythagoras  was  acquainted  with  the  Egyptian  language,  and 
visited  the  Chaldeans  as  well  as  the  Magi.®  It  is  even  stated, 
that  he  travelled  as  far  as  India,  and  that  he  was  a  disciple  of 
Zamolxis  or  Zalmoxis  the  Scythian."     He  was  circumcised  in 


'  Herodotus,  lib.  V.,  cap.  xxxvi. 

■''  Apud  iElianum  Var.,  Hist,  xiii.,  20 

*  De  Iside  et  Osiri,  p.  364,  D. 

*  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  VIII.,  seg.  iii. 

'  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  vStroniat.  I.,  p.  303,  C. 


Diog-.  Laert.,  lib.  I.,  seg.  x. 
Lib.  IV.,  cap.  xciii.-.\cvi. 


CHAP.  XVI.]  SYSTEM  OF  PYTHAGORAS.  523 

Egypt,  in  order  that  he  might  be  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of 

Bhuddisni  ;  for,  as  it  will   presently  be  shown,  he  afterwards 

founded  this  religion  in  Greece.     He  was  likewise  initiated  in 

other  oriental  mysteries:'  and  he  conscientiously  and  implicitly 

followed  the  most  trifling   regulations  of  the   eastern   priests. 

He  carefully  abstained  from  certain  kinds  of  food,  both  meat^ 

and  drink,  and  wore  a  particular  dress ;  the  bent  of  his  mind 

was   towards  religious   obedience,  rather   than   the  pursuit  of  and  studies 

philosophy,   and   he  possessed  an  inquiring  spirit.      His  reli- philosophy. 

gious  tendency  appears  to  have  become  a  fixed  principle  during 

his  sojourn  with  the  priests  of  various  establishments  in   the 

east.     There  is  little  doubt  that  during  his  prolonged  residence 

in  these  countries,  he  had  acquired  the  eastern  languages,  and 

these  gave  him  ready  access  to  stores  of  knowledge  which  had 

not  then  much  deteriorated. 

On  returning  to  his  native  country,  Pythagoras  founded  a  He  founds 
Bhuddistic  order,  the  influence  of  which,  as  a  learned  institu- gystJ^'and 
tion,   could  not  fail  to  be  very  great  among  the  Greeks,  who  ^^}.^°^  °{   . 

'  _  ^     o  c^  7  philosophy  in 

were  then  without  any  literature  of  their  own:  the  school  of  Greece, 
Pythagoras,  therefore,  held  nearly  the  same  place  in  Greece,  as 
that  of  the  prophets  held  in  other  countries. 

Pythagoras  has  been  called  the  father  of  geometry,  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  medicine,  and  natural  philosophy ;  and  to 
this  sage  has  been  attributed  many  discoveries  in  the  arts,  as 
well  as  the  institution  of  the  priest  caste.  The  supposed  inven- 
tions were,  however,  chiefly  if  not  entirely  borrowed  from  the 
easterns  f  but  as  learned  men  subsequently  studied  the  Pytha- 
gorean philosophy  in  Grecia  Magna  for  several  centuries,  the 
belief  was  established  that  the  tenets  inculcated  were  those  of 
the  founder  of  that  school. 

It  is  not  known  whether  eastern  books  were  brought  to  Greece  The  Golden 
by  Pythagoras,    or  whether  he  merely  translated  passages  for  poYeTtoTave 
the  use  of  his  pupils.      His  Golden  Verses  (Aurea  Carmina)  ^^enofeastem 
appear  so  completely  Bhuddistic,  that  possibly,  the  original,  in 

'  Diog.  Laert.  lib.  VIII.,  seg.  ill. 

*  Cicero,  de  Naturti  Deorum,  lib.  II.,  p.  16. 

^  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Stromat.  I.,  p.  303,  C.     Lntiticc,  1629. 


524 


PLATO  STUDIES  IN  EGYPT  AND  PERSIA.  [cHAP.  XVI. 


Plato  studies 
under  the 
Egyptian 
priests. 


a  Sanscrit  or  Tibetan  version,  may  yet  be  found  in  some  mo- 
nastery of  that  religion  in  China  or  elsewhere. 

Pythagoras  was  the  next  after  Homer  who  wrote  a  work  on 
the  use  of  plants,  the  origin  of  which  he  ascribed  to  Apollo  and 
the  gods  generally.  Another  work  on  the  same  subject  was 
written  by  Democritus :  both  philosophers  were  prepared  for 
the  task  by  previous  study  under  the  Magi  of  Persia,  and  the 
learned  men  in  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  and  Egypt. 

Plato,  after  studying  under  Socrates,  went  at  the  age  of 
twenty-eight  to  prosecute  his  studies  at  Megara;  and  subse- 
quently he  acquired  the  Pythagorean  philosophy  under  Phi- 
lolaus  and  Eurytus,  two  of  its  most  distinguished  disciples.  He 
soon,  however,  saw  the  advantage  of  seeking  knowledge  at  its 
source ;  and,  Nvith  this  object  in  view,  he  proceeded  in  the  first 
instance  to  Egypt,  where  he  continued  for  some  time  studying 
under  the  priests.^  Subsequently  he  reached  Persia,^  but  he 
was  prevented  by  existing  wars  from  visiting  India  f  so  that  he 
must  have  acquired  the  Indian  philosophy  in  Persia.^  He 
died  at  x4.thens  about  348  b.  c,  being  in  his  eighty-first  year. 

In  numerous  passages  of  his  works,  Plato  acknowledges  that 
he  was  indebted  for  many  things  to  the  Egyptian  priests,  of 
whom  he  always  speaks  in  high  terms.^  It  is,  however,  to  be 
observed,  that  the  philosophical  theories  which  he  found  scat- 
tered through  Greek  literature  were,  for  the  most  part,  of 
oriental  origin ;  and  it  is  probable,  that  if  his  own  .system  were 
closely  analysed,  little  would  be  found  that  was  not  originally 
eastern.  Plato  was  a  man  of  powerful  genius,  although  what 
he  says  of  the  Greeks  in  general,  respecting  their  having  bor- 
w'!?ship"'^  rowed  astronomy  and  star  worship  from  the  barbarians,"  and 
brought  from  ^Iso  respecting  their  improvement  of  whatever  they  imported,^ 
may  be  applied  to  himself  He  purified  and  refined  upon  the 
oriental  philosophy,  using  in  his  writings  beautiful  language, 
and  an  attractive  style ;   so  that,  through  his  works,   wisdom 


Grecian 

astr 
star 


'  Diog.  Laert ,  lib.  III.,  seg.  vi.  ^  Pliny,  lib.  XXX.,  cap.  i. 

^  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  III.,  aeg.  vii. 

■•  Clemens  of  Alex.,  Stromat.  I.,  p.  303,  C.     Lutitise,  1629. 

'  Ibid.  «  Ibid.  '  Platonis,  Epinoniis,  p.  988. 


CHAP.  XVI.]  PLATO  MADE  EASTERN  PHILOSOPHY  ATTRACTIVE.   525 

aud  truth  passed  from  nation  to  nation  in  the  most  pleasing 
form. 

Previously  to  his  time,   eastern  philosophy  had  been  clothed  Philosophy 

.        ,  1  1     •/  improved  by 

in  the  forbidding  garb  of  dogmas,  by  Hermes,  Zoroaster,  and  piato. 
other  sages,  who  called  themselves  prophets  :  its  precepts  were 
committed  to  memory ;'  and,  probably,  it  was  only  understood 
by  the  priests.  The  dogmas  being  given  as  positive  commands, 
no  room  was  left  for  the  exercise  of  reason ;  but  in  the  works 
of  Plato  the  same  ideas  are  conveyed  under  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  friends,  the  result  of  which  Avas  to  give  plea- 
sure while  conveying  instruction.  The  conformity  of  Plato's 
tenets  to  those  of  the  Hindus  is  manifest  from  the  following 
passage  in  Clemens   of  Alexandria : — "  It  is  evident  that  the  Plato's  know- 

•  •  •         •        ItdfiS  of  the 

Greeks  honoured  the  barbarians  most  highly  in  considering  East  acquired 
them  as  their  teachers '  and  the  givers  of  their  laws,  and  even  persfa.^^  ^ 
calling  them  gods.  They  (the  barbarians)  think  that  good 
souls,  as  Plato  says,  having  left  their  celestial  habitation,  sub- 
mitted to  come  into  this  lower  region,  where,  taking  upon  them 
bodies,  they  became  participators  in  all  the  ills  which  are  con- 
tracted in  this  life  :  in  their  care  of  the  human  race  they  framed 
laws,  and  taught  philosophy,  than  which  no  greater  good  ever 
came  or  will  come  to  the  human  race."" 

The  preceding  words  evidently  allude  to  the  inauguration  of 
Krishna,  and  it  w^ould  appear,  from  what  is  added  by  the  com- 
mentator, that  he  understood  them  in  this  sense.  Now,  as  Plato 
did  not  reach  India,  it  is  evident  that  he  must  have  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  that  philosophy  either  in  Egypt  or  Persia. 

A  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  admitted  to  have  The  immor- 
passed  to  the  Greek  from  the  Egyptians,  and  there  is  reason  tOgouPkl^io^u  to 
believe  that  it  came  to  the  latter  from  more  eastern  countries.  *^^  Easterns. 
Noah  himself  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  this  great  truth, 
even  if  it  can  be  supposed  to  have  been  forgotten  or  lost  during 
the  ages  immediately  preceding  the  deluge,  when  mankind  had 
reached  the  greatest  state  of  corruption. 

What  has  been  observed  regarding  Plato,  may  equally  be 
applied  to  the  most  distinguished  of  his  pupils,  Aristotle.     The 

'  Clemens  of  Alexan.,  Stromal.  I. 
*  Stromat.  I.,  p.  303,  A. 


526   PHILOSOPHY  OF  PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  COMPARED.  [cHAP.  XVI. 


Aristotle's 
natural  history 
drawn  from 
Asia. 


His  philosophy 
derived  from 
the  East. 


Plato's 
philosophy 
compared 
■with  that  of 
Aristotle. 


Plato's 
philosophy 
had  its  origin 


work  of  the  latter  on  natural  philosophy,  the  description  of 
exotic  animals,  and  of  the  Nile,  the  works  on  magic  and  ether, 
and  the  whole  book,  De  Coelo,  bear  the  impress  of  an  oriental 
origin.  This  is  particularly  shown  by  two  circumstances, 
namely,  the  description  of  the  elephant  and  the  rites  of  the 
Magi,  since  both  must  have  had  an  eastern  source.  Aristotle 
collected  much  "  information  by  conversing  with  natives  of 
the  east;  and  his  contemporary,  Euotas,  asserts,  that  he  had 
frequently  seen  him  in  the  society  of  persons,  from  Avhom  he 
obtained  information,  adding  that  much  of  his  knowledge  was 
drawn  from  sacred  works,  and  likewise  from  his  predecessors 
who  had  studied  in  the  east. 

The  principles  contained  in  the  book,  De  Coelo,  had  been 
known  for  a  thousand  years  in  the  east,  and  the  acquaintance 
of  Aristotle  with  the  eastern  animals  and  plants,  which  he 
describes,  must  have  been  from  his  own  personal  inspection,  or 
that  of  some  individual  at  their  native  places.  The  celebrated 
work  on  logic  was  supposed  to  be  almost  entirely  translated 
from  Ocellus,  who  is  known  to  have  derived  his  philosophy  from 
the  east. 

Plato's  philosophy  is  that  of  the  Indo-Chinese  nations,  whilst 
that  of  his  pupil  approaches  the  philosophy  of  the  Shemitic 
people.  The  latter  having  the  laws  of  the  human  understand- 
ing (logic)  as  a  basis,  may  be  said  to  begin  by  the  study  of 
nature,  particularly  as  revealed  in  the  science  of  astronomy. 
Aristotle  thus  lays  the  foundation  of  metaphysics ;  and,  that  the 
doctrines  and  principles  of  the  Chaldeans  were  followed  by  this 
philosopher  may  be  proved  indirectly  by  the  fact,  that  the 
Arabians,  who  ever  retained  among  them  the  philosophy  of 
the  Chaldeans,  and  who  followed  it  exclusively  before  the  works 
of  Aristotle  were  translated  into  Arabic,  afterwards  readily 
adopted  those  works  when  introduced  into  their  country,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  works  of  Plato.  The  Miihammedan  theologists 
and  lawyers  being  prepared  to  receive  the  tenets  of  the  philoso- 
pher of  Stagira,  with  which,  from  their  previous  studies,  they 
were  already  familiar. 

It  would  appear  that  Plato's  philosophy  had  its  origin  in  the 
regions  of  Persia  and  India;  for  he  and  other  philosophers 


CHAP.  XVI.]       Dt:MOCllITUS  SEEKS  KNOWLEDGE  IN  INDIA.  527 

considered  the  tenets  of  the  Magi  as  the  perfection  of  wisdom.'  in  Persia  and 
Following  the  Indians  particularly,  Plato  despises  the  present, 
for  the  sake  of  a  future  life ;  and  like  them  he  rests  philosophy 
on  the  imagination  rather  than  on  the  reason. 

The  philosopher  Democritus  formed  an  early  and  close  link  Democritus 
between  Greece  and  Assyria,  having  been  brought  up  and  in- the^Magi  and 
structed    by    the    Magians   and  Chaldeans,   who    accompanied  ^^^''^*'^"^- 
Xerxes  to  the  former  country,   and  who  were,   it  appears,  for 
some  time  inmates  of  his  father's  house.^     It  is  supposed  that 
he  was  one  of  the  youths,  who,  by  command  of  Xerxes,  were 
instructed  in  the  religion  and  philosophy  of  Persia,  with  a  view 
to  their  introduction  into  Greece.     Orpheus,  however,  was  the  Magism  makes 
first  who  introduced  magism  and  medicine,^  but  it  appears  that  cremf.^  "^ 
Osthanes  was  the  chief  instrument,  and  that  magism  made  great 
progress   in   that  country,   after   the    w^ars  of  Xerxes."*     It  is 
certain,   also,  that  Pythagoras,   Empedocles,  Democritus,  and 
Plato,  passed  the  sea,  and  exiled  themselves  from  their  native 
land,  in  order  to  bring  to  it  the  philosophy  of  the  east.^     It  is 
stated  by  Diogenes  Laertius,^  that  when  Democritus  was  of  age, 
he  increased  his  knowledge  by  travelling  to  India  and  Ethiopia, 
as  Pythagoras  had  done,   and   as  Plato  had  intended  to  do. 
Moreover,  the  author  in  question,  as  well  as   others,   mention 
certain  Egyptian  doctrines  as  being  of  Indian  origin;  and  even 
the  Egyptians    themselves,   in  some    instances,   admitted   that  Egyptian 
they  had  learned  them  from  the  Hindus.      It  would,  therefore,  mndd  origin. 
appear  from  this  admission,  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Egyptians, 
the  Magian  and  the  Indian  were  at  that  time  the  most  distin- 
guished schools  of  philosophy,  and  those  in   which  a  learned 
education  should  terminate. 

Democritus  appears  to  have  been  taught  astronomy  by  the  Democritus 
Chaldeans,  and  when  Anaxagoras  published  the  opinions  of  the  'nt^oduces 

'  c  r  r  ^     eastern  astro- 

latter,  he  showed  that  they  were  much  more  ancient  than  his  "omy,  &c., 
time,  and  admitted  to  whom  they  belonged  ;  but  in  acquiring  a 
technical  knowledge  of  theology  from  the  IMagi,  he  adopted  their 
superstitions  as  well  as  their  philosophy." 

'  Pliny,  lib.  XXX  ,  cap.  i.  -  Diog.  Laert.,  lib.  IX.,  seg.  xxxv. 

-'  Pliny,  lib.  XXX.,  cap.  i.  *  Ibid.  *  Ibid. 

*  Lib.  IX.,  seg.  xxxv.,  &c.  "  Pliny,  lib.  XXX..  cap.  i. 


528 


THE  TRAVELS  OF  HERODOTUS. 


[chap.  XVI. 


Herodotus 
travels  to 
collect 
materials  for 
history. 


His  works,  however,  on  astronomy,  geometry,  music, 
botany,  &c.,  were  considered  the  bases  of  these  sciences  by 
the  Greeks ;  and  the  principles  being  once  established,  or  laid 
down,  it  was  easy  to  make  improvements :  nor  is  it  difficult  to 
perceive  that,  in  most  instances,  such  improvements  were  the 
result  of  careful  attention  to  eastern  literature,  though,  naturally 
enough,  they  have  been  ascribed  to  the  individual  who  first 
introduced  them.  For  instance,  to  OEonopides,  of  Cos  or  Coos, 
the  cotemporary  of  Democritus,  was  attributed  the  discovery 
of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  whereas  he  learned  this  im- 
portant fact  from  the  Egyptians. 

Halicarnassus,  now  Boudroun,  the  birth-place  of  the  distin- 
guished Herodotus,  was  more  of  a  Persian  than  a  Greek  city. 
It  vras  for  a  time  under  Lydia,'  and  it  again  reverted  to  the 
power  of  the  great  king.^  The  travels  during  which  Herodotus 
collected  materials  for  his  history,  included  Tyre,^  Palestine,^ 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Media  and  Babylonia,^  Colchis,  the  Phasis, 
and  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  He  also  remained  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  Egypt,  where  he  visited  every  town  of  im- 
portance.® It  is  supposed  that  he  must  have  acquired  the 
Persian  language,  as  he  frequently  compares  the  authorities  of 
that  kingdom  with  those  of  Greece  and  Lydia. 

The  account  given  of  eastern  history  bears  the  stamp  of 
oriental  tradition,  which,  though  tolerably  correct  as  to  isolated 
circumstances,  has,  in  many  instances,  been  either  mixed  up 
with  other  matters,  or  the  same  event  has  been  applied  to 
different  individuals,  or  to  different  periods  of  time.  For 
He  confounds  example,  Hcrodotus"  relates  of  Phraortes,  the  predecessor  of 
Dejoces!  ^*'  Dejoccs,  nearly  all  that  the  Persians  say  of  the  latter 
(Kaikobad).  The  revolt  of  the  Medes  against  the  Assyrians 
was,  like  all  eastern  revolutions,  caused  by  the  machinations 
of  a  powerful  governor,  who  attempted  to  form  a  separate 
dynasty.®  The  precision  of  Herodotus,  however,  regarding 
the  history  of  Cyrus'  (since  borne  out  by  inscriptions),  and 

'  Herod  ,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xxvii.  *  Ibid.,  cap.  clxxiv. 

'  Ibiil.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xliv.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  cvi. ;  lib.  III.,  cap.  v. 

^  Ibid.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  civ.  '  Ibid.,  lib.  II  ,  cap.  xxix.,  xxxii. 

'  Lib.  I.,  cap.  xcv.  *  Ibid.,  lib.  I.,  cap.  xcvi.,  xcvii. 

*  Lib.  I.,  cap.  cvii.,  cviii,  &c. 


CHAP.  XVT.]        ORIENTAL  SCIENCES  IMPERFECTLY  TAUGHT.  529 

many  other  facts  which  could  scarcely  have  been  detailed  from  His  materials 
memory,  show  that  he  had  the  use  of  original  oriental  materials  wriueut'paW 
for  the  chief  part  of  his  invaluable  history.     But  as  these  were  °'"^'* 
probably  difficult  of  access,  and  oral  testimony  more  common, 
it  is  probable  that  a  large  portion  of  their  information  reached 
the  Greeks  through  the  latter  medium.     It  may  be  observed, 
that  rules  of  operation  in  science  were  frequently  known  to  the 
Greeks  before  their  investigations  had  reached  them.     Thus, 
Thales  learned  to  calculate  eclipses  before  the  principles  of 
astronomy  had  been  brought  into  Greece.     This  was  particu- 
larly the  case  with  medicine,  as  the  priests  only  communicated 
its   most  important  precepts  to  their  Greek  pupils.     In  phi-  Mauuer  in 
losophy  they  propounded  axioms  ;  in  astronomy  they  gave  the  'g  ".^^jj^^^^ 
leading  principles  in  short  sentences.     In  general,  the  priests,  pn^sts  gave 
as  shown  in  the  cases  of  Solon  and  Herodotus,  read  a  subject 
from  their  books,  when  their  pupils,  if  so  disposed,  committed 
what  they  heard  to  writing. 

The  historians  who  succeeded  Herodotus  were  more  anxious  Rhetoric 
about  style  than  fidelity,  schools  of  rhetoric  being  the  favourite  ^SrT*^^* 
establishments  ;  and  Isocrates  was  compared  to  the  famous 
wooden   horse  of  Troy  on  account  of  the  number  of  distin- 
guished pupils  who  proceeded  from  his  school.     As  regarded 
ancient  history,  however,  the  Greek  writers  of  this  time  mostly 
contented  themselves  with  making  extracts  from  the  labours  of 
their  more  diligent  predecessors,   who  had   travelled  for   the 
purpose  of  collecting  traditional  history.     Even  the  Cyropsedia 
and  the  Anabasis   are  confined   to  barren  facts,  without  any 
attempt  being  made   to  shoM'  what  had  brought  them  about. 
Geography,  one  of  the  eyes  of  history,  is  almost  entirely  over-  Defects  of 
looked;  yet,   owing  to  the  importance  of  the  subjects,  these ^""^"^ ^''^ 
works  have  lived,  and  will  continue  to  live,  notwithstanding 
their  defects. 

The  eastern  origin  of  many  sciences  is  sufficiently  evident :  Astronomy 
astronomy,  in  particular,  was  first  reduced  to  a  system  in  the  fhe'iStf  °™ 
celebrated  school  of  Alexandria ;  but  it  had  existed  long  pre- 
viously,   and    the    popular    knowledge    which    the    Egyptians 
possessed  of  this  science  might  have  served  as  the  basis  of  that 

VOL.  II.  2    m 


530      ASTRONOMY,  MECHANICS,  ETC.,  FROM  THE  EAST.    [CHAP.  XVI. 

which  was  taught  in  the  new  school,  even  if  the  works  of  Hip- 
parchus  had  not  existed. 
Ptolemy  first        Ptolemy,  who  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  astronomers, 
rsystem^of     brought  iuto  a  system  all  the  discoveries  which  had  been  pre- 
astronomy.      yiously  made ;  and  having  verified  the  facts  by  observations, 
his  work,  giving  the  result,  became  the  text-book  of  all  subse- 
quent astronomers  for  the  next  thousand  years. 
Astronomy  Xhe  fragments  preserved  by  the  Greeks  apparently  give  but 

the  time  of      a  faint  idea  of  the  actual  state  of  this  science  among  eastern 
Pythagoras.     j^^^^Qj^g^     Jl^  jg  possible  that  the  Copernican  system  may  have 
been   known   to  Pythagoras;    but   as   the  knowledge  of  this 
system  would  have  overthrown  the  ancient  religions,  the  priests 
naturally  kept  it  to   themselves,  and  thus   it  was  almost  lost 
during  the  decline  of  knowledge  which  took  place  in  the  east 
from  the  time  of  Pythagoras.    Without,  however,  entering  more 
into  the  question,  it  may  be  sufficient  here  to  observe,  that  the 
progress  which  it  is  admitted  had   been  made  by  the  Indo- 
Chinese  and  Egyptian  nations,  as  well  as  at  Babylon,  establishes 
the  fact  that  astronomy  has  an  undoubted  claim  to  an  eastern 
origin. 
Mechanics  and      Mechanics  owed  many  great  improvements  to  Archimedes, 
derived  from    who,  although  uot  One  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  had  studied 
the  East.         ^|^^  scicuce  in  Egypt,  where,  for  the  transport  of  ponderous 
weights  and  the  construction  of  vast  edifices,  it  was  in  constant 
application. 

It  is  admitted,  also,  that  geometry  was  first  brought  into 
practical  use  in  this  kingdom :  it  is  not,  therefore,  surprising 
that  Euclid  was  enabled  to  publish  a  new  and  complete  work 
on  the  subject  almost  immediately  after  the  foundation  of  the 
Alexandrian  school.  As  this  science  was  unconnected  with 
religion,  mystery  was  not  necessary,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  the  Greek  philosophers  who  resorted  to 
Egypt  had  every  facility  given  them  for  its  acquisition ;  and, 
in  fact,  before  the  time  of  Euclid,  they  were  acquainted  with 
many  of  its  most  important  propositions. 

Mineralogy  was  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  except  so  far  as 
they  derived  a  knowledge  of  it  from  the  east,  where  metals  and 


CHAP.  XVr.]   MINERALOGY  AND  BOTANY  FROM  THE  EAST.     531 

the  precious  stones  are  much  more  abundant  than  in  Europe,'  The  Easterns 
and  where  they  have  long  been  well  known  and  classed.^     That  acquainted 
the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  the  mineral  kingdom,    is  raiog^'"^' 
evident  from  many  passages  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  from 
other  parts  of  the  sacred  volume.^     Some   stones  were  con- 
sidered as  talismans,  and  were  sacred  to  the  planets,  while 
others  were  supposed  to  possess  medicinal  properties.    Accord- 
ing to   the  Dabistan,    every  plant   could   be   represented   or 
depicted   by  difl'erent  stones   and    metals;    and  the  Book  of 
Precious  Stones,  compiled  by  Miihammed  Ibn  Mansiir*   in  the  Work  of  iba 
seventh  century  of  the  Hijrah  for  the  use  of  the  Shah  of  Persia,  precious 
an  original  and  valuable  work,  clearly  shows  the  eastern  origin  ^'^°*^^' 
of  mineralogy. 

Botany  was  noticed  by  Pythagoras  and  Democritus;^  and  Botany  studied 

•  1  .  II-  /•     1  o      1  by  Pythagoras 

in  ascribmg  the  discovery  or  the  use  oi  plants  to  the  gods,  and  Demo- 
Pythagoras  indirectly  acknowledges  that  his  materials  were^"^^' 
derived  from  Egypt.  The  work  of  Theophrastus  on  plants  is 
written  in  accordance  with  the  religious  ideas  of  the  ancient 
Asiatic  nations  ;  and  his  vanity  in  adding  the  Egyptian 
synonymes,  in  order  to  display  his  erudition,  of  itself 
establishes  the  fact  that  this  branch  of  knowledge  had  been 
previously  cultivated  in  Egypt. 

Dioscorides,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  physician  of  Dioscorides 
Antony  and  Cleopatra,  in  his  work  on  medicinal  herbs,  seldom 
fails  to  add  their  barbarian  names.  The  medicinal  properties 
are,  in  most  cases,  correctly  defined,  and  the  writer  seems 
to  have  been  better  acquainted  with  the  flora  of  Egypt  and 
of  some  parts  of  Asia  than  he  was  with  that  of  Greece  and 
Italy. 

Even  before  the  time  of  Hippocrates  some  physicians  ap-  Blood  the 
pear  to  have  maintained  that  blood  was  the  principle  of  life,"  wte,  a?cor°ding 
and  the  theory  is  advocated  in  the  Koran.     In  Genesis,  also,  ^''"'pp'"'"'^^'''' 

'  Pliny,  lib.  XXXVIL,  cap.  iv.,  v.,  &c. 

*  Vol.  I.,  pp.  75,  76. 

«  Gen.  chap.  II.,  v.  12  ;  Exod.,  chap.  XXVIII.,  v.  9,  17-20.     See  also 
Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezekiel,  &c. 

*  Translated  about  thirty  years  ago  by  Von  Hammer. 

*  Pliny,  lib.  XXV.,  cap.  iii.  ^  Hipp.,  De  Natura  Hominis. 

2  M  2 


532 


THEORIES  OF  GALEN. 


[chap.  XVI. 


Opiuions  of 
Hierophilus 
aud  Galen. 


The  geogra- 
phical and 
medical 
knowledge  of 
Hippocrates 
was  derived 
from  the  East, 


Medical 
system  of 
Galen,  like 
that  of  the 
Chinese. 


the  blood  is  called  the  life.^  Hippocrates,  however,  attempts 
to  prove  that  life  is  the  result  of  mixture,  and  that  the  four 
elements,  fire,  water,  air,  and  earth,  form  ingredients  which, 
in  the  animal  frame,  are  represented  by  four  humours,  blood, 
mucus,  and  black  and  yellow  bile.  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Hie- 
rophilus, and  Galen  were  of  the  same  opinion,  as  were  also  the 
Chinese,  the  Chaldeans,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  and  the  theory  was  connected  with  the  worship  of 
the  stars."  There  is,  therefore,  no  doubt  that  the  opinion 
of  Hippocrates  and  his  knowledge  of  medicine  were  derived 
from  the  east,  although  we  have  no  account  of  his  having 
travelled  thither.  The  amount  of  geographical  and  ethno- 
graphicaP  science  which  he  displays,  particularly  his  knowledge 
of  the  Scythians,'*  which  even  exceeds  that  of  Herodotus,  is, 
however,  very  great.  He  was  evidently  perfectly  acquainted 
with  Egypt  and  Western  Asia  as  well  as  his  own  country ;  and 
the  Greeks  of  Alexandria  subsequently  acquired  and  followed 
the  system  of  medicine  which  he  had  developed.  Galen  does 
not  admit  that  Hippocrates  derived  his  knowledge  chiefly,  or 
even  partially,  from  the  east,  while  he  mentions  the  medical 
skill  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  It  is,  however,  right  to  observe 
that  the  learned  and  talented  Galen,  whose  books  contain 
almost  everything  that  was  known  to  the  ancients  about 
medicine,  asserts  that  Hippocrates  was  the  first  to  propound 
the  theory  of  the  four  elements.  The  warm  and  cold  medicines 
of  Galen  were  intended  to  counteract  the  irregularities  arising 
from  the  excess  of  one  or  the  other  of  those  elements,  and  this 
treatment  prevailed  throughout  the  Greek  practice  of  medicine. 
We  find  similar  ideas  among  the  Chinese :  the  heart  (Lis)  is 
placed  under  the  sign  of  heaven,  and  has  the  nature  of  fire  ;  its 
action  is  greatest  in  summer:  the  liver.  Lie  or  Xipr,  is  the 
celestial  sign  for  spring ;  the  bladder  answers  to  the  element  of 
water,  and  belongs  to  the  north,  cold ;  the  lungs  are  under 
the  celestial  sign  grungus,  and  answer  to  the  earth,  as  well  as 

'  Chap.  IX.,  V.  4.  *  Preface  to  Mas'udi,  by  Aloys  Sprenger,  M.D. 

'  The  character  of  Asiatics,  contrasted  with  that  of  Europeans,  drawn  by 
Hippocrates  himself,  gives  evidence  of  his  enlarged  mind. 
*  Hipp.,  De  JEre  et  Locia. 


CHAP.  XVI.J  EARLY  EXPEDITIONS  TO  THE  EAST.  533 

the  five  metals,  Vain  Ho  116,  corresponding  to  the  same  number 
of  planet^!.' 

In  addition  to  the  preceding-  circumstances,  the  reader  may  influence  of 
be  reminded  of  the  influence  which  the  Anabasis  is  admitted  to  conquests.'^  ^ 
have  exercised  upon  modern  warfare,  as  it  previously  had  done 
upon  the  movements  of  the  conqueror  of  the  world,  and  of  the 
nobler  result  which  followed  from  the  conquests  of  Alexander : 
these  united  Europe  with  Asia  in  intellectual  intercourse,  and 
have  produced  more  important  consequences  than  any  other 
event  recorded  in  the  profane  history  of  mankind. 

It  has  been  seen   that  the  intercourse  with  the  east,  which  Continuation 
commenced  with  Alexander,  was  continued  by  the  wars  of  his  intercourse 
successors,  and  again  by  those  of  the  Parthians  and  Romans,  ^f  ^igxander^ 
To  the  latter  succeeded  the  wide-spreading  conquests  of  the 
Arabs,  the  enterprises  of  the  crusaders,  and  the  western  spread 
of  the  Mongol  and  Tartar  hordes,   which,   in  some  measure, 
amalgamated  Asia  and  Europe  by  means  of  numerous  colonies 
coming  from  the  former  into  the   latter  continent.     The   last 
considerable  body  of  easterns  was  that  of  the  'Osmanli  Turks, 
who    established   themselves    in    Europe    in    the   fourteenth 
century. 

Subsequent  intercourse  between  the  east  and  the  west  has  Merchants  and 
been  chiefly  confined   to  the  important  but  peaceful  operations  eastem*^ 
of  the  merchant  or  the  journeyings  of  travellers.     Combining  countries. 
the  character  of  merchant  and  traveller,  and  taking  advantage 
of  the  information  obtained  by  Carpini,  Ascelin,  and  Rubruquis, 
in  1254,   the  celebrated  Venetian,  Marco  Polo,  after  visiting 
the  khan    of  the  western  Tartars,  and  rounding  the  Caspian 
Sea,   reached  Bokhara  in   1260,   and  being  successful  in  his  Marco  Poio 
speculations,  he  made  his  way  to  the  court  of  Kublai,  the  great  Bokhara,  and 
khan    of  the  Mongols.     Here   he    so   completely   ingratiated 
himself  into  favour  that  he  was  employed  on  different  embassies, 
which  made  him  acquainted  with  nearly  one-half  of  Asia,  and 
also  with  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  seas. 

He  visited  Malacca,  Ceylon,  Malabar,  and  Ornuiz,  and  re- returns  by  way 
turned  to   Italy  after  an  absence  of  nineteen  years,  bringing  cuif. 

'  Apud  Cleyer  ile  Medicina  Sinica,  p.  9,  compare  Hipp.,  De  Natura, 
cap.  cxi. 


534 


RESULT  OF  MARCO  POLO  S  TRAVELS.  [CHAP.  XVL 


Vasco  de 
Gama  rounds 
the  Cape. 


Jenkinson's 

overland 

journey. 


Charter  for 
trade  with 
Babylon. 


Benjamin  of 

Tudela's 

travels. 


Eklrisi  and 
Abu-1-feda. 


with  him  such  a  fund  of  information  about  Asia,  collected  from 
personal  observation  as  well  as  that  of  others,  that  he  has  justly 
obtained  the  title  of  the  Herodotus  of  the  middle  ages. 

It  is  believed  that  his  work  materially  influenced  the  views 
of  Columbus  in  his  search  for  a  passage  to  India,  and  also  those 
of  the  mariner  Vasco  de  Gama,  who,  in  proceeding  thitherward, 
first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  At  a  time  when  so 
little  was  known  of  the  east,  the  narrative  of  this  persevering 
traveller  naturally  appeared  quite  marvellous ;  but  time  and  a 
better  acquaintance  with  these  countries  have  established  its 
fidelit}^ 

At  this  period  the  Venetians  were  carrying  on  a  lucrative 
commerce  with  India  by  the  Red  Sea  ;  whilst  their  rivals,  the 
Genoese,  reached  the  same  part  of  the  world  from  the  shores  of 
Asia  Minor  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea,  the  Crimea,  Kaffa,  Azov, 
Astrakhan,  Khiva,  and  Tashkend. 

Emulating  the  success  of  the  Venetian  and  Genoese  trade  to 
India  by  these  routes,  Jenkinson  and  others  were  despatched 
from  England,  in  1557  and  in  subsequent  years,  to  open  a  trade 
with  China  through  the  Caspian  Sea.  But  the  real  state  of 
the  eastern  countries  being  little  understood,  none  of  the  parties 
even  communicated  with  those  who  carried  on  the  trade  through 
central  Asia. 

A  charter  was  given  to  the  Levant  Company  in  1585,  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  to  trade  to  Babylon,  &;c. ;  and,  in  1599, 
another  company  was  formed  to  trade  to  India,  and  establish 
factories  in  China,  Japan,  India,  Amboyna,  Java,  and  Sumatra ; 
when  Mildenhall,  Hawkins,  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  and  others  were 
despatched  overland,  in  consequence,  to  the  court  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  in  order  to  establish  commercial  relations  with  that 
power. 

Various  ancient  travellers  likewise  contributed  to  this  object. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  was  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who, 
between  1160  and  1173,  in  his  persevering  search  after  the 
sons  of  Israel,  visited,  besides  several  countries  in  Europe,  the 
principal  parts  of  Syria,  Persia,  and  Arabia :  he  has  described 
the  places  he  has  seen  with  manifest  fidelity. 

The  geography  of  Edrisi,   arranged  like  tliat  of  Ptolemy 


CHAP.  XVI. J        ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION.  535 

according  to  climates,  and  that  of  Abii-l-feda,  both  of  them 
valuable  works,  subsequently  appeared  ;  and,  still  later,  one  by 
the  traveller  Ibn  Batuta,  who  spent  thirty  years  (from  1324  to 
1354)  in  visiting  different  countries.  As  a  Muslim,  who  could 
every  where  claim  hospitality,  the  difficulties  of  the  journey 
were  greatly  diminished,  if  compared  with  those  experienced 
by  Christian  travellers.  Having  visited  the  regions  from 
Timbuctoo  to  the  eastern  coast  of  China,  he  may  be  con- 
sidered the  most  extensive  of  all  travellers.' 

The  line  of  the  Euphrates  was  a  good  deal  frequented  at  a 
later  period.  Eauwolf  descended  the  river  in  1574,  and  the  Rauwoif, 
Venetian  jeweller  Balbi  in  1579;  also.  Fitch,  Eldred,  and  &c.  ' 
others  did  so  in  1583,  with  merchandise.  Pococke  commenced 
his  travels  in  1640,  and  Niebuhr  visited  Mesopotamia  in  1762 ; 
Olivier  travelled  between  1793  and  1798,  and  the  author  of 
the  present  work  between  1829  and  1832. 

With  a  view  to  the  extension  of  the  eastern  trade  which  the  Expedition  of 
French  had  long  carried  on  extensively  from  Aleppo,  a  formi- 1^^^  E^pt 
dable  expedition  quitted  Toulon  and  landed  at  Alexandria  in 
1798.     The  city  founded  by  the  king  of  Macedon  for  a  like 
purpose  was  selected,  on  account  of  its  advantageous  position, 
by  the  modern  Alexander ;  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  proposed 
to  make   it  once  more  the   emporium  of  eastern    commerce. 
Some  of  the  most  talented    scientific  men  of  whom   France  sdeutific 
could  boast  accompanied  the  expedition,  and  were  forthwith  contemplated, 
employed  in  elucidating  the  ancient  monuments,  in  ascertaining 
the  capabilities,  and  at  the  same  time  developing  the  resources, 
of  the  country.     The  height  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  compared  with  improvements 
that  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  carefully  determined,  and  a  E^pl^ 
water  communication  was  projected  between  those  seas,  while 
Barrages  and  other  works  were  planned  to  command  the  fer- 
tilizing effects   of  the  Nile.     The  battle  of  Aboukir  arrested 
these  projects ;  while  the  march  iiito  Syria  and  Persia  was  cut 
short  by  the  noble  defence  of  'Akka ;  and  the  French  army  at 
length  capitulated  in  consequence  of  a  well-timed  combination 
of  the  British  forces  arriving  almost  simultaneously  both  from 
India  and  Europe. 

'  Travels  of  Ibn  Batuta.  translated  bv  Professor  Lee,  of  Cambridge. 


536  napoleon's  designs  on  india.  [chap.  xvi. 

Denon's  great       Although  the  project  itself  was  defeated,  the  French  expe- 

Egypt.  dition   has  been  attended  with  many  advantages.     The  great 

work  of  Denon  is  of  itself  worth  the  whole  expedition.     An 

increased  commerce  has  been  one  result  of  this  undertaking, 

which  has   also  been  the  means  of  extending  our  knowledge 

of  eastern  nations  and  facilitating  our  intercourse  with  them. 

Subsequent  It  would  appear  that  Napoleon,  as  emperor,  did  not  abandon 

Napoleon  for   ^^^  plaus  he  had  formed  as  general ;  and  the  projected  march 

an  expedition  towards  India,  which  had  been  foiled  before  the  walls  of  'Akka 

to  India,  ^  '  _       •  • 

was  intended  to  be  renewed  under  more  favourable  circum- 
stances. His  first  project  was  to  have  followed  the  daring 
march  of  Alexander  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
towards  the  banks  of  the  Ganges.  His  later  intention  was  to 
pursue  the  steps  of  Trajan  and  Julian. 

Having  acquired  a  better  knowledge  of  the  country,  Napo- 
leon proposed  to  land  an  adequate  force  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Orontes,  where  a  trusty  individual,  provided  with  a  secret 
signal,  was  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  armament,  in  order  to 
guide  the  army  to  Mar'ash.  This  city  was  chosen  as  the  place 
of  the  first  operations  ;  the  adjoining  forest  being  capable  of 
supplying  timber  for  the  construction  of  the  flotilla  by  which 
the  troops  were  to  descend  the  Euphrates.  This  being  accom- 
plished, Basrah  was  to  have  been  fortified  as  a  place  d'armes, 
and  base  of  fiiture  operations :  the  details  of  this  project  were 
made  known  officially  to  a  gentleman  who  was  the  author's 
informant. 

The  great  continental  war,  however,  at  that  time  called 
Napoleon  to  another  field  of  enterprise  ;  but  his  favourite  pro- 
ject was  still  cherished.  The  hope  of  obtaining  the  riches  of 
India,  and  of  acquiring  ships,  colonies,  and  commerce,  still 
haunted  his  imagination ;  and  the  following  was  part  of  the 
secret  treaty  of  Tilsit : — 
Secret  articles  "  France  and  Russia  in  conjunction  to  march  an  army  of 
of  TiisTt''^*^   70,000  men  to  the  banks  of  the  Indus. 

"  Austria  to  allow  the  French  troops  to  march  through  her 
territories,  and  to  assist  their  descent  down  the  Danube  to  the 
Black  Sea. 

"  A  Russian  force  of  35,000  men  to  assemble  at  Astrachan ; 


CHAP.  XVI.]  MILITARY  ROUTE  FROM  ASTER-ABAD.  537 

25,000  regulars,  and  10,000  Cossacks.  This  force  to  be  con- 
veyed across  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Aster-abad,  there  to  await  the 
arrival  of  the  French  troops. 

"  Aster-abcid  to  be  the  rendezvous  of  the  combined  army  ;  The  combined 
to  contain  the  magazines  for  military  stores  and  provisions,  and  re™(iezvous  at 
to  be  the  central  point  of  the  line  of  communication  between  Aster-abad. 
France,  Hindustan,  and  Russia. 

"  The  French  division  of  35,000  men  to  embark  in  boats  on 
the  Danube,  and  to  sail  down  that  river  to  the  Black  Sea. 

"  On  their  arrival,  to  proceed  in  transports  supplied  by 
Russia  across  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov  to  Taganroc ; 
to  pass  thence  up  the  right  bank  of  the  Don,  to  the  small 
Cossack  town  of  Piali  Izbianca ;  to  cross  the  Don  there,  and 
march  by  land  to  the  city  of  Czavitzin,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Wolga. 

"  To  embark  on  the  Wolga  and  descend  to  Astrachan. 

''  From  Astrachan  to  embark  on  the  Caspian  for  Aster-abad. 

"  On  the  junction  of  the  French  and  Russians  at  Aster-abad, 
the  combined  army  immediately  to  begin  its  march,  and  pro- 
ceed by  the  cities  of  Meshid,  Herat,  Furrah,  and  Kandahar 
to  the  Indus."  The  computed  duration  of  the  march  of  the 
French  division  from  the  place  of  embarkation  on  the  Danube 
to  the  river  Indus  was  119  days. 

"  Aster-abad  is  a  town  in  the  province  of  Mazanderan,  close  Proposed  rente 
under  the  Elburz  mountains,  and  the  only  difficulty  for  artillery  fromVster^ 
is  said  to  be  from  the  town  to  two  miles  beyond  Yeavest  (alto-  '^^^  ' 
gether  about  fourteen  miles),  partly  forest  and  partly  mountain. 
But  an  easier  road  than  this  exists  from  Aster-abad  by  Kislauh  ; 
and  the  author  of  this  plan  considers  that,  by  taking  the  eastern 
road  by  Aster-abad  through  the  lands  inhabited  by  the  Yemsol 
and  Gohlan   tribes,  the  steep  passes  of  the  Elburz  might  be 
avoided. 

"  After  reaching  Shahrud,  on  the  road  to  Meshid,  the  force 
might  divide,  one  division  proceeding  by  the  direct  road  to 
Meshid,  and  the  other  by  Jah  Jerm  and  Kuchan :  this  latter 
is  two  or  three  days  farther,  and  the  marches  longer ;  but  good 
water  is  abundant,  while  the  country  is  better  peopled  and 
cultivated." 


(     538     ) 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF  THE  EAST. 

State  of  Oriental  Literature  considered  at  four  different  periods. — Asiatic 
Civilization  during  the  first  period. — Thales  and  other  Sages  acquire  Know- 
ledge in  the  East. — Intercourse  between  Asia  and  Europe. — Second  Period  : 
Literary  intercourse  commenced  by  Alexander  the  Great. — Library  and 
School  of  Alexandria. — The  people  of  the  East  were  prepared  for  Chris- 
tianity.— Influence  of  the  change  of  Eeligion  upon  Literature. — Spread  of 
Learning  and  Civilization  from  Alexandria. — Rome  becomes  the  centre  of 
the  Christian  world. — Third  period  :  Rise  of  the  Arab  nation. — The  Arabs 
resort  to  Literature  as  an  occupation,  and  become  the  medium  of  modern 
Civilization. — Study  of  the  Koran,  and  practical  use  of  Astronomy, 
Geometry,  Grammar,  and  Jurisprudence. — Learned  men  employed  at 
Baghdad. — History,  Novels,  and  learned  works. — Music  and  Literature 
cultivated  by  the  Arabs  in  the  eighth  century. — Bede's  knowledge  of 
Eastern  Countries,  and  use  of  Arabic  names,  &c.  —  The  Benedictine  Monks. 
— Their  friendly  relations  with  the  Arabs. — The  Monks  spread  a  know- 
ledge of  the  East. — The  modern  Sciences  cultivated  at  Baghdad. — Pursuits 
of  AJ  Mamun. — Rare  "Works  collected.  Sanscrit  and  other  Works  trans- 
lated.— Cultivation  of  Astronomy. — The  Abbot  of  St.  Gallen. — Arabic 
Manuscripts  collected  and  preserved  in  Europe. — The  Moors  introduce 
Arabic  Learning  into  Europe. — Rhymes  of  Olfrid. — European  Versifica- 
tion like  the  Arabic. — Provencale  Poetry,  and  Rhymes  of  Boethius. — 
Lvric  and  romantic  Poetry. — The  Italians  adopt  the  Arabic  Poetry. — 
Mathematical  Sciences  studied  in  Spain. — First  use  of  Indian  Notation. — 
Arabic  studied  in  the  Schools  in  France  and  Spain. — Spread  of  Arabic 
Learning  in  Europe. — Learned  Arabs  of  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth 
Centuries. — Progress  of  Oriental  studies  in  Africa. — Gerhard  of  Cremona 
translates  the  Almagest  and  other  works. — Raymond,  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  encourages  Oriental  studies. — Abu-1-Senna  and  other  works 
translated.  —  First  translation  of  the  Koran.  —  Hermannus  translates 
Aristotle's  works. — Constantinus  introduces  Arabic  medicine  into  Italy. — 
Travels  and  Acquirements  of  Constantinus. — Adelard  of  Bath,  and  his 
translation  of  Euclid,  «&:c. — Astronomical  Tables  prepared. — Adelard's 
Treatise  on  the  Astrolabe. — Arabic  Seminaries  in  France  tmd  Spain. — 
Samuel,  a  Jew  of  Fez. — Translation  of  El  Battani's  works. — Roger  of 
Hereford. — Daniel  Morley. — The  Emperor  Frederic  II.  encourages 
Ea.stern  Learning. — His  Circular  to  the  Colleges,  &c. — Miciiael  Scot  and 
liis  Translations. — Alphonso  encourages  the  study  of  Astronomy.  —  Fourtli 
period:  Superiority  of  Western  Literature  over  that  of  Eastern  Countries. 

Pursuing  the  account  just  given  of  the  intercourse  between  Asia 
and  Europe  in  early  times,  the  literature  and  the  sciences  of 


CHAP.  XVII.]        LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  IN  THE  EAST.  539 

those  continents  will  now  be  noticed.  The  introduction  of 
oriental  studies  in  the  west  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
general  history  of  mankind,  and  the  account  of  their  progress 
may  be  distributed  in  four  different  ages. 

The  first  comprises  the  period  from  the  dawn  of  history  to  Eastern  and 

western 

the  reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon.     The  second  extends  from  that  literature 
of  Alexander  to  the  rise  of  Miihammed.     The  third  relates  to  four  periods. 
the  great  change  brought  about  by  the  Arabs,  with  its  influence 
on  the  learning  of  the  middle  ages ;  and  the  fourth,  to  the  state 
of  literature  in  modern  times. 

AVithout  going  back  to  the  ages  of  tradition  and  fable,  it  may  state  of  Asia 
be  observed  that  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  remarkable  firJt'epoch. 
period  which  first  claims  attention,  western  Asia  was  distin- 
guished by  the  number  as  well  as  the  power  of  the  empires 
which  it  contained.  One  was  the  Scythian,  which  spread 
over  central  Asia  ;  another  was  the  Assyrian  ;  a  third,  the 
Babylonian ;  and  others  were  seated  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
Egypt. 

Whilst  Europe  was  in  comparative  darkness,  Asia  and  Africa  Theciviiiza- 
had  probably  lost  but  little  of  their  earlier  and  more  advanced  and  Africa 
civilization.     The  valleys  of  the  Euphrates,  the  Oxus,  and  the  p;:"^^/^^JJ'^^' 
Nile,  had  no  doubt  witnessed  the  energies  of  the  earliest  culti- 
vators  of  the  soil ;  while  corn,   fruits,  domestic  animals,  and 
implements  of  husl^andry   passed  from  the  east   to   the  west, 
probably  following  the  tide  of  migration  along  the  shores  of  colonies  and 
the  Baltic,  and  those  of  the  Black   and  Mediterranean  Seas,  clmetjMwo 
carrying  knowledge  and  civilization  in  their  train.     Although  g'"^*^^ '"*" 
as  it  were  lost  for  a  time,  enough  remains  to  show  the  early 
existence  of  oriental  learning,   and  to  enable   us  to  trace  its 
progress  into  Europe,  where  it  became  the  basis  of  modern 
literature  and  science. 

During  the  part  of  the  first  period,  extending  from  about  the  Thaies  and 
thirteenth  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  are  found  the  names  of  sages  swSt' 
Linus  the  Scythian,   Thaies,   Pherecydes,  Solon,  Pythagoras,  ^""J"'^'^^*' '° 
Hecateus,    Hellanicus,    Herodotus,    Plato,    Democritus,  Hip- 
pocrates,   Ctesias,    Theophrastus,   and   Aristotle.      All    these 
sages  were   connected,   personally  or  otherwise,   with  eastern 


540 


COMMERCIAL  INTERCOURSE  WITH  ASIA.       [CHAP.  XVII. 


Mercantile 
and  religious 
intercourse 
bet"ween 
Europe  and 
Asia. 


Literary 
intercourse 
between 
Greece  and 


Influence  of 
the  Cyropsedia 
and  Anabasis, 


and  of  the 
Greek 
mercenary 
service  upon 
Europe. 


countries  ;^  and  the  philosophy  of  I'ran  and  India  was,  by  their 
care,  elaborated  into  the  more  perfect  system  which  was  after- 
wards diffused  through  Europe. 

Through  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia,  especially  those  esta- 
blished near  Tarabuziin,  a  friendly  intercourse  was  maintained 
between  that  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  M'hich  continued 
up  to  the  time  of  Alexander.  It  may  also  be  observed,  that 
to  commercial  communications  were  joined  those  of  a  religious 
character.  Flotillas  annually  carried  pilgrims  from  Greece 
towards  those  parts  of  Asia  Minor  which  were  considered 
sacred ;  and  at  one  period  this  circumstance  gave  to  the  literary 
men,  even  of  Sicily,  great  facilities  of  obtaining  information 
from  the  east.  Philistus,  for  instance,  who  was  born  in  the 
86th  Olympiad,  must  have  had  literary  intercourse  with  Egypt, 
since  he  wrote  several  works  on  subjects  relating  to  that  country,* 
apparently  without  having  visited  it.  Graecia  Magna  also 
became  the  seat  of  a  philosophy,^  based  upon  the  tenets  of 
Pythagoras  and  the  doctrines  disseminated  by  Pherecydes. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  "Cyro- 
pa?dia"  and  the  "Anabasis"  have  long  held  high  rank  with 
relation  to  Asiatic  history,  or  that  there  were  other  influential 
circumstances  connected  with  Asia  in  operation  about  the 
same  period.  During  the  campaigns  of  the  younger  Cyrus, 
for  instance,  the  Greeks  served  on  both  sides.  They  had  also 
been  employed  in  the  east  from  the  time  of  Psammeticus,'*  when, 
as  well  as  subsequently,  mercenaries  returning  after  several 
years'  service  under  Egyptian  or  Persian  monarchs,  could 
scarcely  fail  to  introduce  into  Greece  some  of  the  civilization 
enjoyed  by  the  Asiatic  peoples.  Such  a  train  of  circumstances 
was  therefore  well  calculated  to  prepare  the  world  for  the  great 
changes  which  took  place  in  the  second  period :  this  last  may 
be  divided  into  two  portions,  each  of  which   claims  particular 


'  See  above,  p.  516-530. 

*  De  Eebus  iEgyptiacis,  lib.  XII.     De  Baccho,  de  Tljeologia  iEgyptia- 
ruiii,  lib.  VI.,  de  Syria  et  Lybia. 

"  Diogenes  Laertius,  lib.  I.,  seg.  cxvi. 

*  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  clii.,  cliii.,  and  cliv. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  LITERARY  INTERCOURSE  WITH  ASIA.  54 1 

attention,  on  account  of  the  influence  of  the  events  occurring  in 
it  on  the  intellectual  improvement  of  mankind. 

The    earlier   portion    commences   with    the    literary    inter-  Literary 
course  between  the  east  and  west  which  took  place  towards  the  with  Asia 
latter  part  of  Alexander's  reign ;  when  the  interests  and  pur-  Alexander.  '^ 
suits  of  the  people  in  Persia  and  Asia  Minor  were,  to  a  great 
extent,   amalgamated.      The    works  of   Hecateus   and   Hero- 
dotus were  at  this  period  beginning  to  excite  an  interest  in  the 
affairs  of  the  east :  this  was,  no  doubt,  increased  by  the  writings 
of  Ctesias,  which  relate  to  the  same  part  of  the  world ;  and  sub- 
sequently by  the  works  of  Aristotle.      The   great  library  at  Promoted  by 
Alexandria   containing    three    hundred    thousand   volumes    in  au^  school  of 
Chaldaic,  Coptic,  Egyptian,  Greek,  Latin,  &c.,'  and  the  well- ^i*^^^"^"^- 
known  school  in  that  city,  not  only  exercised  a  lasting  influence 
on  the  literature  of  Europe,  but  prepared  the  world  for  the 
momentous  events  of  the  second  period. 

The  conquests  of  Alexander  and  his  successors,  the  Parthian  The  world 
wars,  the  amalgamation,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  different  nations;  chratiaiiitj\ 
the  decline  of  paganism,  hastened  by  the  rise  of  the  Neoplatonic 
and  Gnostic  systems  of  philosophy,  added  to  the  revolution 
which  took  place  in  eastern  Asia  among  the  Bhuddists  about 
63  B.  c,  were  so  many  events  by  which  mankind  was  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  Christianity. 

The  intercourse  of  the  west  with  Asia  had  already  produced 
some  change  in  the  ancient  superstitions  which,  except  among 
the  descendants  of  Heber,  had  obscured  the   pure  light  pre- 
served in  the  family  of  Noah.     The  monopoly  of  knowledge  The  eastern 
by  the  priests  had  been  partly  broken  down  by  the  Macedonian  prepared  for 
conquests ;  and  about  this  period  Bhuddism  appears  to  have  ^  <=^^"g^- 
spread  over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia,   and  to  have 
imparted  among  the  Chaldeans"  some  conception  of  a  Trinity 
in  the  Godhead.     During  the  succeeding  period,  several  phi- 
losophers  touched    upon  the  necessity  of  a   revelation  from 
Heaven ;  and  this  was  in  due  time  vouchsafed  by  the  dispen- 
sation of  Christianity.     The  first  prophets  belonged  to  the  east,  Christianity 
and  imparted  their  doctrines  in  the  eastern  languages;  and  the  St,  ^°^^^'^ 

'  Cedrenus,  p.  136. 

*  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  art.  Trinity. 


542        ASTRONOMY,  ETC.  BROUGHT  FROM  THE  EAST.       [cHAP.  XVII. 

apostles,  as  well  as  the  most  ancient  fathers  of  the  Church,  both 
Greek  and  Latin,  were  citizens  of  the  east.  Justinus  was 
a  native  of  Sichem ;  Tatianus  was  a  Syrian  ;  Theophilus 
belonged  to  Antioch ;  Clemens  and  Origen  were  of  Alexan- 
dria ;  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  of  Carthage ;  and  Ambrosius 
Influence  of  was  a  native  of  one  of  the  African  provinces.  The  advent  of 
[iteratm-e!^°'^  Jcsus  Christ  is,  howevcr,  only  noticed  here  because  it  connects 
chronologically  the  change  which  took  place  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  with  the  progress  of  literature  and  science 
at  a  later  period  of  the  history  of  the  world. 

Many  of  the  Babylonian,  African,  and  Syrian  writers  con- 
tributed largely,  by  their  works,  to  the  advancement  of  learning 
in  Europe.  The  two  sciences,  astronomy  and  medicine,  origi- 
The  phi-  nated  in  Chaldea  or  India.  Grammar  and  the  philosophy  of 
langAiage!  &c.,  language,  which  were  so  much  studied  at  Alexandria,  were 
throu'^TT''^^  also  Asiatic.  Both  had  been  cultivated  by  the  early  Arabs,  ^ 
Alexandria,     from  whoni   the   tastc   probably  passed  to  the  inhabitants  of 

Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 
Learning  and       The    civilizatiou    which  was    already    flourishing  from  the 
spTear^"^"      frontiers  of  China  to  Alexandria,  now  began  to  extend  from 
westv/aixi  from  jj-g    principal  scat  on   the    coast  of  the  Mediterranean,   over 

Alexandria.  r  r  ^  ' 

the  north  of  Africa,  the   south  of  Europe,  and  north-western 
parts  of  Asia ;   and  zeal  for  the  Christian  religion  united  the 
civilized  nations  in  its  cause,  but  at  the  same  time  separated 
Rome  becomes  them  widely  in  other  respects.     Rome  became   the  centre  of 
ChristiSty!    the  Christian  world,   which  had  its  beginning  in  Palestine; 
constant  intercourse  was  maintained  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  bishops  and  monasteries  in  different  parts  of  the  east,  and 
intercommunication    between    the  various   religious   establish- 
ments was  the  means  of  spreading  the  literature  of  which  they 
became  the  depositories. 
Ti.ird  period :       In  the  succcediug,  or  third  period,  a  new  nation,  that  of  the 
Anl'bs.^'^"^      Arabs,   rose   in  the  east:  having  conquered  Persia,  Mekran, 
Syria,   Egypt,  Barbary,   and  Spain,  these    people  shook  the 
power  of  the  Church  in  the  east.     Their  success  was  at  first 
prejudicial   to  literature,  but  the  Arabs  discovered,  almost  as 
soon  as   they  had  adopted   settled  habits,   that  man   requires 
'  Vol.  I.,  p.  691-693. 


CHAP.  XVir.]  RISE  AND  PURSUITS  OF  THE  ARABS.  543 

occupation  for  his  mind,   and  that  the   excitement  of  their 
previously  active  life  in  the  field  or  the  desert,  required  to 
be  replaced  by  other  pursuits.     Happily,  literature  was  their  Literature 
choice,  and  it  was  cultivated  with  a  degree  of  spirit  and  success  the  Arabs.  ^ 
unexampled  in  any  other  nation.     This  was  in  a  great  measure 
the  consequence  of  their  ardent  temperament,  which  had  pre- 
viously united  their  efforts  in  the  cause  of  religion,  and  created 
that  zeal  by  which  so  much  had  been  achieved :   for  the  sub- 
jection of  the  world  was  the  result  of  religious  enthusiasm 
rather  than  of  the  ambition  of  the  leaders  of  a  servile  nation. 
The  overwhelming  conquests  of  the  Arabs  were   chiefly  the  Change 
work  of  the  Bedawin,  whose  exchange  of  their  erratic  habits  by^the  Arabs 
for  a  settled  life,  was  accompanied  by  a  radical  change  in  their  sg^tJe^Sf  ^ 
manners  and  ideas.     The  precepts  of  the  Koran  constituting 
the  basis  of  the  civil  and  international  law  of  the  Arabs,  a  new 
science,  that  of  law  (Fik'h),  founded  on  those  precepts,  was  in 
consequence  originated. 

The  cultivation  of  history,  poetry,  and  law  gave  to  the  Arabs  The  Arabs 
a  taste  for  other  studies.    Commencing  with  what  may  be  called  link  between 
the  hereditary  astronomy  of  a  nomad  race,  the  Arabs  appear  modern ^"^ 
to  have  turned  their  attention  to  mathematics,  geometry,  and  civilization, 
medicine.     In  these  sciences   they  collected    much  from   the 
nations  whom  they  had  subjected,  as  the  Persians,  Syrians,  and 
Copts;  they  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  Hindus,  and  others  with 
whom  they  came  in  contact,  all  that  was  valuable  in  their  litera- 
ture or  traditions ;  and  thus  they  became  the  centre  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  the  link  between  the  ancient  and  modern  civilization 
of  Europe.     So  numerous  were  their  works,  that  the  celebrated 
scholar  Scaliger  maintained,   that  if  all   the  Greek  scientific 
authors  were  to  be  lost,  the  Arabic  versions  of  Hippocrates, 
Ptolemy,  and  others  would  supply  the  deficiency. 

The  first  account  of  the  Koran  having  become  an  object  of  Study  of  the 
study  and  comment,  occurs  in  the  life  of  'Omar.  It  appears  timTof'Omar. 
that  when  the  empire  had  rest  after  the  conquest  of  Persia,  the 
disputes  about  the  meaning  of  passages  in  the  Koran  became  so 
serious,  that  the  khaliph  was  obliged  to  send  his  armies  to 
make  fresh  conquests,  in  order  to  preserve  peace  in  the 
nation. 

It  was  under  the  same  khaliph  that  the  Sowad  was  surveyed, 


544 


SCIENCE  ENCOURAGED  BY  THE  ARABS.       [cHAP.  XVII. 


Practical  use 
of  astronomy 
and  geometry 


Early  use  of 

Arabic 

grammar. 


The  khaliph 
Moawiyah 
employs 
learued  men. 


Ancient  Arab 
historians. 


History 
and  novels 
translated  to 
amuse  the 
khaliph. 


Learned 
■works  trans- 
late<l,  and 
money  coined 
in  Arabia. 


and  an  almanac  brought  into  use,  the  computations  for  which 
were  made  by  the  assistance  of  Sehiian,  and  a  Persian  prisoner 
whose  name  is  not  given,  but  who  is  said  to  have  been  of  royal 
blood.  These  may  be  considered  the  earliest  attempts  of  the 
Arabs  to  make  use  of  geometry  and  astronomy,  for  purposes  of 
practical  utility. 

'All,  the  fourth  khaliph,  is  considered  as  the  father  of  the 
Arabic  grammar ;  and  the  author  of  the  "  Fihrist  "^  relates,  that 
the  autograph  of  a  work  on  grammar,  written  on  Chinese 
paper,  by  Abii-1-aswad,  existed  in  the  third  century  of  the 
Hijrah,  amongst  a  splendid  collection  of  manuscripts. 

Under  Moawiyah,  the  first  khalij^  of  the  house  of  Omaiyah, 
we  find  that  historians,  physicians,  and  translators  of  foreign 
languages  were  employed.  'Obayd  Ibn  Sorayah,  a  Jorhamite, 
came,  according  to  the  Fihrist,  from  San'a  to  the  court  of 
Moawiyah,  who  made  inquiries  concerning  the  kings  of  the 
Ajemi  (Persia),  and  the  confusion  of  languages.  'Obayd 
answered  so  much  to  his  satisfaction,  that,  at  the  khaliph's 
request,  the  information  was  committed  to  paper,  and  the 
Shah  Nameh  (Book  of  Kings),  the  best  history  of  the  Persian 
kings,  was  the  result. 

The  Fihrist  also  mentions  some  more  ancient  historians  ;  as 
Ziyad,  who  lived  at  the  time  of  'Othman,  and  bequeathed  his 
works  as  a  precious  inheritance  to  his  sons.  Also  Al-bekri,  a 
Christian  of  eastern  Arabia,  and  some  others :  these  last  were, 
however,  strictly  speaking,  rather  genealogists  than  historians. 

Another  historian,  Ibn  al-Katami,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Moawiyah,  is  mentioned  in  the  Fihrist;  and  Mas'iidi  confirms 
the  statement,  by  adding  that  Mo'awiyah  had  some  slaves  who 
translated  history  and  novels  for  the  amusement  of  the  khaliph. 
Al-hakam  and  his  sons  were  distinguished  physicians  during 
this  reign  ;  and  it  appears  both  from  Al  Mas'iidi  and  El  Kiftf, 
that  in  the  first  century  of  the  Hijrah,  the  khaliph  'Omar  had 
a  library,  from  which  books  on  medicine  were  transcribed,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  generally  useful. 

The  first  translation  of  astronomical  and  philosophical  works 
into  Arabic,  was  made  by  Stephanas,  under  the  patronage  of 
Khak'd  (Walid),  the  grandson  of  Moawiyah,  whose  attainments 
'  MS.  in  tlie  Royal  Library  at  Paris. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  THE  WORKS  OF  BEDE.  545 

in  these  sciences  were  considerable ;'  and,  according  to  Beladin, 
dinars  were  coined  at  Damascus  during  this  reign.  It  is  also 
stated  that  the  khaliph  possessed  a  splendid  globe  which  was 
made  for  Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  and,  consequently,  previous  to  the 
invasion  of  the  Arabs. 

Music  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  by  this  people  at  the  Cultivation  of 
time  of,  as  well  as   immediately  after  Miihammed ;  and  Ibn 
Mosajjij,  who    flourished  under   Moawiyah,    was  one   of  the 
first  who  accommodated  Persian  and  Greek  airs  to  Arabic 
words.     He  was  followed  by  other  proficients  in  the  art. 

This  brief  notice  of  the  beginning  of  Miihammedan  civili-  and  litera- 
zation,  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the  Arabs  were  a  literary  Arabs. 
nation  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century;  and 
even  at  this  period  there  was  some   intercourse  between   the 
learned  men  of  England  and  those  of  Arabia. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Bede,  who  was  born  in  672,  and  died  in 
May,  735,  devoted  his  life  to  study  and  teaching  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Paul,  at  Jarrow,  and  his  learning  attracted  students  from  all 
parts  of  Europe.   He  was  the  cotemporary  of  'Abd-el-Malik,  the  Bede  the  co- 
sixth  khaliph  of  the  house  of  Omaiyah,  and  the  Saracens  are  'Abd-ei-Maiik. 
constantly  mentioned   in  his  works.     In  the  commentary  on  Hisknowiedge 
Genesis,   their  victories  are  noticed  f  and  again,  in  his  work,  countries, 
De  Sex  ^tatibus  Mundi,  he  details  their  expedition  to  Sicily, 
also  their  conquests  in  Africa,  and  the  siege  of  Constantinople, 
A.D.  717,  as  well  as  the  circumstance  of  their  pillaging  the 
coast  of  Sardinia.     He  evinces  throughout  his  works  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  east ;  and,  from  other  circumstances, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  Asiatic  learning  was  known  in  England 
soon  after  it  began  to  dawn  in  Damascus.     The  use  of  the  probably 
Arabic  article  Al  in  one  of  his  works,  shows  that  Bede  must  Arabic  sources, 
either  have  used  an  Arabic  original,  or  a  translation  from  that 
language;    and   his   tract,  De  Indigitatione,    is   undoubtedly 
oriental,    since  numbers   are   shown   by  the   fingers,    in   the 
manner  practised  by  merchants  in  the  east.     One  is  expressed 

'  Fliigel,  Diss,  de  Arabicis  Scriptorum  Graecoruminterpretibus.    Misenae, 
1841,  p.  6. 

*  Bedae  Venerabilis  Expositio  Genesin,  lib.  III.,  cap.  xvi.,  xx.     Londini, 
1693. 

VOL.  II.  2  N 


546  TRFATISE  ON  THE  ASTROLABE,  ETC.  [CHAP.  XVII. 

by  bending  the  little  finger  of  the  right  hand ;  two,  by  bending 

the  little  as  well  as  the  third  finger ;  three,  by  bending  the  two 

latter  in  addition  to  the  middle  finger ;  four,  by  bending  the 

middle  and  third  fingers,  leaving  the  little  finger  extended. 

This  system   is  very  ancient   in   the   east ;    and    authors   on 

archery,  in  that  part  of  the  world,  make  use  of  it  in  describing 

the  manner  of  stringing  the  bow.     The  usual  position  is  called 

the  'ikd,  sixty-three,  i.  e.,  four  fingers  bent  on  the  palm  of  the 

His  system  of  hand,  with  the  thumb  resting  on  the  fore-finger.     In  an  Arabic 

shnUar  to  that  work  ou  archery,^  the  system  of  indigitation  is  explained  in 

of  the  Arabs,    g^actly  the  Same  manner  as  by  Bede.     But  although  the  system 

itself  comes  from  the  east,  it  was  known  in  Europe  before  the 

time  of  Bede,  and  Hieronymus  mentions  the  number  thirty 

as  symbolical  of  a  wedding.® 

Bede  uses  The  treatise  of  Bede  on  the  astrolabe  betrays  its  Arabic 

fnd  tom^^^^  origin  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  word  Al  Mucantarat,^  which 

is  pure  Arabic,  and  when  compared  with  such  corruptions  as  the 

word  Avicenna  for  Ibn  Sinna,  we  may  conclude  that  Bede 

derived  his  information  from  original  writings  rather  than  from 

translations.    Oudin*  and  Mabillon^  consider  Bede's  translation 

of  the  book,  Ibn  Abu-s-salt,  on  the  astrolabe,*^  to  be  genuine, 

and  a  great  part  of  it  has  been  quoted  by  Hermanns  Contractus, 

who  died  in  1052,  which  of  itself  proves  the  antiquity,  if  not 

the  authenticity  of  the  book. 

Connexion  of       The  various  allusions  to  Arabic  history  which  are  dispersed 

dictine  monks  through  the  Writings  of  the  venerable  Bede,  and  the  many 

with  Arabia,   questions  elucidated  by  him,  of  which  he  could  only  have  had 

notice  from  the  Arabs,  make  it  more  than  probable  that  the 

monks  of  his  order  (the  Benedictines)  had  already  opened  the 

mines  of  Arabic  learning  for  the  benefit  of  Europe. 

In  his  book,  De  Elementis  Philosophise,  Bede  notices  the 

'  Preserved  in  the  library  of  Gotha. 

*  Nam  et  ipsa  digitorum  conjunctio,  quasi  molli  osculo  se  conflectens  et 
foederans,  maritum  pingit  et  conjugem. 

^  Bede,  App.  Basil,  1563,  vol.  I.,  p.  468. 

*  De  Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis,  Leip.  1722. 

'  Acta  Benedictinorum,  Paris,  1762,  I.,  p.  539. 

*  MS.  in  the  library  of  Modena. 


CHAP.  XVir.]  EMBASSY  TO  HARUN-EL-RASHID.  547 

Book  of  Nimriid,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  translation  Works  snp- 
from  the  Arabic.'     In  the  Fihrist  ^  of  Ibn  'Abii  Ya'kub,  the  frTnsia°ed* 
original,  in  Arabic,  is  mentioned ;  and  there  is  a  copy  of  it  in  ^^abic^^ 
the  Medical  Library  at  Rome.^ 

A  friendly  intercourse  was  maintained  with  Arabia  at  this  Friendly  in- 
period,  or  at  least  soon  afterwards.     Eginhard   has  recorded  tween  Eur^ 
that  Radbertus,  who  died  in  the  year  807,  w^as  ambassador  from  ^"^^^^1^^ 
Charlemagne  to  Harun-el-Rashid ;  and  that,  accompanied  by  century. 
some  noble  Franks,  and  monks  of  Jerusalem,  he  proceeded,  ac-  HiTrUn^-d-^^ 
cording  to  Agobardus,  from  Aries  to  Africa,  and  through  Egypt  Rashid. 
to  Baghdad.     In  returning,  the  embassy  visited  Carthage,  and 
brought  from  thence  the  bones  of  St.  Cyprian,  which  were 
afterwards  deposited   in  the  episcopal  church  of  Agobardus. 
The  clepsydra,  and  the  curious  clock  already  mentioned,*  were  Arabian  pre- 
brought  on  this  occasion  as  presents  from  the  Commander  of  Charlemagne. 
the  Faithful  to  the  Protector  of  the  Roman  Church.     It  is  also 
mentioned  by  Andros,  presbyter  of  Ratisbon,  in  his  Chronicles, 
that  Constantine,  the  patriarch   of  Jerusalem,  w^as    in  corre- 
spondence with  Charlemagne.     The  zeal  of  the  latter  for  the  Establishment 
revival  of  literature  and  science  w'as  shown  by  the  establishment  universUies  by 
of  numerous  schools  and  universities:  amongst  others,  those  of^^^'^'^^^^sne. 
Paris,  Corbie,  Fontenelle,  Ferrieres,  St.  Denis,   &c. ;  and,  in 
Germany,  those  of  Fulda,  Metz,  St.  Gallen,  with  many  others 
in  the  principal  monasteries.     Under  Charlemagne,  Italy  also 
became  renowned  for  the  schools  of  Monte  Casino ;   and  one 
for  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  was  likewise  founded  by 
him  at  Osnaburgh.     In  addition  to  these  public  institutions, 
Charlemagne  established  an  academy  for  adults  in  his  own 
palace,  which  became  the  model  for  the  three  universities  of 
Paris,  and  of  which  he  wished  to  be  a  member,  without  any 
distinction  of  rank.* 

During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  under  his  protection, 

'  Albertus,  Magnus  Speculum.  *  Vol.  III.  MS.  of  Leyden. 

^  Histoire  des  Sciences  Mathematiques  en  Italie,  I.,  p.  245. 

*  See  above,  p.  459.  Eginhartus,  Vita  et  Gesta  Caroli  Magni,  Colonia, 
1521,  p.  108. 

*  Deir  Origine,  Progressi  e  Stato  d'ogni  Litteratura,  dell'  Abbate  D.  Giov. 
Andres,  4°,  Parma,  1783,  vol.  I.,  cap.  viii.,  pp.  101-104,  compared  with 
Gaillard's  Histoire  de  Charlemagne,  Paris,  1782,  tome  III.,  pp.  157-267. 

2  n2 


548 


SPREAD  OF  LITERATURE. 


[chap.  XVII. 


Establishment 
of  Benedictine 
monasteries. 


Their  ' 
influence  on 
civilization. 


The  monks 
become  the 
means  of 
spreading 
knowledge. 


The  monks 
are  induced  to 
study  Arabic. 


The  modem 
sciences, 
music,  poetry, 
history,  &c., 
studied  in 
Baghdad. 


the  Benedictine  monks  assumed  an  important  place.  Their  mo- 
nasteries were  intimately  connected  by  a  common  object  and  a 
common  language — the  Latin.  There  was,  in  consequence,  a 
frequency  and  rapidity  of  communication,  which  could  scarcely 
have  existed  at  that  period,  had  it  not  been  facilitated  by  the 
wealth  and  the  extraordinary  power  of  the  monastic  establish- 
ments, and  of  individuals  who  were  distinguished  by  their 
energy  and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  learning.  Veneration  for 
their  piety  procured  them  a  welcome  reception  wherever  they 
appeared,  even  amongst  a  barbarous  soldiery  when  in  a  state  of 
hostility  with  the  country  to  which  they  belonged.  The  Bene- 
dictines had  their  head-quarters  in  Scotland,  and,  encouraged 
by  Charlemagne,  Scotch  emissaries  founded  monasteries  in 
St.  Gallen,  at  Ratisbon,  and  at  Vienna ;  the  first  being  the 
most  influential  establishment,  and  the  second  almost  equally 
remarkable,  from  having  sent  Albertus  Magnus  into  the  world ; 
while  the  third  imparted  knowledge  under  the  name  of  the 
Schotten  Stift.  The  monks  copied  with  great  rapidity  books, 
which  were  sent  from  Italy  to  Belgium,  from  France  to  Ger- 
many, and  from  Spain  to  England ;  and  there  were  few  Bene- 
dictines who  had  not  visited  Rome,  Venice,  Paris,  Batisbon, 
and  the  cities  of  Belgium.  When  tolerably  safe,  Spain  and 
Jerusalem  were  included  in  their  wanderings,  which  were 
rendered  easy  to  them  by  the  hospitality  of  their  reception  in 
every  convent.  Their  progress  was  also  facilitated  by  their 
knowledge  of  Arabic.  As  early  as  a.  d.  873,  Hartmot,  the 
abbot  of  St.  Gallen,  caused  some  of  the  monks  to  study  this 
language,  as  the  great  source  of  information.^ 

Reverting  to  the  Arabs — Al  Mamiln  was  the  first  who 
acquired  from  them  that  knowledge  from  which  the  modern 
sciences  are  derived.  It  has  been  seen^  that,  in  the  city  of 
the  khaliphs,  the  Arabic  language,  poetry,  music,  history,  anti- 
quities, and  the  Koran,   including  those  branches  of  learning 


'  Cliron.  Magnum  Brnlilianense,  tome  I.,  p.  752,  MS.  of  the  library  of 
St.  Gallen,  case  Furchen,  lib.  702,  fol.  325  ;  and  MS.  on  Oriental  AVriters 
and  Professors  of  St.  Gallen. 

*  See  above,  pp.  460  461  ;  and  Dell'  Origine,  &c.  d'ogni  Litteratura,  dell' 
Abbate  D.  Giov.  Andres,  vol.  I.,  cap.  viii.,  p.  119. 


CHAP.  XVII.]        WORKS  TRANSLATED  FOR  AL  MAMUN.  549 

which  the  study  of  that  book  required,  more  particularly  juris- 
prudence, or  law  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  were  the 
studies  of  Manu'in.  His  master  in  the  latter  was  the  celebrated 
Al  Kesciy,  and  for  philology  and  literature,  the  famous  Yezidi ; 
and,  having  acquired  these  branches  of  learning,  he  assembled 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  empire  at  his  court.  The  studies  and 
Fihrist  (]\IS.  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris)  contains  his  treatise  Ii  Mdmiin. 
on  the  prophetic  mission.  He  wrote  another  on  the  praises  of 
the  khaliphs  who  succeeded  Miihammed  ;  also  a  work  on  the 
unity  of  God,  and  the  principal  Miihammedan  dogmas.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  work  on  falconry,*  afterwards  translated  for 
the  use  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  was  also  by  Mamiin,^  and 
it  formed  the  basis  of  one  on  the  same  subject  by  Frederic 
himself j  which  was  printed  in  1596.^ 

After  Al  Mamiin  had  converted  Al  Fadhl  to  the  faith  of  Thekhaiiph 
El  Islam,  the  disciple,   in  return,  drew  the  attention  of  the  astronomy  and 
khali})h  to  astronomy  and  mathematics,  by  which  sciences,  in  °iathematics. 
addition  to  those  of  medicine  and  philosophy,  he  became  so  well 
known  in  Europe.      He  collected  Arabic,  Persian,-  and  Greek  Rare  works 
works  from  the  cities  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Miiliamme-  ai  Mdmun^ 
dans ;  and  the  fact,  that  the  last  two  books  of  the  conic  sections  ^^^ 
of  Apollonius  of  Pergawere  particularly  sought  for,  proves  that 
the  collections  were  made  on  systematic  principles.      An  astro- 
nomical establishment  was  attached  to  the  library ;  and,  be- 
sides others  elsewhere,  a  regular  observatory  was  subsequently 
established  in  the  capital.      The  principal  literati  whose  names 
have  reached  us  as  being  employed  in  translating  works  for  the 
khaliph,  were — Yahiya  Ibn  Bitrek,  who  translated  Galen,  de  literary  men 
Theriaca,   and   Ptolemy;    Ibn   Na'ima  'Abdel-el-Mesih,   whoj^ltf '"* 
translated    the    Philosophia     of    Alexander    Aphrodisiensis ;  *^^™- 
also   his  commentary   on   the   first  four   books  of  Aristotle's 
Physicae:  to  these  at  least  twenty  individuals  might  be  added 
as  translators  from  the  Greek  into  Arabic.     Those  employed 

'  De  arte  accipitraria  Moamii. 

*  There  are  copies  of  the  translation  at  Paris  and  Bologna,  and  a  fragment 
of  the  Arabic  text  in  the  library  at  Gotha. 

^  Eeliqua  librorum  trider  secundi,  de  arte  venandi  cum  avibus,  cum 
Manfredi  regis  additionibus. 


650        INDIAN  PHILOSOPHY  BROUGHT  INTO  ARABIA.       [cHAP.  XVII. 

by  Al  Mamiin  to  translate  from  Persian  into  Arabic  are  less 
known,  altbougli  their  labours  were  more  important.    After  Ibn 
Al  Mokaffa',  who  was  anterior  to  the  khaliph,  the  family  of  the 
Naubakh,  from  which  his  vezir  was  descended,  were  the  most 
prominent  in  this  field.     Next  may  be  mentioned  Musa  and 
Astronomical  Yusuf,  sons  of  Khaled  *,  then  'All  Al  Taime,  who  translated 
pared  for  use.  the  astronomical  tables  called  Al  Zij :  also  Al  Hasar  Ibn  Sahl, 
probably  the  person  who  was  appointed  by  Al  Mamiin  governor 
of  'Irak  :  to  these  may  be  added  the  translators  of  the  Khodai- 
nameh.' 
Sanscrit  and        The  iiiost  important  works  were  doubtless  those  translated 
fransiatedfor  from  the  Sanscrit,  partly  before,  but  chiefly  in  the  time  of  Al 
thekhahph.     Mamiin,  since  it  was  through  this  medium  that  some   know- 
ledge of  the  Indian  learning  and  philosophy  was  first  received. 
According  to  the  Fihrist/  the  translators  from   the  Sanscrit 
were   Mikak,  the    Indian,   who   was  under  the  protection  of 
Is-hak  Ibn  Soleiman  the  Hashemite ;  and  Ibn  Dahan,  another 
physician   in   the    Barmakite    hospital.       Subsequently   other 
valuable  works  were  translated  into  Arabic  by  the  learned  men 
of  Haran,  from  the  ancient  Chaldee  and  Syriac :  and  the  lite- 
rary treasures  thus  collected  from  many  parts  of  the  world, 
were,    after  the   usual   ordeal   of  discussion   by   the   learned 
Arabians,  deposited  in  the  great  library  in  Baghdad. 
Cultivation  of      At  the  Same  time  due  attention  was  paid  to  the  important 
astronomy,&c.  gcigncc  of  astronomy,  careful  observations  being  made  at  the 
different  observatories,  particularly  by  the  Jew,  Sind  Ibn  'All, 
and  the   celebrated  Muhammed  Ibn  Miisa  Al  Khowarezmi ; 
Al  Yorithmis,  Habsh,  and  others  were  also  employed  in  cor- 
recting the  astronomical  tables.    The  khaliph,  however,  died 
before  the  task  was  accomplished,  but  not  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  greatest  scientific  work,  by  measuring  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  near  Ilakkah  on  the  plains  of  Sennar. 

Subsequently  to  the  golden  age  of  Arabic  literature  in  the 
time  of  Al  Mamiin,  the  study  of  that  literature  was  encouraged 

'  The  Poetical  History  of  Persia.    See  the  names  in  Al  Mas'iidi,  vol.  II., 
p.  27. 

•  Vol.  III.  MS.  of  Leytlen. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  ARABIC  MSS.  BROUGHT  TO  EUROPE.  551 

by  the  Abbot  Bernhard  of  St.  Gallen,  about  883  a.d.     In  900,  The  abbot  of 

1  111  1         1        1        r>    1  .  , ,     '  St  Gallen 

that  monastery  had  to  lament  tlie  death  ot  the  great  orientalist,  encourages 
Hartmanner  the  younger,   who  had  been  the  intimate  friend  orient/ " 
of  Alfred    of  Weissenburg/    and    a   disciple    of   the  learned  literature. 
St.  Nother,  who    lived   under  Charlemagne  and  Charles  the 
Fat.^ 

We  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  study  of  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage was  equally  an  object  of  importance  in  the  other  Bene- 
dictine monasteries  :  in  these  were  prepared  the  numerous  MS.  Arabic  mss. 

1      •  p  1  A  •  1  '1  •^^  PI'     prepared  in  the 

translations  from  the  Arabic,  which  are  still  to  be  found  in  monasteries. 
European  libraries,  particularly  in  those  of  Venice,  Halle,  Got- 
tingen,  Padua,  Berlin,  Paris,  Oxford,  and  the  British  Museum. 
Unfortunately  the  productions  belonging  to  the  early  period  of 
Arabian  literature  are  seldom  distinguished  from  those  belong- 
ing to  the  corrupted  age  of  the  Turks  and  Persians,  and  but 
few  of  the  former  have  been  preserved. 

There  exist,  however,  Soyati's  History  of  the  Khaliphs ;  ^  Arabic  mss. 
Baron  Hammer's  Gemalde  Saal,  oder  Lebensbeschreibungen  Europe, 
grosser  ostlichen  Herrsher ;  *  and  Al  Mas'iidi's  Meadows  of 
Gold  and  Mines  of  Gems,  now  translated  by  Dr.  Aloys 
Sprenger,  M.D.  ^  Also  Abii-l-feda,  Annales  Muslimici ; 
Abii-l-faraj,  Historia  Dynastiorum ;  and  finally  Price's  Chro- 
nological Retrospect. 

Another  source  of  Arabic  literature  may  now  be  noticed,  Europe  re- 
namely,  that  which  found  its  way  into  Europe  through  the  iJarningfrom 
Moors  of  Spain.     Its  progress  is  detailed  in  a  compendium  ^^^  ^<^"- 
of  literary  history  by   Abu-1-Hasim  Said  Ibn  Ahmed,   and 
also  in  the   MS.  translation  by  Don  Gayangos,  of  Al-mak- 
kam's  Miihammedan  Dynasties  in  Spain.     According  to  the 
latter  author,  the  philosophical   sciences  were   not  cultivated 
in  Spain  previously  to  the   invasion  of  the  Arabs,  a.  h.  92. 
Subsequently,    when   the   kingdom    enjoyed  peace  under  the 
Omaiyades,  men  of  talent  devoted  themselves  to  literary  pur- 

'  Chron.  Magn.  Bruhlianense,  tome  I.,  fol.  752. 
-  Metzlar  de  viris  de  St.  Galli. 

^  MS.  of  the  British  Museum,  No.  7324,  folio  118,  recto,  aud  No.  7325, 
folio  138,  recto. 

*  Leipsic,  1837,  ii.  p.  219. 

*  Allen  and  Co.,  Leadenhall-street. 


552  ARABIC  POETRY  INTRODUCED  INTO  EUROPE.         [cHAP.  XVII 


Various 
branches  of 
learning 
cultivated  in 
Andalusia. 


Poetrj'  is  in- 
troduced into 
Europe  from 
Arabia. 


The  rhymes 
of  Olfrid 
resemble  the 
Arab  poetry. 


The  Moors 
introduce 
poetry  into 
Spain. 


suits.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  third  century  of  the  Hijrah, 
in  the  days  of  Amir  Muhammed,  sultan  of  Cordova,  the 
learned  men  of  Andalusia  cultivated  various  branches  of  the 
sciences.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  case  up  to  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  of  the  Hijrah,  when  the  Sultan  Al- 
Hakem,  son  of  the  celebrated  Abd-er-Kahman,  gave  fresh 
encouragement  to  science  by  inviting  learned  men  to  his  capital 
from  Baghdad,  Cairo,  &c.  Indulging  the  exquisite  taste  for 
literature,  which  he  had  acquired  during  his  father's  lifetime, 
he  collected  even  a  richer  and  more  extensive  library  than  that 
of  Baghdad. 

Poetry,  the  favourite  pursuit  of  the  Arabs,  soon  found  its 
way  into  Europe  through  Spain,  and  still  earlier  by  another 
route.  The  first  poet  was  Olfrid,  a  Benedictine  monk  of 
Weissenburg,  and  the  pupil  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
who  lived  about  a.  d.  870.  The  rhymes  of  Olfrid  and  his  song 
of  victory  against  the  Normans/  written  towards  the  close  of 
the  ninth  century,  are  the  most  ancient  rhymes  on  record  in 
Europe;^  excepting,  perhaps,  the  collection  of  military  songs, 
said  to  have  been  ordered  by  Charlemagne  in  order  to  animate 
and  instruct  his  soldiers,  which  contained  much  of  the  history  of 
France.^  These  verses,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Provencals, 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  poetry  of  the  Arabs,  the  last 
syllable  only  being  rhymed. 

Giammaria  Barbieri,^  Andres,^  and  Gingeni  prove  that 
rhyme  came  from  Arabia,  chiefly  through  Spain,  to  other  parts  of 
Europe.  As  the  bravest  warriors  were  frequently  the  best  poets, 
the  melodious  Arabic  rhymes  were  first  heard  by  the  Spaniards 
amidst  the  terrors  of  war ;  for  poetical  effusions  were  some- 
times recited  even  during  the  combat.  Therefore,  when  neces- 
sity compelled  the  Spaniards  to  study  Arabic,  they  naturally 


'  In  Schiller's  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Teutonicaruni,  vol.  I. 

*  A  fine  edition  of  this  poem,  the  Krist,  was  published  by  Graff,  Ktinigs- 
burg,  1831,  4°. 

*  Gaillard's  Histoire  de  Charlemagne,  tome  III.,  pp.  165,  166. 

*  Deir  Origine  della  Poesia  Rinata,  opera  di  Giammaria  Barbieri,  publi- 
cata  da  Gir.  Tiraboschi,  Modena,  1790. 

*  Origine  e  Progressi  d'ogni  Litteratura,  Parma,  1783. 


CHAP.  XVII.]        VERSIFICATION  CAME  FROM  THE  ARABS.  553 

imitated  the  rhyme  and  music  which  were  so  captivating  to  a 
southern  nation.  This  effect  is  shown  by  Alvarus  of  Cordova, 
who  complains^  that  the  Spaniards  were  so  infatuated  by  the 
beauty  of  the  Arabic  style  and  language,  that  although  scarcely 
an  individual  was  capable  of  writing  Latin,  numbers  were  so 
strong  in  Arabic,  that  they  restricted  the  termination  of  their 
verses  to  one  letter,  so  as  to  end  with  the  full  sound  of  the 
rhyme  upon  it,  agreeably  to  the  genius  of  their  favourite  Arabic 
language.  ' 

This  extract  from  Alvarus  shows  that  versification  came  Resemblance 
from  the  Arabs  to  Europe  :  it  shows  also  the  progress  of  Arabic  European  to 
studies  among  the  Christians.     In  the  present  day,  writes  Sir  ^^^  ^J^^}^ 

^  r  J  '  versification. 

William  Jones,  scarcely  any  Arab  can  read  twenty  couplets, 
however  learned  he  may  be,  without  the  help  of  a  dic- 
tionary, nor  does  he  understand  a  poem,  or  a  commentary  on  a 
poem. 

Proven^ale  poetry  succeeded  that  of  the  Franks.     The  inha-  similarity 
bitants  of  Provence  were  in  contact  with  the  Arabs,  or  Moors,  pfo^eii^at 
and  their  continual  struggle  with  them  for  liberty,  caused  that  ^""^  Arabic 

""7  ...  poetry. 

unfavourable  representation  of  the  latter  people  which  is  given 
in  their  poetry.  But  although  the  intercourse  did  not  lead  to 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  language  of  the  Arabs,  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  rhymes  of  the  Troubadours  were  not  de- 
rived from  the  latter  people,  although  the  vanity  of  the  Pro- 
vencale  nation  prevented  them  from  admitting  the  fact.  The 
poem  of  Boethius  is  as  like  an  Arabic  Kasidah  as  European 
language  would  allow ;  and  the  rhyme  falls  usually  on  the  last 
syllable. 

The  most  ancient  rhymes  found  by  Raymond  in  the  Pro-  Rhymes  of 
vengale  language    are  those  of  Boethius,  which  are  without  prosVonhe 
date,  but  certainly  are  not  older  than  the  tenth  century ;  and  Pro'^enceaux. 
the  most  ancient  prose  he  discovered  does  not  go  back  beyond 
842   A.  D.      The   celebrated   hymn   beginning    "  Veni  Sancte 
Spiritus,"  is  as  early  as  a.  d.  996.     The  next  in  point  of  age  is 
a  poem  of  a.  d.  1 100,  entitled  La  Noble  Leyczon.^ 

Not  only    versification,    but    the    modern    lyric,    and   even 

'  About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 

*  Choix  des  Poesies  des  Proven(;eaux,  Ub.  vol.  II. 


554  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BEDAWIN.  [CHAP.  XVII. 

Lyric  and       romantic  poetrv,  whose  essence  is  rhyme,  are  of  Arabic  origin, 
poetry  appear  The  epic  would  be  too  loHg  for  the  lively  Bedawin,  who  are 
origin,    ^^  ^^  lyric    poets  by   nature ;     even  the   Koran    and    their    official 
writings  being  in  this  style.     It  has  been  said  that  the  romantic 
love  and   veneration  for   the  fair  sex   which   characterize  the 
Proven^ale  poetry  are  unknown  to  the  Arabs.     But,  on  the 
contrary,  there  is  scarcely  one  Kasidah  in  Arabic  which   does 
not  express  the  most  ardent  feelings  of  love;  and  Sir  William 
Jones  tells  us  ^  that  it  was  invariably  the  custom  either  to  begin 
with  expressions  of  love,  or  else  introduce  them  in  the  middle 
of  the  poem  ;  and  the  Suffees  described  even  their  love  to  God 
under  the  symbol  of  affection  for  a  mistress. 
The  Italians        After  the  French  and  the  Troubadours,  the  Italians — those 
poeTy!^™^''    at  least  who  lived  in  the  north  of  Italy— were   the  first  to  use 
the  language  of  the  latter,  and  to  begin  to  write  in  verse.     The 
Spaniards  were  late  in  using  their  own  language  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  literature  of  the  country  having  been  previously  con- 
fined to  the  Arabic  ;  so  that  it  was  only  when  they  had  the 
example  of  the  Proven9eaux  in  cultivating  the  vulgar  language, 
and  had  become  in  some  degree  independent  of  the  Arabs, 
that  they  began  to  have  a  literature  of  their  own. 
Mathematical       About  the  third  ceutury  of  the  Hijrah,  the  Arabs  of  Spain 
stud^erin       commenccd  the  study  of  the  philosophical  and  mathematical 
Spain.  sciences,  which,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Hijrah,  were  intro- 

duced into  Europe,  particularly  by  Gerbert,  who  died  a.d.  1003. 
Before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair,  he  travelled  through 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Germany ;  and  in  order  to  study  mathe- 
matics, he  went  to  Spain,  and  visited  Barcelona,  if  not  Seville 
also.^  The  astrolabe  is  described  by  him  in  Arabic  terms,  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  Gerbert  speaks  of  a  work, 
First  use  of  the  Dc  MultipHcatioue  ct  Divisiouc,  written  by  Josephus  Hispanus. 
of  notation. *^°^  This  may  possibly  have  been  the  first  book  in  Latin,  giving  the 
Indian  system  of  notation  and  algebra.  There  is,  however,  a 
Latin  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  which  bears  the  same  title.^ 
It   is  an  explanation  of  the  Indian  system  of  notation ;   and 

'  Comm.  Poesiae  Asiaticae,  p.  81. 

*  Gerberti  Literae,  Paris,  1611,  p.  21,  &c. 

'  Arundel,  343.     It  is  considered  as  of  the  twelfth  century. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  PROGRESS  OF  LEARNED  MEN  IN  SPAIN.  555 

it  may  possibly  have  been  the  work  of  Josephus  Hispanus. 
As  the  names  of  the  figures  are  added  in  Arabic,  there  is  little 
doubt  of  its  eastern  origin ;  indeed,  Leonardo  da  Pisa,  who 
received  from  the  Arabs  the  numerals  now  in  use,  calls  them 
Indian/ 

Towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  schools  were  esta-  Schools 
Wished  in    the   Christian   towns  of  Spain   and    the    south   ofspainand 
France,    for   the  study   of  Arabic  literature    and    philosophy.  f^^^^f^^'^J''''*^^ 
Avicenna's  (Ibn  Sinna's)  works  on  logic  and  metaphysics  were  Arabic  litera- 
used  in  the  Sorbonne,  the  greatest  school  of  theology  in  Chris- 
tendom ;  and  Averrhoes'  (Ibn  Roshd)  works  were  studied  at 
Paris,  during  or  immediately  after  his  lifetime. 

The  commencement  of  the  era  of  the  crusades  was  that  in  Decline  of  the 

,  .    ,       ,  ,.  ,         .  ,  ,  -,-,     khaliphat  and 

which  the  eastern  literature  and  science  began  to  be  generally  spread  of 
cultivated  in  Europe.     At  that  time  almost  every  country  had  ^^^^^  ^^^^^' 
institutions,  in  connexion  with  which  flourished  those   distin- 
guished men  by  whom  the  sciences  of  the  Arabs  were  consi- 
derably advanced.     Among  these  were  Avicenna,  who  died  Learned  men 

of  the  cl*?vciitli 

A.  D.  1037;    Mesne   in   1015;  Al-bisimi    in  1039;  Ibn  Eod- and  twelfth 
hrson  in  1061  ;  Al  Hezen,  the  author  of  the  Optics,  in  1038;^^°""^^" 
Ibn  Jezla  in  1100;  Avenzohar  in  1162;  Averrhoes  in  1198; 
and  Maimonides  in  1208. 

Spain  was  particularly  distinguished  at  this  period  for  her  Progress  of 
progress  in  oriental  acquirements.     Savawrda,  a  Jew,  flourished  studLs  in 
in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  as  a  professor  of  Arabic  ^p^^"^' 
learning  in  the  north  of  Spain.     In  1134  he  translated  a  work 
on  astrology,  which  has  the  following  postscript: — "Perfectus 
est  liber   in  electionibus  horaruin  laudabilium  editione  Hali, 
filii  Hamet  Ebram ;  translatus  de  Arabico  in  Latinum,  in  civitate 
Barshinona,   Abraham    Indio  Ispano,    qui   dicitur    Savawrda, 
existente  interprete  et  perfecta  est  ejus  translatio  anno  1134." 
Ebram  in  the  above  title  does  not  mean  Jew,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed, but  it  is  a  corruption  of  Imram,  as  the  name  is  spelt  in 
Arabic  and  in  Kifti. 

Gerhard  of  Cremona  was  a  learned  mathematician,  astrono- 
mer, and  physician,  who  died,  according  to  Pipini,  at  Cremona, 

'  Deir  Origine,  Progressi  e  Stato  d'ogni  Litteratura,  dell'  Abbate  D.  Giov. 
Andres,  4to,  Parma,  1783,  vol.  I.,  tap.  x.,  pp.  226,  227. 


556 


LEARNING  ENCOURAGED. 


[chap.  XVII. 


Gerhard  of 
Cremona 
translates  the 
Almagest  of 
Ptolemy. 

Gerhard's 
translations 
from  the 
Arabic. 


Raymond, 
archbishop 
of  Toledo, 
encourages 
the  study  of 
Arabic,  &c. 


ill  1187,  in  his  seventy-third  year,  and  was  buried  in  the 
monastery  of  Sta.  Lucia,  to  which  he  bequeathed  his  books. 
There  is  a  translation  of  the  Almagest  in  the  Medicean  library, 
made  by  him  in  1175.^  Although  no  MS.,  however  ancient, 
writes  his  name  Carmonensis,  the  uncertainty  of  Gerhard's 
patronymic  has  been  favourable  to  his  fame,  for  both  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Italians  have  claimed  him ;  and  he  is  in 
consequence  better  known  than  any  other  oriental  scholar  of 
the  middle  ages,  though  by  no  means  the  best  of  the  number.^ 
One  of  his  works  ^  has  been  printed  in  various  editions,  parti- 
cularly the  ninth  book,  on  which  several  Latin  commentaries 
have  been  written,  as  being  the  text-book  of  practical  medicine 
in  the  middle  ages. 

The  Synonyma  of  Rasis  is  the  most  ancient  Arabic  and 
Latin  dictionary  extant,  of  which  the  MS.  Arabic  glossary  to 
Rasis,  in  the  library  of  Leyden,  may  have  been  the  original  text. 

The  study  of  Arabic  literature  at  Toledo  was  particularly 
encouraged  by  Raymond,  who  was  a  native  of  Agens.  He 
entered  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  was  brought  to  Spain  by 
St.  Bernhard.  He  was  made  archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1130, 
and  died  in  1150.  Among  the  orientals  who  were  encouraged 
by  Raymond,  were  Marcus,  an  archdeacon  of  Toledo ;  Domi- 
nicus  Gondisalvus ;  Jonius  Hispalensis ;  and  probably  also 
John,  archdeacon  of  Toledo,  who  is  perhaps  the  same  as 
Marcus.  To  John,  archdeacon  of  Toledo,  a  translation  of 
Algazeli's  Logic  is  attributed,  in  the  catalogue  of  the  library 
of  St.  Mark,  Venice.  Albertus  Magnus  says,^  that  Avendar,  a 
Jewish  philosopher,  translated  into  Latin  the  Arabic  works  on 
logic ;  and  in  another  passage  he  states,^  that  he  also  translated 
the  works  of  Aristotle  from  the  Arabic. 


'  See  Jourdain,  p.  127. 

*  His  works  and  translations  are,  Canon  Avicenna,  Aboali  filii  Davidi 
compendium  Rasis,  and  the  Almagest.  There  is  a  splendid  copy  of  his 
translation  of  the  latter  in  Burney's  Collection  in  the  British  Museum,  No. 
275. 

"  "  Abubecri  Rasis  Almonsarius ;  practiea  ejusdem  antidotariura  et  liber 
divisionum." 

*  Op.  Lyon.  1651,  vol.  I.,  p.  41. 

*  Speculum  Naturae,  lib.  II.,  cap.  vi. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  TRANSLATION  OF  THE  KORAN.  557 

If  this  Avendar  be  identical  with  Avendeneth,  or  Mendeath,  Avicenna"s 
he  was  one  of  the  orientalists  encouraged  by  the  archbishop  in  trausiated  by 
the  translation  of  Avicenna's  work  De  Anima ;  and  several  of ''^^^°  ^^' 
his  writings  are  dedicated  to  this  patron  of  eastern  learning/ 
According  to  the  above  we  may  ascribe  to  Avendar  all  the 
works  on  logic  quoted  by  Albertus.     These  are,  the  logic  of 
Avicenna,  of  Algazeli,  of  Alfarabi,  and  a  version  of  Joannes 
Damascenus  ad  Grisarorium. 

In  some  copies  of  Avicenna's  work  De  Anima,  this  transla-  Double 
tion   is   attributed  to  Gondisalvus,   one   of  Raymond's  arch-^^°cenna's° 
deacons.     It    appears   from    the   introduction  in    one    of  the  ^^ '^'^^°^^- 
MSS.  of  Paris  quoted  by  Jourdain,-  that  Avendar  translated  it 
from  Arabic  into  his  own  language,  and  that  Dominicus  Gon- 
disalvus rendered  it  in  Latin.    A  Jew  was  hired  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  the  text,  and  the  scholar  put  it  into  Latin.     This 
practice  accounts  for  the  numerous  mistakes  and  bad  ortho- 
graphy of  the  translations  of  the  middle  ages.     All  those  attri- 
buted to  Dominicus  Gondisalvus  of  Segovia  are  in  reality  by 
Avendar ;  as  the  metaphysics  of  Avicenna,^  those  of  Algazeli,'* 
Avicenna's  book  De   Coelo   et  Mundo,  and  Alphoranius  De 
Scientiis. 

Marcus,  who  was    also  encouraged   by  the    archbishop  of  First  transia- 
Toledo,  first  translated  the  Koran  in  1215:  of  this  there  is  a  Koran,  and 
fine  copy  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  and  there  are  two 
copies  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.*     This  translation  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  notice  on  the  life  and  religion  of  Miihammed,  which  is 
tolerably  correct ;  then  follows  the  translator's  preface,  in  which 
it  is   stated  that  when  the  present  archbishop  was  ordained 
bishop  of  Toledo,  he  caused  the  Koran  to  be  translated  from  ofGaiens 
the  Arabic  by  Marcus,  who  also  translated  a  work  of  Galen.''     Marcus? 

'  Royal  Library  of  Paris,  Sorbonne,  1187.     Compare  Anc.  Fonds,  8802. 

*  Recherches  sur  Aristote,  p.  504. 
=»  F.  Library,  Paris,  6443. 

*  MS.  of  Tunis,  6552. 

^  Anc.  Fonds,  MSS.  Latins,  No.  3394.  St.  Victoire,  No.  253.  Compare 
Jourdain's  Recherches  sur  les  Traductions  Latines  d' Aristote,  p.  1 10. 

^  Which  is  inscribed  "  De  notibus  liquidis  a  Joannino  Honaim,  de  Grseco 
in  Arabicuni;  a  Marco  Toletano  deArabico  in  Latiinim  couversus."  MSS. 
Latins,  P.  of  the  Royal  Library  Paris,  6865,  and  Sorbonne,  786. 


558 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  HERMANNUS.  [cHAP.  XVII. 


Hermannus 
translates 
Aristotle's 
Rhetoric  and 
Ethics. 


Other  works 
of  Aristotle 
translated. 


Constantinus 
introduces 
Arabic 
medicine  into 
Italy. 


Travels  and 
acquirements 
of  Constan- 
tinus. 


But  the  most  learned  translator  of  the  thirteenth  century 
was  Hermannus,  a  German.  He  studied  Arabic  at  Toledo, 
and  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  century.  He  translated 
the  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle,  which  he  dedicated  to  John,  bishop 
of  Burgos,  councillor  of  the  king  of  Castille.^  Hermannus  was 
assisted  by  Arabic  scholars,  and  not  by  Jews,  and  he  accom- 
plished his  task  with  the  greatest  ability.  He  also  translated 
the  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  of  which  Robert  of  Lincoln  made 
another  translation  from  the  Greek.  Hermannus  acknow- 
ledged the  superiority  of  the  latter,  but  the  earlier  version  was 
from  the  Arabic.  He  also  translated  Aristotle's  poetry,  follow- 
ing the  edition  of  Alfarabi.  Hermannus'  translation  of  the 
Ethics  was  made  at  Toledo  in  1240,  and  printed  at  Venice, 
1489. 

Whilst  the  orientalists  who  were  educated  in  Spain,  and 
those  of  St.  Gallen,  rendered  the  mathematical  and  astrono- 
mical works  accessible  to  the  Latin  reader,  Constantinus,  a 
native  of  Africa,  introduced  Arabic  medicine  into  Italy,  and 
founded  the  school  of  Salerno.  His  translations  from  the 
Arabic  were  the  more  welcome,  as  Celsus  and  Pliny  were  then 
the  only  medical  works  in  Latin.  It  has  been  said  that  Con- 
stantinus travelled  thirty-nine  years  in  the  east,  and  went  as  far 
as  India;  also  that  he  studied  grammar,  dialectics,  natural 
philosophy,  mathematics,  music,  and  medicine,  at  Baghdad. 
These  facts,  however,  have  been  doubted,  but  it  appears  certain 
that  in  1072  he  entered  the  monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  after 
he  had  been  secretary  to  Robert  Guichard,  and  that  he  wrote 
several  medical  works,  and  translated  many  from  the  Arabic.^ 

'  This  translation  was  printed  at  Venice,  1481,  and  is  in  the  Royal 
Library,  Paris,  Sorbonne,  1175. 

*  His  translations  are,  i.  Liber  Pantegni,  i.  e.,  Ars  ingens  inedicinae  uni- 
versalis, libri  viginti,  auctore  Isaac  Israelita  (Is-hak  Ibn  Soleiman,  a  Jewish 
physician  of  Egpyt,  who  died  a.d.  932),  et  interprete  Constantino,  monacho 
Cassiensis.     Royal  Library  at  Paris,  6885. 

ii.  The  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,  with  the  Commentary  of  'All  Ibn 
Rodhisdn,  a  physician  of  Egypt,  which  he  translated  at  the  request  of  his 
pupil  Elancon,  from  an  Arabic  MS.  MS.  of  the  Royal  Library,  Paris, 
6808.     Hippocrates,  Aphorismes  translati. 

iii.  Isaac's  book,  De  Urinis.  Harleian  Library,  British  Museum,  3140, 
Royal  Library,  Paris,  7034  and  6871,  A.  iv. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  ADELARD  OF  BATH.  559 

The  works  of  Constantinus,  published  in  two  volumes  at  Basle, 
1536,  may  equally  be  considered  as  translations  from  the 
Arabic' 

The  first  English  orientalist  on  record  is  Adelard  of  Bath,  Adeiard  of 
a  Benedictine  monk,  who  lived  about  the  year  1 100;  but  theinSpain. 
only  notice  of  his  life  is  that  contained  in  the  introduction  to 
his  "Questiones  Naturales."^  He  states  that  he  remained  long 
abroad,  chiefly  residing  in  France,  and  lecturing  on  the 
sciences  which  were  then  taught  in  the  university  of  Paris. 
Seven  years  before  his  return  to  England,  it  seems  that  he 
decided  upon  studying  the  works  of  the  i^rabs,  and  he  went  for 
that  purpose  to  the  Moorish  part  of  Spain ;  but  not,  as  stated 
by  some  authors,  to  Arabia  itself,  which,  it  may  be  observed, 
was  at  that  time  frequently  confounded  with  the  provinces 
occupied  by  the  Moors  in  Spain.^ 

Adelard  has  become  remarkable  in  Europe  by  his  translation  His  translation 
of  Euclid's  geometry,  of  which  work,  however,  there  is  a  second  ° 
version,  containing  also  Campanus'  translation  of  Nasir-ed- din's  Campanus's 
Demonstrations.     But  the  latter   translation   must  have  been  Nasir-ed-dm's 
added  at  a  later  time,  since  Nasir-ed-din  lived  subsequently  to  ^i^^^^^^^' 
Adelard.     There  is  a  copy  extant,  without  the  translation  of 
Campanus,  which  once  belonged  to  Gregory  XL,  and  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum.     It  is  evidently  of  Arabic   origin,  and 
more  ancient    than   the  Demonstrations    of  Campanus.     The 
existence  of  two  different  translations  of  Euclid's  Geometry  is 
confirmed  by  the  marginal  notes  to  another  MS.  of  Euclid,* 
in  which  the  Demonstrations  of  Campanus  are  compared  with 
the    earlier    work    by    Adelard.     The   latter    notices,    in    his  Astronomical 
Questiones    Naturales,    a    book   called  Al  Zij    (astronomical  andjhose  of ' 
tables),  of  which  there  is  a  Latin  translation ;  and  he  translated 


Al  Khowa- 
rezmi. 


iv.  Seven  books  of  Isaac,  called  Viaticum.     Harleian  Library,  3140. 

V.  Isaac,  De  Febribus,  ibid.  This  was  printed  among  the  Auctores  de 
Febribns.     Venice,  1594. 

'  His  Antidotarium  was  translated  from  the  Latin  into  Greek,  and  there 
is  a  copy  of  this  translation  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 

*  Besides  the  printed  text  there  are  several  fine  MS.  copies  of  this  work. 

*  See  Albertus  Magnus,  in  his  book  Ue  Cassidibus  Arabian  Hispalensis. 

*  Harleian,  5266. 


560 


ARABIC  SEMINARIES  IN  EUROPE. 


[chap.  XVII. 


Adelard's  last 
■work  on  re- 
tnrning  to 
England. 


Treatise  on 
the  astrolabe 
and  use  of 
Arabic  words. 


Arabic  semi- 
naries in 
France  and 
Spain. 


Samuel,  a 
Jew  of  Fez, 
writes  in 
favour  of 
Christianity. 


the  astronomical  tables  of  Al  Khowarezmi,  of  which  there  is  a 
copy  ill  the  Hattoii  library,  at  Oxford.^ 

These  tables  are  also  called  Ezichiaferim,  or  Ezieh  Za'far, 
one  of  the  names  of  Al  Khowarezmi.  Besides  the  astronomical 
tables,  Al  Khowarezmi  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  astrolabe,  another 
on  chronology,  and  his  celebrated  work  on  algebra ;  which 
science  is  supposed  to  have  first  found  its  way  into  Europe  by 
the  translation  of  Kudoph  of  Bruges  about  a.d.  1144. 

Adelard  returned  to  England  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  and  wrote  his  work  "  Per  difficiles  ques- 
tiones  naturales,"^  which  is  remarkable  for  its  rhyming  prose  in 
imitation  of  the  Arabic  style.  It  is  written  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  Adelard  and  his  nephew.  The  greater  por- 
tion of  his  works,  however,  still  remain  in  manuscript  in  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge. 

The  Arundel  collection  ^  contains  a  work  by  Adelard  on  the 
astrolabe,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  correctness  with  which 
the  Arabic  names  are  spelt.  He  generally  follows  the  English 
pronunciation  in  transcribing  Arabic  words ;  thus  he  writes 
Jafar,  and  not,  as  was  usual  in  his  time,  Geafar  or  Gafar. 

During  the  time  of  Adelard,  and  previous  to  his  age,  schools 
for  learning  existed  in  various  towns  in  the  south  of  France 
and  north  of  Spain,  particularly  at  Toledo;  in  which  not  only 
converted  Arabs,  but  Christians  and  Jews  appear  to  have 
been  Professors.  Among  the  last  was  Samuel  of  Fez,  who 
came  to  Toledo  in  1080.  In  1085  he  became  a  Christian. 
His  book  against  Isaac  was  translated  into  Latin  in  1338  by 
Buenhambre,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  and  may  be  found  in  the 
twenty-first  volume  of  the  Bibliotheca  Patrum. 

As  early  as  1 143,  Peter  of  Toledo,  assisted  by  two  friends, 
Robert  Ketenensis  and  Hermianus  Dalmata,  who  were  studying 
in  Toledo, "*  made  a  translation  of  the  Koran.  The  former,  who 
is  also  called  Ketenensis,  is  presumed  to  have  been  the  trans- 


'  Under  tlie  title  of  Ezieh  Elkaurezmi,  hoc  est  tabula  ChowarezmiccE  ex 
Arabico  traducto, 

*  Printed  and  published  at  Milan  in  folio  as  early  as  1470. 
"  No.  377. 

*  Bib.  Patrum  maxima,  vol.  xxii.,  pp.  1030,  1033. 


CHAP.  XVII.]       FREDERIC  II.   ENCOURAGES  ARABIC  LEARNING.       561 

lator  of  Ptolemy's  planisphere,'  and  also  of  the  large  work, 
Al-Zij  of  Beten,  or  El  Battani.  But  there  is  a  better  version 
by  Plato  Tibertinus,  one  of  the  most  correct  and  industrious 
translators  of  that  period.     He  says  there  is  no  better  author  Translation 

.  ,  '       r^         1  *       1  •  1  -ni    -r>         ,    .    of  El  Batumi's 

on  astronomy,  either  ni  (jrreek  or  Arabic,   than  iiil  battani.  works. 
This  version  by  Plato  Tibertinus  has  been  printed,  and  there 
is  a  MS.  copy  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.^ 

Two  learned  Englishmen  may  be  mentioned  in  connexion  Roger  of 
with  this  period,  Boger  of  Hereford  and  Daniel  Morley.     The  astronomer. 
former,  in  1178,  observed  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  at  his  native  Daniel  Mor- 

_  1  ,  .  ley,  the 

place.  From  a  fragment  of  an  astronomical  work  which  he  philosopher, 
wrote^  it  appears  that  he  knew  Arabic  well,  and  had  been  at 
Toledo.  The  astronomical  tables  of  Hereford  are  mentioned  by 
Bate  of  Mechlin.  Daniel  Morley,  who  was  Hereford's  friend, 
occupied  himself  particularly  with  philosophy,  and  acquired 
the  name  of  Philosophus.  He  went  to  Paris,  and  from  thence 
to  Toledo,  where  he  studied  the  Arabic  sciences.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  brought  a  large  quantity  of  books,  and 
one  Arabic  MS.,  entitled  "  De  Berum  Natura,"  which  is  in  the 
British  Museum.* 

The  liberality  of  Raymond,   archbishop  of  Toledo,  which  The  emperor 
had  given  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  pursuit  of  eastern  literature,  encourages  * 
was  renewed  with  additional  vigour,   and  extended   to  other  .^^^^^^"^  ^*^^"'" 
parts  of  Europe  by  Frederic  11.   .  This  prince   was  born  in 
Sicily,  spoke  Arabic  fluently,  and  was  in  frequent  contact  with 
the  Arabs.     He  had  a  predilection  for  Muhammedans,   and 
many  Saracens  attended  his  court,  the  sons  of  Averrhoes  being 
among  the  number. 

Frederic  endeavoured  to  counteract  the  narrow-minded  views 
of  the  Pope,  and  the  injurious  influence  of  his  authority  in 
retarding  the  advancement  of  learning,  by  introducing  Arabic 
philosophy  and  civilization  into  his  empire.  His  library  was 
rich  in  works  of  all  languages,  and  Latin  translations  were  sent 
to  the  universities,  accompanied  by  precepts  enjoining  what 

*  P.  234,  edition  of  Kurnberg,  1537.  '  Sorbonne,  No.  1264. 

^  Anni  collecti  omnium  planetarium,  compositi  a  Magistro  llogero  Ilere- 
fordiense,  anno,  &c. 

*  Arundel,  No.  377. 

VOL.  II.  .  2  o 


562  TRANSLATIONS  BY  MICHAEL  SCOTT.  [CHAP.  XVII. 

Circular        should  be  taught.     In  a  circular  letter  he  enlarges  upon  the 
FrederiJto     delights  of  learning,  the  enjoyment  he  derived  from  it,  and  he 
orientai^^       urges  its  cultivatiou  upon  the  learned,  whom  he  exhorts  to 
acquirements,  communicate  their  knowledge  to  their  less-instructed  brethren  ; 
adding,  that  if  the  mind  be  not  cultivated,  life  is  spent  unpro- 
fitably.     The    emperor's    circular   contains  also   the  following 
remarks :  "  Looking  attentively  over  the  books  in  our  library, 
we  noticed  various  ancient  works  on  logic  and  mathematics, 
which  were  written  by  Aristotle  and  other  philosophers  in  the 
Greek  and  other  languages  ;  which  not  having  yet  been  translated 
His  object  of  into  Latin  are  inaccessible.     As  it  is  our  pleasure  that  these 
people.  works  should  be  made  useful  to  the  public  by  means  of  transla- 

tions, we  have  ordered  some  distinguished  men,  who  are  familiar 
with  both  languages,  to  prepare  literal  translations." 

The  emperor  concludes  in  these  remarkable  words : — "  There- 
fore, O  learned  men,  who  present  to  the  thirsty  drink  from  the 
fountains  of  antiquit}%  accept  these  books  as  a  present  from 
your  friend  the  emperor,  and  make  use  of  them  in  your  lectures, 
in  order  that  the  germs  of  virtue  may  grow  luxuriantly,  and  the 
darkness  of  error  be  dispelled.  Admonished  by  your  sovereign, 
and  encouraged  by  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  presents  themselves, 
you  are  to  make  them  public  for  the  use  of  the  students,  and 
that  they  may  be  a  monument  to  our  name." 
Michael  Scott  The  largest  portion  of  the  labour  of  the  translations  fell  to 
Michael  Scott  (probably  a  Scotchman),  who  had  been  a  pupil 
at  the  school  of  Toledo  in  1207,  and  was  previously  at  Oxford 
and  Paris;  both  of  which  he  quitted  in  order  to  exchange 
scholastic  theology  for  the  Arabic  literature.  His  progress  in 
this  study,  as  well  as  his  proficiency  in  astronomy,  philo- 
sophy, and  all  the  natural  sciences,  had  gained  the  favour  of 
Frederic. 

But  although  he  was  the  translator  of  Aristotle,  and  a  great 
scholar,  Scott  owed  his  reputation  more  particularly  to  his  pre- 
tensions in  astrology  and  magic.^  He  wrote  the  preface  to  a 
work  on  magic,  which  was  translated  by  a  Jew  from  the  Arabic 
in  1255,  This  work  is  in  the  library  at  Dresden,  and  the 
character  appears  to  be  that  of  the  Mugarebeh ;  it  is  therefore 

'  Bocaccio  and  Dante,  Inferno,  canto  XX. 


and  his 
translations 


CHAP.  XVII.]      ALPHONSO  X.  ENCOURAGES  ARABIC  SCIENCES.  563 

probable  that  the  Jew  learned  Arabic  in  Spain,  where  that 
character  was  used. 

The  principal  works  translated  by  Michael  Scott  are — Abii-el-  Principal 
Sinna's  History  of  Animals;  and  a  work  on  physiognomies  by  Michael  Scott.' 
Theodosius  Philosophus.^    These  were  dedicated  to  Frederic  II. 
Pie  also  translated  a  work  on  falconry  for  the  emperor. 

The  encouragement  thus  given  did  not  cease  with  the  death 
of  Frederic,  or  of  his  son  Manfred,  for  Charles  of  Anjou  con- 
tinued to  support  the  cause  of  learning ;  and  his  example  was 
followed,  at  a  later  period,  by  Alphonso  X. 

This  prince  had  a  predilection  for  astronomy  ;  and  finding  but  Alphonso  x. 
few  works  on  this  science  in  Latin,  he  caused  several  of  those  the  study  of 
by  Arabic  astronomers  and  astrologers  to  be  translated  into  ^s'^™^^™^- 
Spanish.     But  instead  of  employing  learned  Europeans  who 
had  mastered  the  Arabic  language,  as  Frederic  11.  had  done, 
Jews  were  selected  to  translate  Arabic  works  under  his  own 
eye.    It  is  said  that  he  was  assisted  in  his  undertaking  by  forty 
men,  and  that  he  spent  forty  thousand  ducats  in  collecting 
materials :  but  the  tables  which  were  the  result  of  these  labours, 
have  not  been  much  valued  by  astronomers.     The  Secret  of 
Secrets,  and  nine  other  works,  are  enumerated  as  having  been 
translated  for  Alphonso.^ 

Although  an  impulse  had  been  given  to  learning  by  Fre-  impulse  given 
deric  II.  and  his  successor,  its  progress  continued  to  be  slow,  Frederic  ii. 

'  Pitts  mentions  several  other  works.     These  are  as  follow  : — 

Aristotle's  work,  De  Coloribus  ; 

Alchymistisch  Siebengestirn,  Hamburg,  1695 :  this  book  contains  a 
treatise  on  alchemy,  by  Aristotle,  which  is  said  to  have  been  translated  by 
order  of  Bishop  Honorius  from  the  Hebrew ; 

Aristotelis  Secretum  Secretorum,  ad  Alexandrum  ; 

De  Regium  Regimine  ;  De  sanitatis  conservatione  ;  De  physiognoniia ; 

Ejusdem  de  signis  tempestatum,  ventorum  et  aquarum  ; 

Ejusdem  de  miniralibus ; 

Alexandri  Aphrosdisii  clarissimi  peripatetici  de  intellectu ; 

Averrois  magni  commentatoris  de  animae  beatitudine  ; 

Alexandri  Achilliqua  bonis  mensis  de  universalibus  ; 

Alexandri  Macedonis  in  Septentrione  monarchi  de  mirabilibus  Indiae  ad 
Aristotelem.     Bologna,  MS.  No.  1901. 

The  last  is  a  very  curious  letter,  said  to  have  been  written  by  Alexander 
the  Great  to  his  tutor  Aristotle,  giving  some  account  of  the  wonders  of 
India. 

2  o2 
I 


564         STUDY  OF  EASTERN  LANGUAGES  ENCOURAGED.    [CHAP.  XVII. 


The  thirteenth 
century  was 
one  of  activity. 


Charles  V. 
encourages 
scientific 
studies. 


Roger  Bacon 
and  his  pur- 
suits. 


His  learning 
caused  his 
incarceration. 


Sir  Michael 
Scott  of 
Balweary. 


Use  of  Arabic 
numerals,  &c., 
in  Europe. 


owing  chiefly  to  the  delay  in  translating  as  well  as  transcribing 
ancient  works :  but  from  the  reigns  of  these  princes  may  be 
dated  the  decided  change  which  marks  the  fourth  period. 

The  thirteenth  century  has,  but  scarcely  it  would  seem  with 
justice,  been  considered  a  retrograde  period ;  for,  the  necessity 
of  improvement  having  been  felt,  universities  were  established, 
and  students  assembled  in  quest  of  instruction  both  from  Arabic 
and  Greek  sources  :  that  century  was  therefore,  particularly 
towards  its  close,  a  period  of  activity,  if  not  of  marked  advance- 
ment. 

Charles  V.,  the  reigning  monarch  of  France,  was  one  of 
those  who,  from  position  as  well  as  education,  was  enabled  to 
further  the  cause  of  science.  He  established  a  library  in  the 
Louvre  ;  and  translations  of  classical  works  were  made  under 
his  auspices  in  the  university  of  Paris.  Roger  Bacon,  who 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  students  of  that  university, 
returned  with  a  degree  to  Oxford,  where  it  was  readily  con- 
firmed. The  invention  of  an  explosive  substance  nearly  resem- 
bling gunpowder,  the  discovery  of  the  principles  of  the  telescope, 
and  the  pursuit  of  alchemy  have,  more  than  his  other  acquire- 
ments, given  celebrity  to  this  individual  His  Specula  Mathe- 
matica,  and  other  works  which  have  been  printed,  show  the 
vast  extent  and  variety  of  the  information  which  had  been 
acquired  by  the  learned  Franciscan;  and  the  Opus  Magis  is 
remarkable  for  a  display  of  knowledge,  wdiich  far  surpassed 
that  of  his  age.  Bacon's  favourite  pursuit  of  astrology  and 
alchemy,  however,  in  an  age  of  ignorance,  caused  him  to  be 
suspected  of  being  in  league  with  infernal  spirits ;  and,  instead 
of  being  honoured  as  the  brightest  ornament  of  his  age,  he  was 
doomed  to  pass  eleven  years  in  prison. 

Michael  Scott,  who  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  another 
individual  of  the  same  name  who  died  in  1294,  Sir  Michael 
Scott,  of  Balweary,  or  the  wizard  as  he  was  called,  are  proofs 
that  during  the  same  period  learning  was  also  cultivated  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  Scotland. 

The  use  of  the  Arabic  numerals,  and  the  practice  of  Arabic 
medicine,  became  more  general  during  the  succeeding  century; 
but  it  is  the  fifteenth  century  which,   in  connexion  with  the 


CHAP.  XVII,]  PROGRESS  OF  PRINTING.  565 

period  now  under  consideration,  claims  particular  attention.  A 
decided  change  commenced  with  Petrarch ;  and  the  revival  of 
classical  literature,  which  followed  in  Italy,  was  accelerated  by 
the  settlement  in  that  country  of  several  Greek  scholars,  who 
had  been  exiled  from  Byzantium.  The  cultivation  of  poetry 
in  S})ain  as  well  as  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  establishment  of 
great  public  libraries,  particularly  that  of  the  Vatican,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  were,  at  the  same  time,  the 
means  which  contributed  powerfully  to  the  advancement  of 
learning. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici  was  one  of  those  who  gave  encourage-  Euclid  printed 
ment  to  literature;  and  at  Venice,   Campanus'  translation  ofA. d.  i4S2. 
Euclid  was  printed  in  1482,  with  diagrams  prepared  on  copper 
to  illustrate  the  text.     Before  the  end  of  the  century  many 
scientific  works  were  printed  in  Greece  and  Italy ;  and,  a  little 
later,  at  other  places  in  Europe. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  classical  Learning 
learning  was  encouraged  in  France  by  Francis  I. ;  and  before  Fran"e'fnthe° 
the  middle  of  this  period,  it  formed  a  branch  of  education  at  ^e^^^^!^ 
the  British  Court.    Considerable  progress  was  also  made  in  the 
mathematical    and   physical    sciences    during  this  century,  in 
which  flourished  the  distinguished  astronomer  Copernicus. 

More  modern  times  claim  Lord  Bacon,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  its  rapid 
Descartes,   Milton,    Newton,   Leibnitz,   Euler,  and   La  Place,  f^mod^ern 
with  many  other  individuals  distinguished  for  literature  and  *'™^^- 
science ;  and  within  the  same  period,  in  addition  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  classic  works  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,   the 
Chaldee,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  other  oriental  languages,  have 
attracted  particular  attention.     The  grammatical  structure  of 
these  tongues  has  been   carefully  studied,   and  the  languages 
themselves   successfully   compared   with   one    another.      The  steam  vessels 
practical  use  of  steam  power  and  of  electricity  may  be  men-  ^'^g  e^^a^es. 
tioned  as  two  of  the  greatest  benefits  which  have  been   con- 
ferred on  man.     The  former  propels  vessels  along  rivers  and 
across  the  ocean  ;  and,  on  land,  transports  travellers  and  mer- 
chandize with  almost  the  speed  of  a  hurricane. 

The  other  power,  more  mysterious  in  its  nature,  though  as  The  eUctiic 
yet  in  its  infancy,  has  almost  annihilated  space,  and,  in  oue*^^^'^^  ' 


566  TJIE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  [cHAP.  XVII. 

sense,  completely  annihilated  time;  since,  by  moving  with  a 
velocity  exceeding  that  of  the  earth's  revolution  on  its  axis,  a 
commmiication  in  a  westward  direction  may  arrive  at  its  desti- 
nation at  an  instant  which,  in  local  time,  is  earlier  than  that  of 
its  departure. 


(    ^^7     ) 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  COMMERCE. 

Proposed  Notice. — Ancient  Commerce  of  India. — Trade  overcomes  the  diffi- 
culties caused  by  Wars,  &c. — Various  branches  of  ancient  Commerce. — 
Trade  of  Egypt  and  tlie  Ishmaelites. — Commerce  of  Arabia  with  Tyre. — 
Routes  from  Tyre  to  Palmyra  and  Babylon. — Route  to  Central  Asia. — 
Trade  of  the  Hindus,  eastward  and  westAvard. — Trade  with  Asia  in  the  time 
of  Pliny. — Routes  to  Eastern  China  and  India^  through  Balkh,  &c. — Com- 
merce on  the  Southern  Shores  of  the  Euxine. — Limited  extent  of  the  Greek 
Commerce  by  Sea. — Commerce  of  the  Rhodians,  Phry^gians,  Milesians,  and 
Carians. — Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor. — Limits  of  their  Voyages. — 
Commerce  of  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  and  Gauls  with  Britain. — 
Nature  of  this  Trade.' — Early  Trade  of  the  Hindus,  and  Merchandise  in 
demand. — Trade  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  Ears,  &c.,  to  China. — Tlie  earliest 
Kavigation  was  probably  that  of  the  Persian  Gulf. — Early  Navigation  of 
the  Persians,  the  Arabs,  and  Hindus. — Commerce  in  the  time  of  Is  ebucliad- 
nezzar. — The  black  Jews  settle  in  Malabar. — Arab  Vessels  in  the  time  of 
Nearchus. — Commerce  encouraged  by  Alexander's  successors. — Route  from 
Egypt  to  India. — Discovery  of  the  Trade  "Winds. — Direct  voyages  made  to 
India,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  from  the  Southern  Coast  of  Arabia. — Mu- 
hammed  enjoins  Trade  as  a  religious  duty. — Mercantile  cities  of  the  Arabs. 
— Extensive  range  and  intercommunication  of  their  Connuerce. —  Mekkah 
becomes  one  of  tlie  centres  of  Trade. — Prosperity  of  the  Arabs  in  the  time 
of  the  Abassides. — Effects  of  Luxury. — Mutawakkel  establishes  Trading 
Factories. — Learned  Men  accompany  the  Caravans. — Precious  Stones  and 
other  valuable  Commodities  are  exchanged  throughout  the  Arabian  Empire. 
— Furs,  &c.,  brought  from  the  Northern  Regions  across  the  Caspian  and 
Black  Seas,  and  European  goods  sent  into  Khorasan. — Trade  in  Silk,  Pearls, 
Carpets,  rich  Clotlis,  &c.,  partly  by  barter,  partly  by^  coin. — Exports  of 
Glass,  Carpets,  Cloth,  &c. — Swords  were  not  sent  abroad. — Costly  stuffs, 
Cloths,  and  other  fabrics. — Embroidered  stuflfe  representing  Historical  and 
Geographical  subjects. — Commerce  from  Basrah  to  India,  China,  and 
Africa. — Change  of  system  in  Trading  with  China. — A  Hindii  Physician 
sent  by  land  to  Hanin-el-Rashld. — Eastern  Commerce  carried  on  by  Jews, 
through  the  Red  Sea,  &c. — Route  through  Aleppo  to  India,  and  through 
Barbary  to  Baghdad. — Arabian  Trade  chiefly  confined  to  Eastern  Countries. 
— Trade  by  a  circuitous  route  between  Constantinople  and  India. — Venice 
becomes  a  trading  Port.— Rise  of  Commerce  in  England.— Merchants 


568 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  COMMERCE.        [CHAP.  XVIII. 


Proposed 
notice  on 
commerce. 


Origin  of 
trade. 


Its  progress 
notwith- 
standing all 
impediments. 


settle  in  Constantinople. — Eapid  progress  of  Venetian  Trade. — Genoa 
becomes  a  mercantile  Republic. — Trade  of  this  Port  with  India  through 
the  Black  Sea. — Colonies  established  on  the  Shores  of  the  Euxine. — 
Trade  of  the  Genoese  with  Europeans. — England  shares  indirectly  in 
Eastern  Commerce. — A  Company  called  the  Merchant  Adventurers 
established  in  England. — Scale  of  Duties  fixed  for  foreign  Trade. — 
Exports  from  England  to  Flanders,  &c. — The  Venetian  Trade  opened 
Avith  India  through  the  Red  Sea.  Bruges  becomes  a  mercantile  Depfit. — 
Prosperity  of  Commerce  in  France. — Discovery  of  the  Western  Coast  of 
Africa. — Discovery  of' America. — Rise  of  Antwerp. — Trade  drawn  to 
Lisbon. — Various  routes  to  India. — The  River  Euphrates  becomes  the 
principal  line. — Voyages  of  Rauwolf,  Balbi,  and  Newberrie. — Patent  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  for  Trade  by  this  Route. — Application  of  the  Merchants 
for  a  Loan. — Voyages  of  Fitch  and  Newberrie  along  the  Euphrates, — 
Queen  Elizabeth  keeps  a  fleet  of  Boats  on  the  Euphrates. — Consequent 
cheapness  of  Goods  from  India. — Establishment  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany.— Colonial  Trade  of  England,  and  its  advantages. — Increase  of 
Exports  and  Imports  during  Five  Centuries. — The  Turkey  or  Levant 
Companies  of  England  and  France. — State  of  the  Trade  of  the  Levant,  of 
Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and  Mesopotamia. — Trade  of  the 
Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs. — Partial  and  proposed  Navigation  of  the 
Euphrates. — Facilities  and  advantages  of  opening  the  River  Euphrates. 
— Openings  for  commercial  enterprise  on  the  Rivers  of  Mesopotamia. 

Passing  from  the  subjects  contained  in  the  preceding  pages,  it 
is  intended  to  devote  the  present  chapter  to  a  brief  view  of  the 
commercial  intercourse  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  have 
been  bound  together  for  their  mutual  advantage. 

The  exchange  of  the  simple  necessaries  of  life  for  the  supply 
of  wants  common  to  all,  was  speedily  extended  to  that  of 
articles  of  luxury ;  and  the  wants  gradually  created  became,  in 
time,  such  necessaries,  that,  in  order  to  obtain  them,  every  im- 
pediment, whether  arising  from  physical  causes  or  religious 
prejudices,  was  overcome ;  thus  the  merchandise  imported  at 
the  present  day  into  Asia  continues  to  pass  to  its  various  desti- 
nations, notwithstanding  the  hostility  of  the  Arabs,  the  fierce 
spirit  of  the  warlike  Turkomans,  and  the  still  greater  difficul- 
ties presented  by  the  exclusive  systems  of  the  Coreans  and 
Japanese. 

From  the  earliest  period  of  history,  Asia  and  its  products 
have  been  the  great  attraction  of  the  western  hemisphere,  and 
its  eastern  and  middle  portions  have  consequently  been  the  scat 
of  an  enriching  trade ;  to  which  the  resources  of  Hindustan, 


CHAP.  XVIII.J  ANCIENT  COMMERCE  OF  INDIA.  569 

and  the  adjoining  territories,  have  given  an  activity  that  is  still 
maintained. 

The  present  subject  will  now  be  considered  under  the  follow-  Various 

^  *'  branches  of 

ing  heads  : commerce  to 

be  considered, 

1st.  The  commerce  of  the  PhcEnicians  and  Carthaginians. 

2ndly.  The  land  trade  through  Arabia  and  Asia. 

3rdly.  Trade  by  water  from  and  to  India  and  China. 

4thly.  The  Ophirian  voyage. 

5thly.  Trade  under  the  Roman  emperors,  &c. 

6thly.  Tirade  of  the  Arabs. 

7thly.  Modern  trade. 

The  position  of  Egypt  was  equally  favourable  for  trade  by  Early  com- 
land  through  Arabia,  and  for  that  commerce  which  is  said  to  E^^^ti^?^ 
have  been  opened  at  a  remote  period  by  water  with  the  western 
coast  of  India.  But  if  such  voyages  were,  as  has  been  supposed, 
achieved  by  the  Egyptians,  in  the  reigns  of  Sesostris  or  Psam- 
metichus,^  it  would  appear  that  in  these  enterprises,  as  well  as 
in  the  land  trade,  that  people  were  ere  long  superseded  by  their 
neighbours  in  Palestine  and  Arabia. 

The  circumstances  attending  the   sale  of  Joseph,   and  the  CaraTan  trade 
journeys  of  Abraham,  show  that  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  was  Arabia. 
traversed  at  both  these  periods  for  commercial  purposes,  the 
products  of  Asia  and  Arabia  on  one  side,  being  exchanged  for 
those  of  Africa  on  the  other."     The  caravan  routes  of  Africa' 
converged  upon  middle  Egypt,  and  from  thence  proceeded  into 
Syria  by  way  of  Foscat,  Balbe'is,  Gaza,   Ramleh,  and  Tyre.* 
It  has  been  seen  that  Phosnicia  was  first  peopled  by  Cushites  Trade  of 
from  the  shores  of  the  Erythrean  Sea  or  Persian  Gulf,^  and  that  Tyre  a^' 
its  commerce  was  not  only  extended  westward,  but  into  coun-  eastern 
tries  in  the  opposite  direction  by  land,  thus  connecting,  for  the 
first  time,   the  eastern  and  western  regions  of  the  old  world. 
Tyre,  the  great  emporium  of  trade,  did  not,  however,  export 
merchandise ;  the  commodities  of  foreign  nations  were,  on  the 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  I.,  cap.  ix.,  xx.  *  See  vol.  I.,  p.  651. 

*  See  above,  pp.  92,  9o.  *  Ibn  Ilaukal,  ed.  Ouseley,  p.  75. 

*  Vol.  I.,  p.  281,  and  above,  pp.  46,  92. 


countries. 


5/0  ROUTE  FROM  MAREB  AND  SANA  TO  PETRA.      [CHAP.  XVllI. 

contrary,  brought  to  the  Tyrians  in  Phoenician  ships,  or  by  the 

nomad  tribes,  who  served  as  carriers. 

Trade  of  Arabia  Felix,  as  the  centre  of  trade,  had  several  lines  of 

with  Phoenicia.  Communication  with  the  southern  coast.    One  of  these  extended 

from  Mareb  to  San'a  and  the  port  of  'Aden.     A  second  struck 

eastward,  nearly  parallel  to  the  southern  coast  to  Maskat,  but 

sending  a  branch  previously  to  the   port  of  Dhafar.     A  third 

route  struck  northward  into  the  interior  from  Mareb,  passing 

Other  caravan  Wadi  Dowaser  and  El  Yemame'h,  to  Gerrha  (El  Katif )  on  the 

Arabia.'^*^"^    Pcrsiau  Gulf.  From  this  port  again  there  was  a  line  to  Abadan 

and  Babylon ;  also  two  caravan  routes  to  the  southern  coast 

of  the  peninsula,  one  to  the  eastern  and  the  other  to  the  central 

part  of  Hadramaiit,  both  apparently  conducted  by  the  Minaeans. 

Route  of  the         From  the  brief  notice  of  Strabo,^  it  would  appear  that  the 

mSImo  ^'°™  merchandise  collected  in  Yemen  from  the  southern  part  of 

Petra.  Arabia,  was  carried  from  thence  to  Petra.     This  route,  which 

was  probably  nearly  that  of  the  pilgrims  of  the  present  day, 

seems  to  have  proceeded  from  Mareb  and  San'a,  in  a  line  almost 

parallel  to  the  shores  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  passing  by  Mekkah 

and  El  H^ura,^  and   from  thence  by  Tebuk  and  Teima   to 

Petra  and  Gaza.     The  Tyrians  also,  who  had  colonies  on  the 

Persian  Gulf,  communicated  with  these ;  and  particularly  with 

Gerrha,^  which   they  reached   through   the   desert   by  Jebel 

Shammar. 

Commercial         Another  and  still  more  important  route  passed  from  Tyre  to 

Tyre  toZdebi.  Ba'albck,   Damascus,  Palmyra,  and  the  Euphrates  at  Zelebi, 

where  it  divided ;  one  branch  striking  through  Mesopotamia  to 

Babylon  and  Susa,  whilst  the  other  passed  by  Nineveh,  Mosul, 

and  Hamadan   to  Rai,    and   from   thence   by  Damaghan  to 

Nishapur  (or  Nisabiir),  Merv,  and  Bactra  (Balkh),  in  order 

to  communicate  with  the  distant  parts  of  the  east. 

Early  trade  of     The  Hindiis  wcre  always    a  trading  people,  having  been 

'°  ^'     amongst  the  first  of  the  Asiatics  who  fostered  commerce.     At 

the  earliest  period  of  which  there  is  any  record,  their  merchants 

appear  to  have  moved  with  perfect   security  from   place  to 

»  Lib.  XVII.,  pp.  1127,  1128. 
*  Albus  Pagus  of  Strabo,  ibid. 
^  Supposed  to  be  Tyrus  and  Aradus,  vol.  I.,  p.  647. 


CHAP,  XVIII.]  TRADE  WITH  CHINA  AND  TIBET.  571 

place'  with  valuable  goods,  chiefly  consisting  of  precious  stones, 
jewels,  and  various  beautiful  manufactures  in  ivory,  muslin, 
cotton,  and  other  cloths,^  which  had  been  prepared  with  much 
taste  and  skill,  by  the  people  of  the  country,  for  home  and 
foreign  consumption. 

The  spread  of  mankind  through  India  into  the  more  eastern  siik,  furs,  &c., 
countries  had  prepared  the  way  for  such  commerce,  which  was  Ihrough  Asia. 
carried  in  different   directions   through  the  steppes  of  Asia. 
Raw  silk  from  China  was  carried  by  the  route  of  Persia  to  the    . 
more  western  countries,  together  with  woven  silk ;  furs  of  the 
most  costly  description  from  the  Bulghars  and  Khazars,^  with 
the  best  kind  of  iron ;  all  of  which  were  brought  from  Seres.^ 

Long  before  the  time  of  Mas'iidi,  there  were  carried  by  the  Goods  im- 
same  route  many  of  the  perfumes  of  Tibet  and  China,  as  well  Tibet,  cSa, 
as  the  numerous  productions  of  India ;  or,  at  least,  those  which  ^°^  ^^^' 
were  in  demand  in  the  countries  to  the  westward,  such  as  silks, 
cottons,  spices,  &c.     This  commerce  was  well  defined  in  the 
time  of  Pliny,  and  it  may,  therefore,  be  inferred  that  it  existed 
long  before  his  day.     The  chief  articles  exported  from  India 
were  ivory,  crystal,  amethysts,  diamonds,  gold,  onyx,  sardonyx, 
cinnabar,  myrrh,  nardus,  pepper,  with  other  spices,  and  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  linen.^     These  were  carried  into  Persia,  and  Nature  of  the 
the  countries  lying  to  the  westward ;  and  we  know  that  a  poli-  imported, 
tical  as  well  as  a  commercial  connexion,  had  existed  between 
the  Persians  and  the  Indians,  since  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
the  northern  part  of  India  by  the  elder  Cyrus.^ 

Bactra  (Balkh),  and  the  surrounding  territory,  were  the 
principal  seats  of  the  ancient  trade,  from  whence,  as  has  been 
mentioned  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work,"  there  were  two 

'  The  Ramayana  of  Valmecki,  translated  from  the  original  Sanscrit  by 
William  Carey  and  Joshua  Marshman,  vol.  III.,  p.  97. 

*  Arrian,  Hist.  Indica,  cap.  xvi. 

^  Die  Handelszeuge  der  Araber  unter  den  Abbassiden,  durch  Africa, 
Asien  und  Ost  Europa;  Von  Fr.  Stuewe.     Berlin,  1836,  p.  54. 

*  Pliny,  lib.  XXXIV.,  cap.  xiv. 

'Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. ;  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xvi.  ;  lib.  XXIX.,  cap.  i.  ; 
lib.  XXXVI.,  cap.  ii. ;  lib.  XXXVII.,  cap.  v.  vii. 
«  Xen.  Cyropsed.,  Hutchinson,  1812,  p.  349.  ^  See  above,  p.  309. 


572 


ROUTES  THROUGH  ASIA. 


[chap.  xvni. 


through 
Balkh 


principal  routes  to  China.^  One  proceeded  eastward  to  Badak- 
shan,  from  whence  it  took  a  north-easterly  direction  by  Kashkar 
to  the  celebrated  mountain  pass  of  the  Stone  Tower.  Here 
it  turned  eastward  by  Ouchi  and  Aksou,  and  keeping  nearly 
parallel  to  the  great  chain  of  the  celestial  mountains,  it  passed 
through  the  desert  of  Gobi  to  the  capital  of  Serica/  supposed 
to  be  Pekin  and  the  neighbouring  gulf  of  Petchelee ;  which 
was  reached  after  a  continuous  journey  of  seven  months  from 
the  Stone  Tower.^ 
Various  routes  Another  route  appears  to  have  taken  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion through  Attock  to  Delhi  and  Benares,  whence  it  turned 
north-eastward  through  Tibet,  until  it  met  the  former  near 
Pekin. 

Another  route  proceeded  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Panj-ab 
to  Nishapiir,  which  place  is  about  twenty-four  days'  journey 
from  the  Oxus.  Near  Nishapiir  the  line  was  joined  by  one 
which  came  from  the  country  of  the  civilized  Massagetse  of  He- 
rodotus ;  that  is  to  say,  from  Shash,  Ferghanah,  Belasighuii, 
and  Samarkand,  descending  the  valley  of  Soghd  to  Bokhara, 
and  from  thence  by  Merv,  once  the  capital  of  Khorasan,  to 
Nishapiir.  Leaving  this  city  the  road  takes  a  westerly  direction 
for  ten  days  to  Damaghan,  and  eight  days  more  bring  the 
caravan  to  Pai.  The  latter,  as  a  free  mercantile  city  and 
commercial  republic,  might  then  be  considered  the  greatest 
emporium  of  trade  in  the  world,  and  it  was  still  an  important 
place  in  the  third  century  of  the  Hijrah.^ 


Early  com' 
merce  of 
Rai,  &c 


'  St.  Martin  has  shown  that  in  early  times  there  were  colonies  of  Chinese 
in  Armenia  who  were  probably  merchants  ;  but  at  all  events  there  Mas  con- 
siderable intercourse  between  the  celestial  empire  and  the  south-western 
territory  of  the  Black  Sea.  Memoires  Historiques  et  Geographiques  sur 
I'Armcnie,  Paris,  1819,  vol.  II.,  p.  15-55. 

*  D'Anville's  Ancient  Geography,  vol.  II.,  pp.  93,  94. 

*  Ancient  History  of  tlie  Indies,  with  a  special  consideration  of  their 
influence  on  the  Western  Countries,  by  Joacliim  Lelewel,  Warsaw,  1820, 
p.  198,  compared  with  Ptolemy,  I,  12;  VI.,  13-16;  and  Ammian.  Mar- 
cell.,  XXIII.,  6. 

*  See  Kitiib-al-boldan,  an  Arabic  MS.,  No,  617,  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's Library. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  EMPORIUM  OF  TARAbUZUN.  573 

At  Rai,  the  route  was  crossed  by  another  coming  from  the  Secondary 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  took  a  southerly  direction  Ispahan, 
onwards  through  Ispahan  to  the  Persian  Gulf.     The  principal 
road,  however,  continued  in  a  westerly  course,  having  after- 
wards a  branch   to   Tabriz,    and  from   thence   to  Tarabuziin, 
whilst  the  other,  as  just  noticed,  passed  through  Hamadan  and 
Mosul,  &c.,  to  PhcEnicia.    Rai  was  considered  midway  between  Advantageous 
Balkh  and  Tarabuziin,  from  which  port  at  a  later  period  goods  i^ai. 
were  shipped  for  the  coast  of  Cappadocia  to  supply  Asia  Minor, 
as  well  as  for  some  of  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
more  distant  parts  of  Europe.^ 

From  the  story  of  the  Argonauts  and  the  Iphigenia  of  Tauris, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Greeks  were  in  connexion  with  the 
caravan  trade  by  the  route  which  has  just  been  traced ;  and  in 
this  way  the  productions  of  India  and  China,  as  well  as  those  Products  of 

n    1         *^  1  •  r>     ^        -\r  i      •     China  and 

01  the  more  northern  territory  oi  the  JMassagetse  were  at  tneir  India  brought 
command.     Thus,    as  the  various  drugs  of  India,   &c.,   were*"^'^'^^'^*^' 
obtained  almost  at  first  hand,   the  early  acquaintance  of  the 
Greeks  with  their  use  was  the  natural   consequence  of  their 
connexion  with  this  overland  trade. 

The  Greek  commerce  by  sea  was  however  Restricted  to  the  Limited  trade 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  coast  of  Italy,  and  by  sea. 
that  of  Asia  Minor.     The  earliest  Greek  navigators  were  the 
Pelasgians,  who  about  960  b.  c.  are  said  to  have  extended  their 
colonies  to  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Italy,  as  far  as  the  extremity  of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
They  were  succeeded  by  the  Thracians :  and  these  were  in  Early  trade  of 
turn  superseded  by  the  Dorian  colony  of  the  Ehodians,  who  Dorians,  and  * 
drove  the  ships  of  the  Thracians  from  the  sea,  and  extended  ^^°<^''^°^- 
their  own  commerce  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Cilicia,  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Spain.     They  also  carried  on   an   extensive   trade  with 
Egypt,  from  whence  they  drew  their  principal  supplies  of  corn, 
&c.-     On  the  decline  of  the  Phodian  power,  the  empire  of  the 
sea  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Phrygians,  the  Phoiuicians, 

'  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xiv.,  xv.,  shows  that  an  intercourse  had  existed 
between  Egypt  and  the  south-eastern  coast  of  tlie  Black  Sea. 

^  Histoire  du  Commerce  et  de  la  Navigation  des  Anciens,  par  Peter  Daniel 
Huet,  evequede  Soissons,  8vo.     Paris,  1716,  chap,  xix.,  pp.  Ill,  112. 


574       COMMERCE  EXTENDED  TO  FRANCE  AND  SPAIN.    [cHAP.  XVIH. 

and  the  Egyptians,  who  held  it  until  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century  B.C.,  when  it  was  again  restored  to  the  Greeks 
by  the  Milesians. 
NumeroTis  Milet,  Called  by  Pomponius  Mela,  the  first  town  of  Greece 

MiksiMis.     ^  both  for  peaceful  and  warlike  pursuits,  became  also  the  greatest 
with  regard  to  the  number  of  its  colonies,  which  according  to 
Pliny,^   amounted  to  eighty.     The  Milesians  extended  their 
commerce  principally  towards  the  north ;  but  they  also  esta- 
blished colonies  in  the  south,  and  opened  the  trade  of  the  Nile, 
founding  the  town  of  Naucratis  on  its  banks,  and  that  of  Abydos 
in  the  interior  of  Egypt.     Sinope,  Tarabuzun,  and  other  large 
towns,  were  also  originally  Milesian  colonies.     In  time,  how- 
ever,   their    commercial    superiority   yielded   to    the   growing 
power  of  the  Carians,  who  continued  masters  of  the  sea  until 
overcome  by  the  Peloponnesian  Greeks,  whose  dominion  lasted 
up  to  the  time  of  the  expedition  of  Xerxes,  480  b.c.  ;  and, 
before  this  period,  the  discoveries  of  the  Phoceeans  had,  about 
600  B.  c.  opened  to  this  people  new   sources    of  commerce. 
Commercial    They  had  carrird  their  trade  to  the  coast  of  Italy,  where  they 
iteY" TraSce   ^^^  founded  Nclia  and  Legaria,  and  to  the  southern  part  of 
and  Spain.      Gallia,    where    they  built  Massilia   (Marseilles).     They  also 
reached  Spain,  where  they  founded  the  town  of  Artemisium  or 
Diamme,  now   Denia  in  Valentia.     But  among   the  Greeks 
themselves,  little  was  effected  in  commercial  enterprises  by  sea 
during   the   early   period   of  their  history.     The  Corinthians 
appear  to  have  had  a  few  colonies  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and 
Colonies         Illyria,  Syracuse  being  among  the  former ;  while  the  Athenians, 
SaEor^"  at  various  times,  established  the  greater  number  of  the  Greek 
Sicily,  &c.       colonies  existing  in  the  Archipelago,  on  the  coasts  of  Thrace 
and  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  in  Cyprus,  Sicily,  and  Italy.     But 
it  seems  well  ascertained  that,  prior  to  the  invasion  of  Europe 
by  Xerxes,  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Greeks  had  never 
carried  them  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Pontus  Euxinus."^    This  is,  however,  contrary  to  the  opinion 

'  Lib.  v.,  cap.  xxix. 

*  Memoire  sur  les  Revolutions  du  Commerce  des  lies  Britanniques,  depuis 
son  commencement  jusqu'a  I'Expedition  de  Jules  Ca3.sar,  par  M.  Melot, 
tome  XXXVIII.,    p.   246-290,   de   Memoires  de    Litterature   tirees   des 


CHAP.  XVIII.]         PHCENICIANS  TRADE  WITH  BRITAIN.  575 

of  some  authors,'  who  consider  that  the  British  isles  were  known  The  British 
to  the  Greeks  long  before  that  event."  as  the 

A  very  early  conmuTce  was  carried  on  with  certain  islands,  Cassitendes. 
bearing  the  name  of  the  Cassiterides,  situated  near  the  coast  of 
Britain,  which  Camden  identifies  with  the  Sorlings :''  the  exist- 
ence also  of  Britain  itself  was  well  known  to  the  Phoenicians,  who 
traded  not  only  with  the  Cassiterides  or  tin  islands,  but  also  with 
the  southern  coast  of  the  principal  island,  which  appears  to  have 
been  included  with  the  others  in  the  general  designation  of  Cas- 
siteridian  islands."*     The  position  of  the  islands  was,  however.  Trade  of  the 
carefully  concealed  by  the  Phoenicians  on  account  of  the  great  with  Britain, 
advantages  which  they  derived  from  the  discovery.     It  is  diffi- 
cult to  fix  the  epoch  of  their  first  visit  to  these  shores ;  but  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  about  the  time  of  Moses.^    Strabo^  men-  sait,  iron,  and 
tions  salt,  with  utensils  of  earthenware,  and  all  kinds  of  iron  and  cSnged  for 
copper  tools,  as  the  articles  carried  to  Britain  by  the  Phoenicians  ti°'  ^^• 
in  exchange  for  skins,  leather,  and  tin :  he  also  describes  these 
islands  as  abounding  in  grain  and  cattle,  and  as  having  mines  of 
gold,  silver,  and  iron,  all  of  which,  with  slaves  and  hunting-dogs, 
were  objects  of  their  commerce :  the  dogs  were  used  by  the  Gauls 
and  some  of  the  nations  of  the  Levant  for  warlike  purposes,^ 
Strabo  also  considers  that  the  Phoenicians  first  reached  the 
British  islands  from  Cadiz.^ 

The  destruction  of  Tyre  and  the  rise  of  Alexandria  lessened 
the  trade  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  western  commerce  was 
gradually  usurped  by  the  Carthaginians.  The  latter  appear  to 
have  rediscovered  the  British  islands  about  200  b.c,  and  to  have 

Registres  de  I'Academie  Royale  de  Sciences,  Inscriptions,  et  Belles  Lettres, 
1749. 

'  Defence  of  the  British  History,  by  John  Price ;  and  the  Antiquities  of 
Ancient  Britain,  by  Aylett  Sammes. 

^  Memoire  sur  les  Revolutions  du  Commerce,  &c.,  par  M.  Melot,  Me- 
moires  de  la  Litterature,  «fec.,  tome  XXIX.,  pp.  265-295. 

^  Britannia,  ed.  Gough,  1806,  vol.  IV.,  p.  565. 

*  Herodotus,  lib.  III.,  cap  cxv. ;  D'Anville,  Geographic,  &e.,  tome  I., 
p.  91. 

*  Eusebius,  Chron.,  attributes  the  discover}'  of  the  Tin  Islands  to  a  Phoe- 
nician Hercules,  in  the  seventy-third  year  of  Moses. 

'  Page  175,  ed.  of  1571. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  305.  «  Ibid.,  p.  175. 


576  COMMERCE  OF  THE  INDIANS  BY  SEA.         [CHAP.  XVIII. 

Trade  of  the    again  Opened  the  trade ;  but  less  fortunate  than  the  Phoenicians, 
Britain.  their  secret  was  soon  discovered,  and  the  commerce  with  Britain 

was  carried  on  by  the  Gauls  of  Duriorigum  in  Venets,  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Britany,  now  Vannes.    This  took  place  probably 
about  120  B.C.,  when  Narbonne  was  built;  to  which  town,  as 
well  as  to  Marseilles  *  the  British  tin  speedily  found  its  way.^ 
Fleet  of  the  Reverting  to  eastern  commerce,  which  there  is  little  doubt 

Hindus  in  the  ^•^         •  •.*ji  r>  i  •!•,• 

time  of         was  likewisc  maintamed  by  sea  irom  a  very  early  period,  it  is 

Semiramis,     stated  that  Strabrotatus  built  four  thousand  ships  of  bamboo  to 

encounter  those  of  Semiramis  in  battle  on  the  Indus  ;^  and  from 

the  circumstance  of  this  river  having  been  covered  with  vessels 

at  the  time  of  Alexander's  invasion,  the  antecedent  existence  of 

Early  com-     a  Commerce  by  sea,  may  safeh^  be  inferred.     A  chain  of  ports 

lUGrcp  of  the  V  •/  %/  X 

Indians  by  sea.  on  the  wcstem  side  of  the  Indian  peninsula  is  mentioned  in  the 
Periplus,'*  particularly  Patala,  Barygaza  now  Baroach,  Perimula, 
Tropina,  Antomela,  Muziris  now  Mangalore,  and  Nelkynda, 
from  whence  trade  was  carried  westward.  Taprobana  was  another 
emporium  of  Hindu  commerce,  being  admirably  situated  for  the 
purpose  of  trade  between  India,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Africa.^ 

Corn,  rice,  butter,  oil  of  sesamum,  coarse  and  fine  cotton 
goods,  cane  honey  or  sugar,  were  regularly  exported  to  Africa 
from  Barygaza  and  the  adjoining  coast;*'  and  it  has  been 
already  mentioned  that  Eudoxus  discovered  the  prow  of  a 
vessel,  presumed  to  be  of  Indian  construction,  on  the  coast.'^ 
The  Hindus  Moreover,  we  find  from  Strabo  that  a  vessel  from  India 
Arabian^Guif  i^^ached  the  Arabian  Gulf,  having  on  board,  of  all  the  crew, 
only  one  man,  and  he  perishing  from  thirst  and  hunger.^     The 

'  Strabo,  p.  257,  ed.  1571. 

^  Memoire  sur  les  Revolutions  du  Commerce,  par  M.  Melot,  1749,  life- 
moires  de  Litterature,  &c,  tome  XXV.,  p.  57-83. 
^  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  xiii.,  xiv. 

*  IMaris  Erythraei,  p.  27-34. 

*  Montfau^on,  Bibl.  Patr.,  vol.  II.,  p.  336  ;  and  Periplus,  Maris  ErytlirEPi. 
«  Periplus,  pp.  8,  10,  18. 

''  Pliny,  lib.  II.,  cap.  Ixvii.  From  the  figure  of  a  horse,  wliich  is  almost 
an  universal  ornament  of  the  vessels  of  Surat  and  Bombay,  being  carved  on 
this  prow,  Captain  Ormsby,  of  the  Indian  Navy,  has  with  much  probability 
inferred  that  it  was  the  remains  of  a  Hindu  bark. — Asiatic  Journal,  new 
series,  vol.  XXIV.,  p.  110. 

"  Lib.  XVII. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]       EARLY  TRADE  OF  THE  ARABS  WITH  CHINA.  577 

Persian  trade  with  India  consisted  of  copper  and  different 
kinds  of  costly  woods,  which  were  brought  in  large  vessels 
from  Barygaza  to  the  Persian  cities ;  while  the  inhabitants  of 
'Oman  carried,  in  return,  pearls,  purple  cloths,  wine,  dates, 
and  slaves,  to  Barygaza  and  Arabia ;  using  small  wooden  boats 
which  were  tied  or  sewn  together.'  The  position  of  Tapro- 
bana,  or  Ceylon,  is  particularly  mentioned  at  a  later  period  in 
connexion  with  China.  It  is  stated  that  an  Arab  merchant 
proceeded  from  El  Basrah,  by  sea,  to  'Oman,  and  from  thence 
to  Kolah,  which  is  midway  to  China,  and  the  commercial  mart 
of  the  Muslim  vessels  of  Seraf  and  'Oman.  Here,  it  is  added.  Vessels  from 
they  now  meet  the  merchants  of  China,  who  come  for  the  geraf  trade 
purpose  in  their  own  vessels  to  this  island;  while,  formerly, '^^^^ *-^^'"''- 
they  proceeded  the  whole  way  to  the  coasts  of  'Oman,  Pars, 
and  El  Bahrein ;  also  to  El  Ob'oll'ah  and  El  Basrah  ;  which 
last  had  the  name  of  Farj-el-Hind. 

When  the  geographical  position  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is  con-  The  position 
sidered,   and  especially  the  fact   that  it  bathes  the  coast  of  favourable  to 
Babylonia,   there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  first  sea*^^*^^' 
navigated.     We  find  from  the  Old  Testament  that  the  Chal- 
deans had  ships  as  early  as  the  time  of  Isaiah ;"  and  this  was 
probably  long  subsequent  to  the  first  establishment  of  trade  in 
those  parts.     When,   also,  it  is  recollected  that  on  the  coast 
of  Persia  were  situated  some  of  the  most  ancient  nations — as 
the  inhabitants  of  Susiana,   and   those  of  the   territory  lying 
between  Babylonia  and   India — it  is  natural  to  infer  that  a 
mutual  intercourse  must  have  subsisted  both  by  land  and  water 
between  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries.     The  testimony  of  Commerce  of 
Plato,   about   the  close  of  the  fifth,  or  the  beginning  of  the  by  sea. 
fourth  century,  b.  c,  that  the  Persians  were  invincible  by  sea, 
owing  to  their  numbers,  power,  wealth,  and  knowledge  of  navi- 
gation,^ sufficiently  bears  out  the  words  of  the  prophet.     The 
Persians,  who  were  at  this  period  masters  of  the  Assyrian"  and 
Babylonian  empires,  and  were  in  possession  of  the  estuaries  of 

'  Periplus,  Mar.  Erythr.  *  Chap.  XLIII.,  v.  14. 

=•  Menexenus,  vol.  V.,  pp.  239,  240. 

*  The  monuments  recently  brought  from  Isineveh  establish  the  fact  of 
the  use  of  vessels  during  the  early  part  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy. 
VOL.  II.  2  P 


578 


EARLY  TRADE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  GULF.       [cHAP.  XVIII. 


The  Arabs 
succeed  the 
Phoenicians. 


They  have 
always  been 
pirates  or 
traders. 


Nebuchad- 
nezzar en- 
courages trade, 


Commerce  of 
Tyre  with 
Arabia. 


the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Pallacopas,  &c.,  carried  on  the  commerce 
then  existing  with  India,  China,  and  Africa;  and,  as  a  trade 
so  extensive  must  have  been  the  growth  of  time,  it  is  evident 
that  its  origin  is  of  high  antiquity. 

Opinions  have  differed  concerning  the  people  to  whom  is  due 
the  priority  of  the  navigation  of  this  inlet,  some  considering 
that  it  originated  with  the  people  of  Kach'h,  and  others  with 
the  Arabs.  As  navigation  commenced  with  the  Phoenicians  or 
Erythreans,  it  is  probable  that  the  Arabs  who  succeeded  them, 
may  claim  priority  over  the  Persians  as  well  as  the  Indians. 

The  Arabs  constantly  appear  in  history  as  pirates  or  mer- 
chants. From  the  merchants  of  Midian,'  being  the  bearers  of 
spicery,  balm,  and  myrrh,  products  of  India,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  they  had  some  intercourse  with  that  region  by  sea  anterior 
to  the  time  of  Moses.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  can  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  navigation  among  the  Arabs  goes  back  at  least  to 
the  Ophirian  trade;  when,  if  their  vessels  were  not  used  by 
Solomon,  the  men  probably  formed  part  of  the  crews  employed 
to  man  his  ships.  In  any  case,  however,  the  constant  succes- 
sion of  coasting  voyages,  stage  by  stage,  along  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea,  must  have  taught  the  Arabs  the  management  of 
vessels. 

Subsequently  to  the  Ophirian  voyages^  an  eastern  trade 
may  be  traced  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  Nebuchadnezzar 
built  Teredon,  apparently  to  facilitate  this  object;'^  and  it  was 
during  the  wars  of  this  prince  that  the  Israelites,  whose  poste- 
rity is  known  as  the  black  Jews  of  Malabar,  are  supposed  to 
have  made  their  way  to  the  latter  territory,  after  having  been 
expelled  from  their  own  country. 

From  the  animated  description  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel,"*  it  is 
evident  that  Tyre  had  long  maintained  an  active  commerce  in 
the  harbours  of  Arabia,  as  well  as  on  the  adjoining  seas.  It  is 
elsewhere  stated  that  Arabia  abounds  with  mariners,  pilots,  and 
merchants,  who  exported  native  commodities  to  Barygaza,  or 


'  Gen.  chap.  XXXVII.,  v.  25,  ami  cliap.  XLIII.,  v.  11, 

^  See  above,  p.  122-128. 

*  Euseb.,  Praep.  Evan.,  lib.  X. ;  Euseb.,  Chron.  XLIX. 

*  Chap.  XXVII. 


CHAP.  XVIIl.]       COMMERCE  OF  TYRE  WITH  ARABIA,  ETC.  579 

Baroach,  and  other  parts  beyond  the  straits;'  there  is  also 
some  reason  to  believe  that  the  Arabs  had  even  circumna- 
vigated Africa.- 

Vessels,  apparently  of  Arabian  construction,  were  found  by  Trade  of  the 
Nearchus  on  the  coast  of  Mekran  f  and,  in  the  Periplus,  they  tim^e  of" 
are  constantly  mentioned,''  as  well  as  by  Agatharchides,^  who,  in  '^^^^^<^®'"- 
the   second  century   before  our  era,   gives  the  first  historical 
evidence  of  the  establishment  of  Arabian  colonists  in  the  ports 
of  India. 

The  Egyptian  sovereigns  were  not  slow  to  perceive  the  Commerce 
advantageous  position  of  their  country,  and  measures  were  bjMhe^^ 
early  taken  for  the  improvement  of  commerce  with  other  parts  Egyptians. 
of  the  world ;  more  particularly  with  the  dependent  territories 
of  Palestine,  Coelo-Syria,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Lycia,  Caria,  &c. 
Indeed,  the  successors  of  Alexander,  although  at  variance  with 
each  other  in  all  other  respects,  were  unanimous  in  the  pro- 
motion of  commerce,  in  which  they  carried  out  the  plan  traced 
by  their  great  master.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the  second 
monarch,  was  particularly  distinguished  for  the  measures  which 
he  took  to  increase  the  trade  of  his  country ;  in  furtherance  of 
which  object  he  founded  a  city  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Red  Sea,  called  Berenice,  after  his  mother.  As  an  additional 
means  of  attracting  the  trade  which  had  hitherto  chiefly  passed 
by  land  from  Elath  to  Rhinocorura,  and  thence  by  sea  to  Tvre, 
he  caused  a  canal  to  be  opened  from  Coptos  on  the  Nile  to  the 
Red  Sea,  in  which  he  kept  a  fleet.  He  had  other  vessels  on 
the  Mediterranean  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  and  a  commu- 
nication was  constantly  maintained  between  the  two  seas.^ 

The  commerce  thus  opened,  which  received  a  great  impulse  The  periodical 
from  the  happy  discovery  made  by  Hippalus  of  the  nature  of  Sel^^^'^" 
the  monsoons,'  appears  to  have  continued  until  the  time  of  the 
Romans.     During  the  vigour  of  the  republic,  commerce  appears 
to   have  been   neglected;    but  the  subsequent    extent   of  the 
Roman  dominions,  and  a  growing  taste  for  the  productions  of 

'  Periplus,  Maris  Erythrai,  p.  10.  *  Vol.  I.,  p.  652. 

»  Arrian,  Hist.  Ind.,  cap  XXXVIII.        "  P.  19-33. 

^  Apud  Hudson.  *  Strabo,  lib.  XVII.,  p.  791. 

'  Peripl.  Mar.  Eryth.,  p.  32. 

2  P  2 


580 


TRADE  OF  THE  ROMANS  WITH  INDIA.         [cHAP.  XVIII. 


Valuable  trade 
of  the  Romaos 

with  India,     occurred. 


Route  of  this 
commerce. 


The  Arabs 
continue  the 
Indian  trade. 


other  countries,  gradually  drew  attention  to  it,  and  caused  it 
ultimately  to  be  pursued  with  energy  and  success. 

It  Avas  in  the  time  of  Augustus  that  a  direct  voyage  to  India 
Taking  advantage  of  the  south-west  wind,  now  called 
Hippalus,  one  hundred  and  twenty  vessels  were  despatched  by 
-3^1ius  Gallus,  from  Myos  Hormos  towards  India,  to  bring 
back  cargoes  during  the  north-east  monsoon.  Immense  profits 
of  about  one  hundred  per  cent./  caused  the  Romans  to  pursue 
this  commerce  to  an  extent  which  afterwards  became  severely 
prejudicial  to  the  empire,  in  consequence  of  the  vast  sums  trans- 
mitted in  payment  for  luxuries.^  Subsequently,  as  a  means  of 
facilitating  the  trade,  the  line  of  the  Nile  was  substituted  for 
the  upper  part  of  the  Eed  Sea.  For  this  purpose  the  mer- 
chandise was  put  in  boats,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Alexandria 
at  Juliopolis,  from  whence  it  was  carried  up  the  Nile,  in  twelve 
days,  to  Coptos ;  it  Mas  afterwards  conveyed  on  camels,  in  twelve 
days  more,  about  two  hundred  miles,  to  Berenice,^  on  the  Eed 
Sea,  where  it  was  embarked.  This  took  place  about  the 
middle  of  summer,  and  thirty  days  carried  the  fleet  either  to 
the  port  of  Ocelis,  or  that  of  Cana  (formerly  Coptos),  both  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Arabia,  a  little  beyond  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  remainder  of  the  voyage  was  completed 
in  forty  days  to  Muziris,  in  Lemyrica,  now  Concan,  to  which 
port  the  Indians  brought  their  goods.  From  thence  the  fleet 
returned,  laden  with  costly  articles  of  the  east,  with  the  next  or 
north-east  monsoon.^ 

This  commerce  continued  till  the  overthrow  of  the  western 
empire,  when  it  fell  to,  or  rather  reverted  to  the  Arabs,  with 
all  the  advantages  of  direct,  instead  of  coasting  voyages.  Basrah 
appears  to  have  been  built  as  the  first  Arabian  emporium  of 
trade,  and  Muhammcd  visited  it  when  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits,  in  his  early  life.  The  prophet  was  fully  alive  to  the 
advantages  of  commerce,  and  enjoined  it  upon  his  followers  as 
a  religious  duty.  Every  conquered  town  became  the  centre  of 
new  commercial  relations.  The  rich  products  of  Syria  were 
collected  in  Damascus  under  the  dominion  of  the  Omaiyades, 


'  Pliny,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. 
^  Ibid.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  xxiii. 


*  Ibid,,  lib.  XII.,  cap.  xix. 

*  Ibid. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]       AL  MUTAWAKKEL  ENCOURAGES  COMMERCE.  581 

Avhilc  those  of  the  Caucasus  were  to  he  found  in  Dehil  and  Principal 
Ardebfl.     During  the  reign  of  Ahu-l-'Abbas,  a.  h.  132,  Bagh- Indian  com- 
dad  rose  to  eminence,  as  the  commercial  capital  of  'Irak  ;  whilst  Tn^-.q 
the  cities  of  Mosul  and  Hamadau  flourished  in  the  north,  and 
those  of  Ispahan,  Shiraz,  and  the  provinces  of  'Irak  Ajemi  and 
Fars  in  the  west. 

The  commerce  of  the  Arabians  extended  far  bevond  their  Cimntries  to 

rT->i  •       •  •   •  p   y^\        /    '      '-v^/  1    /     y      which  Arabian 

own  territories.     The  principal  cities  of  Kborasan,  Aishapur,  commerce 
Merv,  Herat,  and  Balkh,  commanding  the  passes  to  India  by*^^*^" 
Kabul  and  Ghizni,  with  Samarkand   in  the  north,  and  Multan 
in  the  south-east,  were  all  united  by   this  trade,  which,  being 
protected  by  the  governments,  was  carried  on  without  molesta- 
tion.     The   enjoined  pilgrimage  to  Mekkah  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  activity  of  this  commerce.     Articles  manufactured 
in  the  small  towns  were  carried  to  the  markets  in  the  capitals 
of  the  provinces,  and  thence  by  the  caravan  routes  to  the  Ka'ba. 
This  temple  thus  became  an  important  fair,  where  the  products  Mekkah  one 
of  Asia  and  Africa  were  exchanged,  and  where  the  Muslim  of  ^['J^.^dr*^^ 
Mauritania  came  in    contact  Avith  the  Muslim  of  Ma-wera- 
1-nahr. 

The  Arabian  empire  was  never  so  great  or  so  brilliant  as  Pernicious 
under  the  first  khaliphs  of  the  house  of  'Abbas.     It  was  only  uixury  among 
when  Al  Mamiin,  the  great  friend  and  promoter  of  literature  ^'^^  •^'"^^®* 
died,  and  was  followed  by  khaliphs  who  were   but  its  nominal 
protectors,  that  luxury  sprung  up :  which  afterwards  increased  so 
greatly  as  to  exercise  a  fatal  reaction  on  manners,  where   it 
should  only  have  been  the  symptom  of  intellectual  refinement.' 

Commerce  and  industry  flourished  greatly,  however,  under  Commercial 
Al  Mutawakkel,  who,  amongst  other  measures  for  its  en-  of  theArabs.^' 
couragement,  brought  into  fashion  a  very  fine  stout  sort  of  cloth, 
afterwards  called  Al  Mutawakkellan,  which  continued  to  be 
much  esteemed  to  the  time  of  Mas'udi  in  the  following  century. 
The  principal  factories,  according  to  Ibn  Haukal,  were  along 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  they  were  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Guebres. 

Subsequently,  during  the  reign  of  the   khaliph  Al  Mo'tazz,  Commerce 
trade  in  the  largest  sense,  was  the  subject  of  literary  inquiry,  science  fn 

'  Die  Handel.^zeuge  der  Araber,  von  F.  Stuewe.   Berlin,  1836,  p.  21-45.      a.  D.  SbO. 


582 


COMMERCE  WITH  ARMENIA.  [CHAP.  XVHI. 


Rai  becomes 
the  centre  of 
Armenian 
commerce. 


Route  through 
the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas. 


Route  from 
Tartary  to 
Khorastin. 


and  Jahiz,  who  died  a.  h.  255,  wrote  a  work  entitled  the  Nazr- 
fi-t-tejarah,  or  view  of  commerce.  This  work  does  not  appear 
to  exist  in  any  European  library,  but  it  is  noticed  by  Ibn 
Haukal,  Ibn  Khordadbeh,  and  in  the  Kitab-al-boldan,'  which 
seems  to  contain  extracts  from  it.  The  advancement  in  scien- 
tific education  amongj  the  Arabs,  had,  by  awakening  a  desire  to 
travel,  given  an  additional  activity  to  commerce. 

Learned  men  joined  the  caravans  of  the  merchants ;  and, 
in  the  various  towns  visited  by  them,  a  mutual  interchange  of 
ideas  and  of  knowledge  was  carried  on  simultaneously  with  the 
barter  of  the  precious  stones,  gold,  silver,  and  rich  stuffs,  the 
products  of  the  varied  climates  of  the  Miihammedan  empire. 

Rai  appears  to  have  been  the  centre  of  Armenian  commerce, 
and  to  have  supplied  fine  carpets  for  Azerbaijan,  Khorasan,  the 
Khazars,  and  other  countries  lying  northward  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  chief  articles  received  from  these  northern  regions,  in  ex- 
change, were  furs  and  slaves;  for  it  is  not  quite  certain  that  the 
mineral  products  of  the  Ural  found  their  way  at  that  time  into 
the  empire  of  the  khaliphs.  The  commerce  was  chiefly  carried 
on  by  the  Sclavonians,  who  were  almost  the  only  navigators  of 
the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas  :  these  came  down  the  Wolga  into 
the  former,  paying  toll  or  tribute  to  the  Khazars  on  their  way. 
They  crossed  the  Black  Sea  after  selling  some  of  their  goods  in 
Georgia  (Jorjan),  and,  from  thence,  either  proceeded  to  Meso- 
potamia or  Syria,  or  sought  a  market  along  its  southern  shores. 
One  was  generally  found  at  Rai ;  and  European  goods  were 
imported  from  that  place  into  Khorasan.  These  goods  came 
from  the  Mediterranean  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  thence  by  a 
short  land  transit  to  the  Wolga,  by  which  they  descended  into 
the  Caspian.  Before  the  submission  of  the  Kirghis  Kazaks  to 
Russia,  the  inhabitants  of  Bokhara  and  Khiva  traded  with 
Astrachan,  which  they  reached  in  boats  by  the  Caspian,  leaving 
their  camels  at  Monghishlak.  Their  caravans  sometimes  even 
proceeded  to  Siberia. 

Another  mercantile  depot  of  great  importance  was  Jdroft,  in 
Khorasan,  which  was  the  principal  station  for  the  commerce  of 
Sigistcin  and  Tartary.  The  best  musk  formed  one  portion  of 
'  MS.  of  the  British  Museum,  No.  7496. 


CHAP.  XVIir.]       EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  OF  THE  ARABS.  583 

this  trade,  and  was  brought  from  Tibet  by  land:  paper  was 
another  article  which  was  manufactured  at  Samarkand  and 
Kashnu'r.  Various  articles  came  from  Tartary  and  China, 
especially  silk,  M'hich  was  almost  exclusively  furnished  by  the 
latter  country :  sal  ammoniacuni  from  the  desert  of  Kobi,  and 
slaves  from  Tartary,  were  also  brought  to  the  same  depot. 

Transoxiana  contained  silver  and  other  mines  ;  it  produced  siik,  pearls, 
also  the  finest  fruit  in  the  world.     Darabjerd  and  Azerbaijan  vaiuawr 
furnished  quicksilver.    Pearls,  precious  stones,  carpets,  sharks'-  ^o"*^- 
fins,  and  woollen  cloths  were  exported  by  the  Arabs  in  exchange 
for  Chinese  silk  and  porcelain,  which  were  brought  to  them  by 
sea.     Their  commerce  with  some  people,  for  instance  with  the 
negroes,  was  carried  on  by  barter:  among  these,  salt,  cotton 
girdles,  pieces  of  stuff",  or  cowries,  were  considered  as  money ; 
but  with  other  people  it  was  carried  on  by  regular  sales,  their 
coins  being  the  dirhem  and  dinar.    These,  though  said  to  have 
been  coined  from  the  commencement  of  their  empire,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  in  circulation  only  from  the  reign  of  'Abd- 
el-Malik,  a.  h.  7Q-'^  a.d.  695. 

The  principal  exports  from  the  territory  of  the  khaliphs 
appear  to  have  been  manufactured  articles  and  some  money. 
Glass  from  Kadisiyeh  in  Mesopotamia  was  one  of  the  items  ; 
striped  cloth  and  spices,  from  Yemen,  were  others.  The  carpets  Secondary 
called  hosr,  were  sent  from  Baghdad  ;  tent  cloth  from  Bahrein,  merchan^dize. 
turban  cloth  from  Ob'oll'ah,  woollen  cloth  from  Ears,  perfumes 
came  from  Nejran,  and  papyrus  I'rom  Egypt.  Chintz  was 
manufactured  at  and  took  its  name  from  8hiraz,  as  muslin, 
according  to  Mas'udi,  did  from  M()sul,  and  damask  from 
Damascus,  where  they  were  first  manufactured  ;  but  the  splendid 
swords  of  the  Arabs  were  not  permitted  to  be  an  article  of 
export.  The  luxury  of  the  rich  was  the  principal  incentive  to 
industry  in  thousands  of  manufactures,  for  it  led  to  the  inven- 
tion of  an  infinite  variety  of  fabrics.  Gold  thread,  silk,  and 
yarn  were  the  least  costly  materials;  and,  of  these,  various 
cloths  and  stuffs  were  made.  Embroidery  formed  a  particular  Emi^roidered 
branch  of  industry,  which  was  reserved  for  the  rich;  and  it  p^j^forS'^sub. 

*  Die  Handelszeuge  der  Araber,  &c.,  vou  Fr.  Stuewe.     Berlin,   1836, 
p.  58. 


584  TRADE  OF  THE  ARABS  BY  SEA.  [CHAP.  XVIII. 

frequently  represented  historical  and  geographical  subjects. 
Thus  at  the  greatest  auction  that  ever  took  place  in  the  palace 
of  the  khaliph  Montaser,  there  were  offered  for  sale  nearly  a 
thousand  silk  carpets,  on  which  were  represented  a  series  of 
different  dynasties  with  the  portraits  of  kings  and  celebrated 
men.  On  another  enormous  piece  of  silk  stuff,  having  a  blue 
ground  varied  with  other  colours,  were  depicted  the  different 
countries  of  the  globe,  their  mountains,  seas,  rivers,  towns,  and 
roads;  with  the  name  of  each  province,  town,  &c.,  embroidered 
in  gold,  silver,  or  silk.- 
Trade  from  Commerce  by  sea  between  the  ports  of  Basrah,  Ob'oll'ah, 
India,  China,  and  Maskat,  and  the  distant  countries  of  Zinzibar,  India,  and 
China,  was  carried  on  by  the  Arabs  of  the  tribe  of  Azd,  and 
also  by  the  Jews ;  and,  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  Abbas- 
side  dynasty,  there  was  an  interchange  of  commodities  "with 
the  celestial  empire,  Chinese  vessels  coming  to  Ob'oll'ah,  and 
those  of  the  Arabs  going  to  Canton.^  When  the  rebellion  in 
A.D.  877.       China,  a.  h.  264,  interrupted  this  intercourse,  the  exchange  took 

place,  as  already  mentioned,  with  Ceylon. 
Indian  trade         Part  of  the  Indian  commerce  was,  however,  carried  on  by 
partly  by  Ian  .]^^^i  .  ^^^  |.|j|g  ^^gg  particularly  the  case  with  perfumes,  which 

would  have  been  injured  by  a  sea  voyage.  As  a  proof  of  the 
connexion  existing  between  Arabia  and  India,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  a  physician  was  sent  from  India  at  the  request  of 
Hariin-el-Rashid.  He  traversed  the  Hindu  Kush,  and  sailed 
down  the  Oxus ;  and,  on  the  death  of  the  khaliph,  returned  to 
India  by  sea  from  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Trade  between      Ibn  Khordadbeh,  a  contemporary  of  Al  Mutawakkel,  gives 

Europe  and         ipn-  n  i  t^  Jj.1. 

eastern  the  Toliowuig  account  01  couimercc   between  iiiurope  and  the 

countries.  ^^^^^  r^j^^  Jewish  merchants  called  Rohdamans,  who  speak 
the  Persian,  Greek,  Arabic,  Frank,  Spanish,  and  Sclavonian 
languages,  constantly  travel  to  and  fro  between  the  eastern  and 
western  countries  ;  and,  from  the  former,  they  import  slaves  and 
dibaj   (in   modern  Arabic,    brocade)   into    the   empire  of  the 

'  Die  Handelszeuge  der  Araber,  &c.,  von  Fr.  Stuewe.  Berlin,  1836, 
pp.  48,  49. 

*  The  voyage  of  Nicole  di  Conti  was  more  than  five  centuries  later,  viz., 
A.D.  1420. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]    ARAB  TRADE  CHIEFLY  CONFINED  TO  THE  EAST.       585 

khaliphs.  They  sail  from  Europe  to  the  Egyptian  coast,  from 
whence  in  five  days  they  reach  Kolziim :  they  then  proceed  by 
the  Red  Sea  to  Jiddah,  India,  and  China  ;  and  having  disposed 
of  their  goods,  they  return  by  the  same  route  with  other  cargoes, 
which  are  either  disposed  of  at  Constantinople,  or  further  west 
amongst  the  Franks.  Some  of  these  merchants  take  another  Route  tiimuph 
route  by  sailing  from  Europe  to  Iskenderiin,  i.  e.  the  port  of  u/e  ^^uph"at(.•s 
Aleppo,'  from  whence  it  is  three  days'  journey  to  the  Euphrates  ;  ^^  i"^*'»- 
they  pass  down  this  river  to  Ob'oll'ah,  and  sail  from  thence 
down  the  Persian  Gulf  to  India  and  China.  Other  mer- 
chants follow  the  more  tedious  route  from  Spain  to  Tangiers ; 
then  along  the  coast  of  Barbary  to  Egypt,  and  proceed  subse- 
quently through  Syria  and  Arabia  to  Baghdad.  The  ambas- 
sadors sent  by  Hariin-el-Rashid  to  Charlemagne  took  this 
route  :  on  their  return  they  proceeded  from  Aries  to  the  coast 
of  Barbarv,  and  thence  bv  land  to  Bao-hdad.^ 

The    Arabian   trade,   although    so   flourishing  in   the    east,  Constantu 
extended  but  partially  to  Europe  ;  and  the  route  from  thence  "iSep^t^o™*^^ 
to  India  by  the  Bed  Sea  being  cut  off",  in  consequence  of  Egvpt  eastern  trade, 
being  under  the  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  commerce  sought  and 
obtained  an  outlet  in  another  direction.     Constantinople  was 
the  seat  of  this  trade,  the  products  of  the  east  being  much  in 
demand   in   that  city  when   the  desire  for  such  luxuries  had 
become  almost  extinct  in  Europe.     In    order  to  supply  that 
demand  an  indirect  route  was  opened,  whose  long  and  circuitous 
course  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  difficulties  which 
may  be  overcome  in   order  to  satisfy  the  real  or  imaginary 
wants  of  mankind.     The  merchandise  in  question  being  carried  Route  to  and 
for  a  certain  distance  up  the  Indus,  was  taken  from  thence  to  ^"""  '"'^'*' 
the  Oxus,  by  which  it  was  conveyed  to  the  Caspian  Sea.     Hav- 
ing ascended  the  Wolga  a  certain  distance,  it  was  carried  bv 
land  from  the  latter  river  to  the  Tanais,  by  which  it  descended 

'  "  Her  husband's  to  Aleppo  gone,  master  of  the  Tiger." — Shakspeare, 
Macbeth. 

*  For  the  preceding,  see  Al  Mas'udi,  Meadows  of  Gold  and  Mines  of  Gems  ; 
Soguti,  Hist,  of  the  Khaliphs,  two  MSS.  British  Museum ;  Abu-l-fedii,  An- 
nales  Muslemici,  II. ;  Price,  Chron.  Retrospect,  II. ;  Abu-1-Faraj,  Hist. 
Dynast.,  259  ;  Karuraani  Tarikh  a'd-dowal. 


586  VENICE  AN  EMPORIUM  OF  EASTERN  TRADE.       [cHAP.  XVIII. 

into  the  Euxiiie,  and  was  finally  transported  in  vessels  to  Con- 
stantinople. 
Venice  attracts      It  is  probable  that  even  then  some  portion  of  these  articles 
ofAe'EasT.  "^  fouiid  their  way  into  Europe  through  Venice  and  Genoa.     The 
former  city,  from  a  humble  fishing  establishment,  had  in  the 
fifth  century  become  a  mercantile  depot,  and  its  jnariners  were 
the  carriers  of  an  infant  trade.      Early  in  the  ninth  century  it 
was  the  seat  of  a  considerable  commerce ;  wrought  silk,  with 
the  spices,  drugs,  and  fruits  of  the  east,  being  brought  thither 
from   Constantinople,    and    the    various   ports   of  the   Levant 
belonging  to  the  Greek  empire,  in  order  to  supply  Europe  with 
A.D.  803.       these  commodities.     The  trade  of  Venice  gradually  extended 
The  Arabs      during  the  tenth  century;   whilst  the  Arabs  opened  a  line  of 
trade  witiT  °^  commerce  to  India  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  also  with  the  eastern 
India.  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  IMozambique. 

Commence-  Towards  the  close  of  this  century,  the  earliest  English  trade 
trade  of  Great  appears  to  liavc  Commenced  under  King  Edgar:  it  was  carried 
Britain.  ^^^  between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  in  which 

about  twelve  hundred  small  vessels,  or  rather  boats,  constructed 
of  pliant  light  wood  and  covered  with  leather,  were  employed. 
At  this  period  also  the  woollen  trade  commenced  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  was  carried  on  by  barter. 
European  The  Commercial  privileges  obtained  from  Basilius,  emperor 

settle  at  Con-  of  the  wcst  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  increased 
stantinoijie.  ^j^^  trade  of  the  Venetians  ;  and  the  sea  was  covered  with  their 
vessels,  which  were  engaged  in  supplying  Europe  with  the 
merchandise  of  the  east.  The  Genoese  followed  this  profitable 
A.D.  1101,  example,  and  each  people  employed  a  fleet,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  succeeding  century,  to  give  assistance  to  the  crusaders. 
The  Venetians  shared  in  the  siege  of  'Akka,  in  a.  d.  1115. 
About  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  Constantinople 
being  still  a  city  of  considerable  trade,  a  great  concourse  of 
merchants  resorted  thither  from  European  as  well  as  Asiatic 
countries,  in  connexion  with  the  commerce  carried  on  with 
India  by  the  route  through  the  Black  Sea,  which  has  been 
already  noticed.  The  European  portion  of  this  line  was  con- 
ducted by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese,  and  it  extended  to  the 
rising   commercial  establishments  of   the  Hanse  Towns  and 


CHAP.  XVIII.]       THE  RKPUBLICS  OF  VENICE  AND  GENOA.  587 

Hamburgh.     In  1136,  the  republic  of  Genoa  furnished  to  the 
Spaniards  one  liundrcd  and  sixty-three  ships  and  sixty  galleys, 
to  serve  at  Aliueria,  Tortosa,  and  Barcelona  against  the  Moors ; 
for  which  they  were  recompensed  by  large  commercial  privileges 
from  Spain.     And,  in  return  for  the  assistance  given  to   the 
Latins  in  taking  Constantinople,  the  Venetians  obtained  several  a.  D.  1203. 
towns  in  the  Peloponnesus,  in  addition  to  the  island  of  Crete, 
Negropont,  and  other  places.     But  the  commercial  prosperity 
of  Venice,  which  was  probably  at  its  height  when  Marco  Polo  Commercial 
travelled  into  northern  China,  was  now  about  to  be  eclipsed  by  vemcT*^  °^ 
that  of  Genoa.  a.d.  1260. 

This  city,  from  the  time  of  its  restoration  by  Charlemagne  Rising  com- 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  had  been  the  persevering  cenws'e/^^ 
rival  of  Venice    in  her    commercial   career.     Both  were  the 
carriers  of  Europe,  and  both  sought  to  extend  their  trade  with 
the  east,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  caused  by  the  conquests 
of  Genghis  Khan,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Marco  Polo,  as  has  been  mentioned,  endeavoured  to  increase 
that  of  the  Venetians  by  a  land  route ;  but  the  Genoese,  as  a 
people,   were  more   enterprising  and  more  successful.     Pera, 
the  suburb  of  Constantinople,  having  been  bestowed  on  them 
by  the  emperor  M.   Paleologus,   in  return   for  their  services 
against  the  Latins,  the  Genoese  took  advantage  of  this  central 
position  to  extend  their  commerce  up  the  Black  Sea,  and  from 
thence   eastward.     In  furtherance    of  the    latter    object   they  Mercantile 
established  a  mercantile  colony   at  Kaffa   (the  ancient  Theo- ^f\\^^'Ge"noel^ 
dosia),  near  the  entrance  of  the  sea  of  Azov,  from  whence  their '"  ^^'^  ^"^'"*^' 
goods  passed  along  the  rivers  Don  and  Wolga  into  the  Caspian 
sea,  and  again  from  thence  through  the  steppes  lying  eastward 
of  the  latter  towards  eastern  Asia.     Another  colony  was  located 
near  the  estuary  of  the  Don  at  Azov,  and  a  third  at  Jambold. 
Between  these   and  Pera  there  was  another  chain  of  colonies 
along  the  coast  of  the  Euxine,  the  most  important  of  which  were 
Sinope  and  Tarabuzun.     These  cities  gave   the  command  of  Depots  on  the 
two  other  lines  of  comnumication  ;  viz.,  one  through  Sivas  to  of  "lie  Sack''' 
Baghdad,   and  a  second,   which  was    in  connexion   with    that  ^^■'^• 
already    noticed,   extending   from    Khorasan,   by   Tabriz   and 
Erz-Riim,  until  it  finally  passed  through  the  vallevs  of  Da- 


company  in 
London. 


588  VENETIAN  TRADE  WITH  EGYPT,   ETC.        [CHAP.  XVIII. 

moulee,  Godol,  and  Giimish  Khanah,'  to  the  sea  at  Tarabuziin. 
The  castellated  buildings  constructed  at  certain  distances  as 
protecting  points  still  exist,  and  are  distinguished  by  their 
peculiar  architecture.  In  consequence  of  these  arrangements, 
the  Genoese  acquired  the  superiority  over  the  Venetians ;  and, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  their  ships  were 
employed  in  a  brisk  trade  with  the  western  ports  of  Europe, 
particularly  with  those  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  through  the 
rising  city  of  Antwerp. 

Establishment  England  began  at  first  to  share  indirectly  in  this  commerce 
through  the  foreign  traders  then  established  in  London :  but 
an  advantageous  change  took  place  when  the  company  called 
the  jMerchant  Adventurers  was  instituted  ;  and  this  association 
was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  scale  of  duties,  with 

A.  D.  1328.  protection  to  the  foreign  merchant.  The  privileges  of  the 
company  were  extended,  confirmed,  and  regulated  by  Edward 
III. ;  and  the  export  of  wool,  tin,  lead,  leather,  8:c.,  to  Flanders 
and  the  Baltic,  became  in  consequence  so  considerable,  that 
towards  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  balance  of  trade  in 
favour  of  England  was  equivalent  to  about  three  quarters  of  a 
million  sterling,  even  before  the  traffic  was  extended  to  Prussia. 

The  Venetians      The  Venetians,  being  excluded  by  their  rivals  from  a  share 

import  Indian  11  • 

goods  iuio       of  the  eastern  trade  through  the  Euxine,  turned  their  attention 
'"*'^''"  to  that  through  the  Red  Sea  via  Egypt,  whither  their  ships 

came  to  receive  the  various  merchandise  of  the  East,  which 
they  afterwards  dispersed  through  the  diff'erent  parts  of  Europe. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  the  commerce  of  Genoa  declined, 
M'hilst  that  of  Venice  increased,  particularly  as  regarded  her 
intercourse  with  European  countries.  In  the  latter,  manufac- 
tures increased  in  proportion  to  the  demands  of  an  extending 
Bruges  be-  couimerce  ;  one  great  centre  of  which  was  Bruges,  whose  trade 
merciai  city,  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  the  provinces  of  Germany, 
the  Adriatic,  and  the  coast  of  Syria.  The  w^oollens  of  England 
held  a  prominent  place  in  these  transactions,  particularly  with 
the  Netherlands ;  and  the  trade  in  this  case,  as  well  as  in 
many  others,  was  secured  by  treaties,  well  calculated  to  ensure 
mutual    advantages    to    all    the    countries    concerned.      One 

'  See  above,  p.  233. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  VARIOUS  ROUTES  TO  INDIA.  589 

inerchant  of  France,  Jacques  Gorier,  was  so  wealthy,  and  at  Success  of 
the  same  time  so  liberal,  owing  to  his  success  in  importing  gold  France.^*^ '° 
and  silver  stuffs  from  Egypt,  Barbary,  and  the  Levant,'  that  he 
supplied  Charles  VII.  with  seven  millions  of  money  to  carry 
on  the  war  in  Normandy. 

This  century  was,  however,  still  more  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  vessels  which  were  built,  and  the  daring  voyages 
undertaken,  chiefly  in  search  of  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies. 
The  Canaries  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  while  Ma- 
deira, with  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  were  explored  by  the 
Portuguese.  Just  before  the  close  of  the  century,  the  long- 
sought  passage  to  India,  round  the  Cape,  was  accomplished  by 
Vasco  de  Gama ;  and  about  the  same  period  the  memorable 
voyages  of  Columbus  and  Vespucius  added  a  fourth  continent 
to  the  then  known  world. 

The  commercial  spirit  became  still  more  active  during  thie  Commerce 
sixteenth  century,  in  the  early  part  of  which  the  merchandise  ^^^j^  \^/  ^ 
of    the   east,   now  for  the  first  time    transported    in    suitable  sixteenth 

'  ...  century. 

vessels,  with  all  the  advantages  of  improved  navigation,  made 
Lisbon  what  Venice  had,  till  recently,  been — the  great  em- 
porium of  this  trade.  And  so  bold  had  navigators  become 
since  the  time  of  Columbus,  that,  in  the  succeeding  century, 
the  globe  was  circumnavigated  twice.^  Antwerp,  as  the  cen- 
tral staple  of  Europe,  became  the  rival  of  Lisbon ;  and  besides 
the  line  by  sea  from  those  places  to  the  Portuguese  settlements  Routes  by  se. 
at  Ormiiz  and  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  the  f"*!-'^"*^^** 

'  iuaia. 

wealth  of  India  was  diligently  sought  by  other  routes.  Of 
these,  some  have  been  already  noticed,  and  to  these  may  be 
added  one  from  India  to  Europe,  through  the  Persian  Gulf. 
From  the  head  of  this  gulf  two  commercial  lines  existed  :  by 
one  of  these  the  goods  were  carried  some  way  up  the  Euphrates, 
and  then  by  land  to  Bir,  Aleppo,  and  Iskenderiin,  where 
they  were  embarked  for  the  ports  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  France. 
By  the  other,  they  followed  the  Tigris  to  Baghdad,  and  were 
carried  by  Diyar  Bekr  and  Sivas  to  Tarabuziin,  from  whence 

'  Anderson's  Origin  of  Commerce,  vol.  I.,  p.  622.     Dublin,  1790. 
*  By  Magellan  and  Drake. 


590  VOYAGES  DOWN  THE  EUPHRATES.     [cHAP.  XVHI. 

thev  were  either  forwarded  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 

Euxine  to  Constantinople,  or  carried  by  water  to  the  Crimea ; 

or  to  the  estuary  of  the  Danube,  in  order  to  find  their  way  into 

Europe. 
Commerce  Elizabeth,  on  her  accession,  found  British  vessels  trading  to 

Le?an?atthe   Cyprus,  Candia,  Tripoli,  Beirut,  &c.,  and   bringing  in  return 
accession  of     calf-skius,    &c.,    silks,    camlcts,    rhubarb,    oil,    cotton,   Turkey 

Queeu  '  '  '  ,         '    ,  ,         .  ■■ 

Elizabeth.       carpcts,  gall-nuts,  and  Indian  spices ;  a  part  being  imported  to 

England  by  Genoese,  Venetian,  and  other  foreign  vessels. 
Route  from  The  routcs  through  Syria  to   the   Persian  Gulf,  which  had 

Aleppo  to  the  j^^g^^  partially  in  use  from  the  time  of  the  journey  of  Nicolo  di 

Persian  Guli.  r  J  r«  i  i 

Conti  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  became  more 
generally  frequented  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth.  Leon- 
hart  Rauwolfs  voyage  from  Bir  to  Babylon,  in  1574,  has  been 
described  at  length.^  Gasparo  Balbi,  a  Venetian  jeweller, 
followed  him  four  years  later,  taking  his  merchandise  with  him. 
He  descended  the  Euphrates  from  Bir  to  Fekijah,  from  whence 
he  crossed  to  Baghdad  ;  he  then  descended  by  the  Tigris  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  proceeded  to  Pegu,  the  object  of  his  voyage.^ 
Queen  About  this  time,  the   English  merchant,  John  Newberrie, 

Elizabeth        having;  gone  as  far  as  Ormiiz  in  the  prosecution  of  trade,  and 

resolves  to  f     o  i 

open  a  trade  the  attention  of  Queen  Elizabeth  having  been  drawn  to  the 
land.  '^  "''^^  subject  on  his  return,  a.  d.  1583,  her  Majesty  granted  a  charter 
to  Sir  Edward  Osborne  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  and 
others,  authorizing  them  exclusively  to  trade  in  the  dominions 
of  the  Grand  Seignior ;  and  thus  was  formed  the  Turkey,  or 
the  Levant  Company.^ 

'  See  Ray's  Collection  of  Travels. 

*  See  his  Narrative  in  Purclias's  Pilgrims,  vol.  II.,  1728. 

^  "  May  1582.  In  consideration  that  Edward  Osborne  and  Richard  Stapers, 
her  ]M"™  faithful  subiects,  by  their  adventure  and  iiidustrie,  and  to  their  greaist 
costes  and  chargies  traveled  and  caused  trouble  taken,  as  well  by  secret  and 
good  meanes,  as  by  dangerous  waies  and  passagies,  to  set  open  a  trade  into 
the  dominions  of  Turkquie  not  heartofore  in  the  memory  of  man  knowne  to 

be any  of  tliis  nation.     And  also  have  by  their  like  good  meanes  and 

chargies  procured  of  tlie  Senior,  commonly  called  the  great  Turke,  aniitie, 
safetie,  and  freedom,  for  contynewance  of  the  said  trade ;  whereby  good  and 

profitable  event  may  be  had  of  their  commodities  of  this realm,  sundry 

other  great  benefits  to  Her  M""'  dominions  and  subjects.  Tiierefore  her  M"** 
tenderinge  to  the  wealth  of  her  people,  and  the  encouragement  of  her  good 
subiects  in  their  good  enterprises  for  the  advancement  of  the  common  weal, 


CHAP.  XViri.]  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LEVANT  COMPANY.  591 

The  next  year,  Fitch,   Newberrie,  and    others,    being  de-A.D.  i584. 
spatched   bv  Sir  Edward  Osborne,   carried   cloth,   tin,  &c.,  by  First  voyage 

T  1/1  IP  1  1  ^  •  rn-       •  under  the  iie> 

Aleppo  to  Baghdad,  and  ironi  thence  down  the  river  iigris  to  charter. 

hath  of  her  grace,  &c.,  granted  unto  her  subiects,  Edward  Osborne,  alderman, 
and  Richard  Stapers,  mearcliant,  the  whole  libertie  and  privilege  of  traffique 

into  the  dominions  of  the  said  grand  senior  duringe of  vij  yeares  from 

the  date  of  her  INI''"'^  letters-patents. 

"  With  proiiibition  to  all  her  M''"*  subiects  to  adventure  or  intermeddle  in 
the  said  trade  and  trafhque  duringe  the  said  tearme  directlie  or  indirectlie, 
without  the  assent  of  the  said  pattentees,  under  paine  of  loss  of  shipp  and 
goodes,  tiie  one  half  unto  her  ISV'%  and  the  other  half  to  the ,  and  im- 
prisonment, and  snclie  furder  punij^hment  as  to  her  M''^  for  so  highe  contempt 
shall  be  thought  meete. 

"  That  Edward  Osborne  shall  be  governor  of  the  said  societie  and  trade 
duringe  the  said  tearme,  and  yf  he  decease  witliin  the  said  tearme,  then  the 
rest  of  the  said  societie  have  libertie  to  chuse  a  newe  governor. 

"  That  the  pattentees,  duringe  the  said  tearme,  may  admitt  into  the  said 

societie  freedom to  the  said  dominions,  or  any  part  tliereof,  suche  other 

of  her  M''''  subiects,  as  to  them  shall  seeme  best,  at  their  will  and  pleasure, 
freelie,  or  with  suche  restraint  and  condition  as  to  them  shall  seeme  good,  not 
exceedinge  the  number  of  xij  or  xiiij  persons  over  or  above  the  said  pat- 
tentees. 

"  That  they  may  assemble  themselves,  or  any  of  them,  in  any  place   or 

places,  for  con and  doings  tutchinge  the  affaires  of  the  said   trade 

duringe  the  said  tearme. 

"  That  they  may  make  lawes,  ordinancies,  not  repugnant  to  the  lawes  of 
the  realm,  for  the  interest  and  good  rule,  orderinge  and  government  of  the 
said  societie  and  trade,  the  same  to  revoke  and   alter  at  their  pleasure,  and 

thene  to  put  in  execution  by  furfei ,  peine,  and  penalties,  to  be  levied 

and  extended  against  the  otlenders  thereof  duringe  the  said  tearme,  and  for 
the  execution  of  the  said  ordinancies  and  otlier  services  and  uses  of  the  said 
societie  and  trade,  may  appointe  officers,  mynysters,  and  servants,  suche  and 
so  many  as  they  shall  thinke  meete,  and  them  revoke  at  their  pleasure. 

"  For  as  mnclie  as  the  Genovaies  do  use  to  beare  the  read  crosse,  like  the 
flagg  of  England  in  their  shipp-toppes,  and  not  beinge  in  leage  or  amitie  with 
the  said  grand  senior ;  therefore,  for  the  better  surtie  of  the  said  companie 
tradinge  into  the  said  dominions  of  Turkquie,  it  may  please  her  M""  to  per- 
mitt  and  grant  that  the  said  societie,  duringe  the  said  tearme,  and  for  the  said 
trade,  may  set  use,  and  use  the  amies  of  England  in  the  toppes  of  tlieir 
shippes,  whereby  both  her  M""  subiects  may  be  tlie  more  certain  knowne  and 
discevered,  and  more  esteemed  of  and  lovingly  received  in  those  parts. 

"  That  for  the  better  tryinge  of  the  said  trade  in  good  order,  rule,  and 
government,  nothinge  be  done  in,  and  tutchinge  the  said   trade,  but  with  or 

accordhige  to  the tie  and  assent  of  the  said  Edward  Osborne,  or  of 

suche  other  govprnor  as  shall  be  after  his  decease,  duringe  the  said  tearme. 


592  TRADE  WITH  SYRIA,   ETC.  [CHAP.  XVIII. 

Orraiiz,  and  so  on  to  Goa ;  carrying,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  trade  to  the  East  Indies  overland,  recom- 
mendatory letters  from    the   queen   to   the   king   of  Cambay 

"Special!  commandment  to  all  officersof  the  Admiraltie,  and  other  herM"" 
officers  and  subiects,  to  be  aydinge  and  assystinge  to  the  execution  of  the  said 
grant  and  prohibition,  and  all  thinges  conteyned  in  the  said  letters  patients 
accordinge  to  true  meaninge  thereof,  and  must  bene  finally  for  tlie  encourage- 
ment and  profit  of  the  pattentees."  (Cotton.  Xero.  B.  xi.  Catalogue  of  the 
Cottonian  librarj',  42.  The  blanks  above  show  where  words  in  the  MS.  are 
illegible.) 

Another  part  of  the  same  collection  (Cott.  Nero.  B.  viii.,  47)  in  the 
British  Museum,  contains  a  list  of  the  Turkey  merchants,  and  their  request 
for  a  loan  from  the  queen. 

"  A.D.  1583.     The   merchants  vsinge  the  trade  of  Turkquie  by  graunte 

from  lier  M""  be  these  followinge  : — 

"  1.  Sir  Edward  Osborne,  Lord  Maior  of  London. 

"  2.  Mr.  George  Barnes,         . 

"  3.  Mr.  Richard  Martin, 

"  4.  Mr.  Martin  Calthorpe,     I    .  ,  , 

i:  -    Tr     T  u    TT    *  >  Aldermen. 

"  o.  Mr.  John  Harte, 

"  6.  Mr.  William  Marsham, 

"  7.  Mr.  .John  Spencer, 

"  8.  Mr.  Thomas  Smitlie,  Esquire. 

"9.  Richard  Maie,  ]  n      ,     ^r  .    ^ 

"  10.  Richard  Saltunstale,         j  ^'''  *'^^  Muscovie  Compame. 

"11.  Richard  Staper, 

"  12.  Henrie  Hewet. 

"  The  said  persons  have  in  Mynte  stocke  imploied  in  the  same  trade  the 
summe  of  45,000  lbs,'  and  for  tliat  they  vse  trade  to  all  these  places  follow- 
inge, the  same  is  to  little  to  supplie  the  same  and  to  defraie  the  great  chargies 
in  those  partes  : — 

"  The  citie  of  Constantinople. 

"  The  citie  of  Angorie,  where  the  grogrames  and  chamblets  be  made. 

"  The  Ilande  of  Sis. 

"  Teria  and  Fogia,  in  the  countrie  neare  Sio,  called  Natollia. 

"  Aleppo  and  Trepollie  in  Suria. 

"  Petraclie  in  the  Morea,  where  currantes  and  sweete  oyle  is  made. 

"  The  citie  of  Babylon  and  Balsara,  uppon  tiie  river  of  Euphrates. 

"  Alexandria  in  E:2:ipte. 

"  The  Ilande  of  Cyprus. 

"  Tiie  Ilande  of  Malta. 

'■  The  commoditees  they  send  thether  is  cloathes  readie  died  and  drej^sed, 
carseis*  of  all  sorts,  tinn  and  connie  skinnes,  &c.  ["And 

1  1  lb.  of  silver  equal  to  6()-G2  shillings. 

*  A  kind  of  stuff  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver  fnuge. 


CHAP.  XVIir.]         CONSULS  NAMED  FOR  THE  LEVANT.  593 

and  the  emperor  of  China.  They  met  with  great  opposition 
from  the  Venetians,  who  had  factories  in  those  places.  They 
travt'lk'd,  however,  to  Agra,  Lahore,  Bengal,  ]\Ialacca,  &c., 
and  retnrned  by  Ormiiz,  which  is  described  as  a  place  of  great 
trade  in  spices,  drugs,  &c.  Thence  they  proceeded  up  the 
Tigris  to  Baghdad,  Bir,  and  Aleppo,  and  arrived  in  London 
in  1591,  having  made  many  useful  discoveries  concerning  the 
East  Indian  commerce.' 

The  trade  being  established,  as  it  is  stated,  "  by  a  way  lately  Con-uis 
discovered  by  John  Newberrie,  Fitch,  and  others,"  a  fleet  of  L^"aut.'^'^'  *^ 
boats  was  kept  by  the  Queen  at  Bir  for  the  use  of  the 
merchants ;  and,  consuls  being  nominated  in  the  Levant,  the 
commodities  of  Greece,  Syria,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  India,  were 
obtained  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  when  supplied  by  the 
Venetians. 

The  seventeenth  century  commenced  with  the  establishment  a.d.  icoi. 


"  And  for  that  it  is  necessarie  for  them  to  keepe  a  stocke  at  either  of  the 
said  places,  thereby  to  provide  to  loading  for  their  shippes  against  the  time 
they  come  thether,  the  said  stocke  they  have  is  not  sufficient.  And,  therefore, 
if  it  will  please  her  Ma""  to  lend  the  said  companie  the  somme  of  10,000  lbs. 
weight  of  silver  for  the  space  of  sixe  yeres,  the  same  to  be  paid  her  Ma"^ 
againe  by  even  portions,  the  said  companie  should  thereby  augment  their  trade 
to  the  benefit  of  the  connnon  wealth. 

"  And  they  would  give  unto  her  Ma'"  the  somme  of  3000"'  in  spices, 
Turkey  carpets,  quilts,  or  suche  other  thinges,  as  it  should  please  her  Ma''^,  the 
same  to  be  paid  witiiin  three  yeres  after  the  date  hereof,  or  SOO""  per  yere. 

"  And  for  the  benefitt  of  tlie  common  wealtli,  they  should  hereby  be  able 
to  have  all  shippes  of  their  owne  of  200  or  300  tonnes  a  piece,  and  thereby 
shall  sett  the  more  of  the  poore  maryners  and  seafaringe  men  on  worke. 

'•  They  shall  also  be  able  to  shipp  more  store  of  broad  cloathes  and  carsies 
over,  and  also  shall  bring  more  quantitie  of  commodities  hither.  Whereby 
things  shall  be  solde  here  at  more  reasonable  price,  and  thereby  her  Ma''''" 
Customs,  both  in  and  out,  shall  be  tiie  more  advanced. 

"  The  commodities  they  bringe  from  those  partes  are  all  sortes  of  spices, 
rawe  silke,  appoticarie  drugs,  India  blewe,  and  cotton  woll,  as  also  varne, 
and  cloath  made  thereof,  galles,  currantes,  sweete  oyle,  sope,  quillts,  carpets, 
and  diuers  other  conunoditees. 

"  The  said  companie  have  also  brought  in  diuers  sommcs  of  Spanish  moiiie, 
which  hath  bene  delivered  into  her  Ma'"''  Mynte,  as  the  treasurer  thereof  can 
certifie  your  honnor." 

'  Anderson's  Origin  of  Commerce,  «Stc.  Byrne,  Dublin,  1790,  vol.  II., 
p.  238. 

VOL.  II.  2  a 


594  COMMERCE  OF  THE  LEVANT.  [cHAP.  XVIII. 

Establishment  of  the  English  East  India  Company,    and   four   ships    were 

India  Com-     despatched  in  consequence  to  Sumatra  for  spices,  &c.     From 

P^"^'  this  humble  commencement  has  gradually  risen  that  extensive 

commerce  which  far  eclipses  that  of   Tyre  and  Carthage  in 

ancient,  and  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Antwerp,  in  later  times. 

The  wealth  and  dominion  of  the  merchant  princes  of  India  are 

without  parallel ;  yet,  vast  as  is  their  commerce,   it  is  but  a 

Comparison  of  fraction   of  the  whole  commerce  of  Great  Britain.     Trade  by 

commerce  in    ^ca  attracted  attention  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century, 

i354andi84.5.  |J^^  j|-  ^[^  not  becouic  of  any  real  importance  till  a  later  period, 

when  colonies  were  established  as  depots  for  its  furtherance  and 

extension.     Without  these  important  accessories,  the  progress 

of  English  commerce  must  have  been  slow  and  limited.     Its 

actual  progress  in  less  than  five  centuries  may  be  seen  in  the 

following  statement : — 

A.D.  1354.  A.D.  1S45. 

Exports  from  England,  £822,554  11     6  £134,599,116     0     0 

Imports    .     '     .  ,      116,910  10     6  75,281,958     0     0 

Surplus  of  exports,  £705,644     1     0'        £59,317,158     0     0' 

Decay  of  com-      The  establishment  of  a  company  for  the  purpose  of  opening 
Aleppo.'^         a  trade  to  India  by  sea,  could  not  fail  to  injure  that  carried  on 
through   Syria.     The  English  Turkey,  or  Levant  Company, 
which  maintained,  till  recently,  an  extensive  and   prosperous 
commerce,  has  of  late  declined.     The  French  Levant  Com- 
pany, which  at  one  time  possessed   eighteen  or  twenty  houses 
in  Aleppo  alone,  has  ceased  to  exist :  this  is  also  the  case  with 
the  Venetian  trade   to  Syria,  which  formerly  supported  forty 
commercial  establishments. 
Syria  and  its        The  commcrce  of  the  Levant  has  always  depended  on  the 
dtief"'"^'^^    consumption  in  the  country  ;  and,  as  a  consequence  of  the  de- 
cline of  demand  in  Mesopotamia  and  other  parts  of  Western 
Asia,  the  imports  of  Syria,  from  Europe,  are  now  almost  con- 
fined to  Beirut  and   Iskenderiin.     The  former  is  the  port  of 
Damascus,   which    city  commands   the   trade   of  central   and 

'  Anderson's  Origin  of  Commerce,  &c.  Byrne,  Dublin,  1790,  vol.  II., 
p.  441. 

*  According  to  tiie  official  value,  as  given,  p.  358,  of  the  Progress  of  the 
Nation,  by  G.  R.  Porter,  Esq.,  F.R.S.     Jolin  Murray,  1847. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  BALANCE  OF  TRADE  AGAINST  SYRIA.  595 

western  Arabia,  as  well  as  of  part  of  Syria.     Iskenderiin  is  the 
port  of  Aleppo,  which  city,  as  the  emporium  of  northern  Syria, 
has  comme.cial  relations  with  the  western  part  of  Anad(51i,  and 
the  chief  towns  of  Mesopotamia,  as  Diyar-Bekr,  Mardin,  Mosul, 
Baghdad,  and  Basrah.     The  nature  of  the  trade  carried  on  by 
Beirut   and   Iskenderiin  has  been    already  shown, ^   and   the 
imports  of  Syria,  in  1836,  amounted  to  about  2,4 10,530  dollars,  imports  and 
while  the  exports  amounted  to  about  1,463,510  dollars.     This  ^".^"^'^  "^ 
limited  trade,  compared  with  that  of  former  times,   has  been 
supposed  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  commerce  between  Europe 
and  India  by  sea ;  but  as   India  only  partially   supplies  the 
wants  of  the  people  of  western  Asia,  other  circumstances  must 
have  contributed  to  cause  the   present  commercial  depression 
in   Syria.     Amongst  these  the  prolonged  war  in  Europe  holds 
a  prominent  place,  since  it  not  only  affected  the   British   trade 
to  the  Levant,  but  tended  greatly  to  put  an  end  to  that  of  the 
French  and  Italians.     Another  cause,  apparently  equally  pre- 
judicial at  the  time,  was  the  removal  from  Basrah  of  the  East  Rtnmvai  of 
India  Com])any's  factories,  which  were   so  well   calculated   to  Company's 
encourage  if  not  to  create  a  commerce  in  western  Asia. 

This  change  at  the  estuary  of  the  Euphrates,  together  with 
the  diminution  of  the  supplies  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  caused  the 
remaining  trade  to  fall   into  the  hands  of  native  merchants.  Native  traders 

1  •  ii.T'ili.  '  I.  succeeded  the 

whose  resources  are  in  general   too    limitea   to  carry  it  on ;  European 
and   goods    now  pass  through  several  hands   before  reaching  "»*^'chants. 
the  consumer,  thus  greatly  enhancing  the  price :  there  is  also 
the  serious  disadvantage  of  a  want  of  return  products.     As  has 
just  been  seen  in  the  case   of  Syria,  this  involved  the  payment 
of  a  balance  in  cash  of  947,020  dollars,  in  1836. 

Such    circumstances   could  not  fail    to   restrict  purchases  •,  Commerce  is 
which,  being  made  in  Damascus  or  Aleppo,  are  exposed  to  an  serious  dis- 
expensive  land   carriage,  besides  the  exaction  of  heavy  duties  ^  ''-'"'-'S^'^- 
by  the   authorities,   who  have  yet  to  learn  the  important  fact, 
that  moderate  taxation  is  the  most  productive.     One   instance 
will  show  the  extent  to  which  the  evil  of  oppressive  taxation 
has  been  carried." 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  445-447,  ai!fl  pp.  538,  539. 
*  Appendix  (E). 

2  q2 


596 


RUSSIAN  COMMERCE  WITH  ASIA. 


[CIIAP. 


XVIII. 


Trade  y^'ith 
Persia 

through  Con- 
stautinople. 


Commerce 
opened 
through 
Samsuu  and 
Tarabuzun. 


Russian 
commerce 
through 
central  Asia. 


Imports  and 
exports  of  the 
Rtissiaiis. 


Trade  of  the 
Kirghis 
Kazaks  with 
the  Russians. 


In  1841,  the  pasha  of  Mosul  exacted,  in  addition  to  previous 
dues  on  transit,  3,195,500  piastres,  or  about  32,000/.  on  the 
goods  admitted  into  the  city  for  consumption  ;  while  it  is  well 
known  that  the  imports  would  have  been  doubled  under  a  more 
liberal  system. 

The  Syrian  trade  has  also  suffered  in  consequence  of  the 
increased  commercial  activity  through  Constantinople  and  the 
Euxine,  since  the  establishment  of  steam  navigation ;  and  also 
since  the  exertions  made  by  the  French  and  Russian  govern- 
ments to  share  in  the  trade  of  Persia.  The  commerce  from 
Constantinople  to  the  latter  kingdom,  in  1840  and  1841,  pro- 
duced 860,000/.  per  annum, ^  But  now  that  a  great  part  of  the 
merchandise  is  carried  to  Samsiin  and  Tarabuziin,  which  by  the 
proximity  of  the  latter  port  to  Tabriz,  and  of  the  former  to 
Sivas  and  Diyar  Bekr,  has  shortened  the  land  carriage  through 
Asia  Minor,  some  of  it  is  supplied  by  these  routes,  w^hich  was 
previously  brought  from  Aleppo.  The  French  government, 
on  perceiving  the  disadvantage  of  leaving  their  Persian  trade 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  natives,  who  purchased  French  goods  in 
Constantinople,  and  made  a  return  of  Persian  articles  through 
Smyrna,  determined  to  make  Tarabuzun  their  entrepot  of  trade 
with  Persia;  and  for  this  purpose  they  established  there  the 
necessary  consular  agents.^ 

But  Russian  industry  has  long  competed  with  that  of  other 
Europeans  in  this  line,  as  well  as  in  that  through  central  Asia. 
Every  year  numerous  and  well -equipped  caravans  leave  Oren- 
burg with  white  cloths,  muslins,  woollens,  chintzes,  and  heavy 
articles  in  metals,  and  proceed  through  Bokhara  and  Samarkand 
to  Koha  and  Yarkund  in  China,  also  to  Orgunje  and  the  small 
cantons  around  the  capital,  bringing  back  teas,  silks,  musk, 
rhubarb,  and  other  products  of  China.  The  Russian  traders 
study  so  carefully  the  wants  and  tastes  of  the  people  with  whom 
they  traffic,  that  the  nations  of  Kabul  are  seen  wearing  portions 
of  dress  got  up  and  sewn  for  their  use  at  Orenburg.^  A  consi- 
derable trade  is  carried  on  by  exchange  from  this  place  between 
the  Russians  and  the  Kirghis  Kazaks,  who  bring  their  articles  of 

'  Appendix  (F).  *  Appendix  (G). 

*  Letter  from  Sir  William  H.  Macnagliten  to  the  Government  of  India. 


1 


CHAP.  XVIII.]       COMPETITION  WITH  BRITISH  ENTERPRISK.  597 

iiierchandise  to  this  and  other  frontier  towns.  These  consist 
exclusively  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  camels,  goats,  goats'  hair, 
wool  of  various  kinds,  skins,  furs,  horns  of  antelopes,  and  mad- 
der roots.  In  178G  and  1/87  the  number  of  Kirghis  sheep 
imported  into  Russia,  amounted  to  one  million,  while  fifty 
thousand  horses  were  annually  introduced  by  the  line  of  Oren- 
burg, as  well  as  Siberia.  According  to  the  statement  of  the 
aged  Kirghises,  they  annually  supplied  their  neighbours  with 
two  millions  of  sheep,  and  one  hundred  thousand  horses,  be- 
sides other  articles  of  merchandise.  In  exchange  for  their 
cattle  and  raw  materials,  they  take  articles  of  cast  iron  and  of 
copper,  such  as  caldrons,  thimbles,  needles,  scissors,  knives, 
axes,  padlocks,  sCythes,  &c. ;  also  cloth,  velvet,  brocades,  silk 
stuffs,  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  ropes,  alum,  copperas,  imitation 
pearls,  small  looking-glasses,  white  and  red  paint,  leather  called 
youkht,  beaver  ski«s,  kc.  The  Chinese  furnish  the  Kirghis  Nature  of 
chiefly  with  silk,  porcelain,  brocades,  silver,  tea,  and  glazed  nieJcJ^^Ttii 
crockery.  The  inhabitants  of  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Tashkend,  fJ^JaH'tante  of 
also  supply  them  largely  with  silk  and  cotton  stuffs,  ready-made  Bokhdni,  &c. 
dresses,  sabres,  guns,  gunpowder,  &:c.,  and  receive  from  them 
in  exchange,  besides  their  cattle,  slaves  captured  on  the  Russian 
frontier.^  The  Koran  enjoins  that  the  most  perfect  protection 
should  be  aiforded  to  merchants  during  their  journeys  ;  and  such 
they  actually  receive  on  this  line.  In  return  for  the  Russian 
exports,  the  annual  imports  amounted  at  a  low  estimate  to  four 
millions  of  roubles  in  1830  ;  and,  owing  to  the  activity  of  their 
agents,  the  scope  for  the  cheaper  and  better  manufactures  of 
Great  Britain  has  been  diminished  in  central  and  eastern  Asia. 

Their  exertions,  however,  are  not  confined  to  the  latter  field,  Successful 
for  notwithstanding  the  expense  and  the  difficulties  attending  a  I,? "Eian" 
tedious  transport  by  land,  their  own  manufactures  are  i"tro- ^jJJ^'j.p|.j^*J''' 
duced  into  Persia,  together  with  fine   glazed  chintzes,  German 
cutlery,   and  other  European  goods.      The  latter  are  partly 
supplied  from  manufactories  established  at  Tifli's,^  for  this  pur- 

'  Description  des  Hordes  et  des  Steppes  des  Kirghis  Kazaks.  Par  Alexis 
de  Levchine,  traduite  du  Riisse  par  Ferry  de  Pigny,  revue  et  publiee,  par 
E.  Charriere.     Paris  1840.     Ch.  XVII.,  pp.  422,  423,  428,  429. 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  156. 


598       DIMINUTION  OF  TRADE  IN  THE  PERSIAN  GULF.     [cHAP.  XVIII. 

pose:  these  are  chiefly  managed  by   German  artisans,  whose 

articles,  though  inferior  to  those   of  England,  are   sufficiently 

cheap  to  obtain  a  preference  in  the  bazars. 

Re-exporta-         The  result  of  a  double  influx  of  European  goods  into  Persia 

from^'pfrsia!    f^om  the  shores  of  the   Euxine   and  from  Russia  produced  a 

temporary  glut  in  the  market,  which  obliged  the  native  merchants 

to  dispose  of  their  imports  elsewhere,  and  Mesopotamia  has 

lately   received   goods  from,    instead   of   sending   them   into 

Persia. 

Trade  to  India      The  number  of  British  vessels  annually  visiting  the  Persian 

by  native        Gulf,  has  greatly  diminished  of  late  years  :  but  upwards  of  a 

vessels  from  .  J  ^  r 

the  Persian     thousaud  bagalas  still  find  their  way  to  the  shores  of  India 

Gulf.  ,  ,  ,,,...  .  , 

between  the  monsoons,  and  thus  mamtam,  in  a  quiet  and 
almost  imperceptible  manner,  an  extensive  trade  through  native 
agents.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  modern  relic  of  that 
commerce  described  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  when  the  wealth 
of  India  was  wafted  in  ships  laden  with  all  kinds  of  merchan- 
dise, "in  blue  cloths,  and  broidered  work,  and  in  chests  of  rich 
apparel,  bound  with  cords,  and  made  of  cedar."^  The  custom 
is,  as  it  has  been  for  ages,  to  sail  from  the  Persian  Gulf  towards 
the  close  of  the  monsoon,  and  return  after  the  change  of  these 
Going  and  periodical  winds,  thus  making  one  voyage  each  way  during  the 
the"monsoon?  J^^^-  This  is  also  the  case  with  ships  sailing  from  the  Arabian 
Gulf,  and  the  adjoining  coasts  of  Africa  and  Arabia.  It  will 
be  seen^  that  irrespective  of  the  trade  with  Kach'h  and  other 
places,  of  which  there  is  no  registered  account,  the  official 
returns*  of  1836  and  1837  give  the  following  comparative 
result  of  the  commerce  between  the  three  Indian  Presidencies 
and  the  Persian  and  Arabian  Gulfs,  for  the  years  1831  to  1832, 
and  1836  to  1837,  at  the  termination  of  the  Euphrates  Expe- 
dition. 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  568.  •  Ezekiel,  chap.  XXA^I.,  v.  24. 

•  Appendix  (H).  *  Ibid. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]       TRADE  OF   1832  COMPARED  WITH   1837- 


599 


1831-32. 


Imports  to  Bombay  from  the  Persian  Gulf: 
the  principal  articles  were — coffee,  ilates, 
gums,  inrligo,  drugs,  pearls,  spices,  horses, 
treasure,  &c.  (see  details,  Appendix  (H).) 

Exports  from  Bombay  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
(see  details,  Appeiniix  (II).)  :  principal  ar- 
ticles— cottons,  siliis,  shawls,  sugar,  skins, 
indigo,  colours,  tobacco,  &c. 

Imports  from  the  Arabian  Gulf  to  Bombay  . 

Exports  from  ditto  to  ditto  :  dried  fruits  and 
British  woollens,  in  addition  to  the  above 
articles        ...... 

Imports  to  Madras  from  the  Persian  Gulf: 
dyes,  fruit,  and  grain,  in  addition  to  the 
above  articles        ..... 

Exports  from  Madras  to  the  Persian  Gulf: 
rice  and  wax,  besides  the  above 

Imports  to  Madras  from  the  Arabian  Gulf    . 

Exports  from  ditto  to  ditto  .  .  . 

Imports  to  Calcutta  from  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  Gulfs      ..... 

Exports  from  Calcutta  to  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  Gulfs      ..... 

In  addition  to  these,  the  imports  to  Bombay 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  consisting  of 
betel-nuts,  cocoa-nuts,  spices,  grain,  gums, 
and  wool,  were     .  .  .  . 

Exports  from  Bombay  to  the  coast  of  Africa, 
of  cottons,  silks,  dried  fruits,  drugs,  metals, 
and  British  woollens      .... 

Total 


Rupees. 


36,38,052 


45,60,266 
16,48,831 


11,00,850 

5,363 

6,44,082 

2,86,502 

12,37,053 

9,56,733 

16,18,855 


156,96,587 


1830-37. 


Imports  and 
fx ports  of 
India 


Rupees. 


35,59,589 


35,00,241 
18,83,694 


12,65,130 


1,27,413 


from  and  to 


73,570     the  three 
-r>    -no     Presidencies. 
/0,o92 

11,00,504 

9,12,813 

17,86,582 


3,50,449 
6,18,331 


152,48,908 


The  greater  part  of  the  imports  to  the  Persian  Gulf  are  car-  Boats  with 
ried  up  to  Baghdad  by  a  fleet  of  boats,  varying  from  forty  to  tracked'upTo 
seventy  tons  each,   which  sail  or  track  against  the  stream  in  ^''g^'^'^'i- 
about  a  month's   time.     This  portion  of  the  Indian  trade  has 
fallen  off  since  1832,  when  it  had  already  suffered  a  consider- 
able diminution  as  compared  with  the  trade  of  the  East  India 
Company.     Happily,  however,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  Decay,  and 
restoring   our  commerce  to  what  it  was  in   1784,    when   SirfgJSof 
Harford  Jones  Brydges,   Bart,  was  the  Company's  factor  at  commerce. 


'  Report  on  Steam  Navigation  to  India,  ordered  to  be  printed  by   the 
House  of  Commons,  July,  1834,  pp.  127,  128. 


trade  alon^ 
the  Euphrates 


600  NAVIGATION  OF  THE  EUPHRATES.  [CHAP.  XVIIF. 

Basrah  •,^  for  to  attain  this,  or  even  a  much  higher  scale  of 
prosperity,  it  is  only  necessary  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
Genoese,  by  organizing  the  necessary  mercantile  establish- 
ments ;  employing  at  the  same  time  steamers,  in  order  to  afford 
a  quick  and  cheap  supply  of  goods. 

Prospects  of  ^^  exteiisiou  of  our  commerce  was  one  great  object  of  the 
Euphrates  Expedition ;  and  the  merchandise  which  had  been 
carried  out  for  this  purpose,  some  portion  of  which  still  re- 
mained after  the  loss  of  the  Tigris  steamer,  was  sought  by  the 
Arabs  with  such  avidity  as  to  show  most  clearly  that  a  prosperous 
commerce  might  be  easily  established  on  the  river  Euphrates. 

Although  anticipating  in  part  the  subject  of  the  fourth 
volume,  a  few  observations  relating  to  this  trade  will  not  here 
be  out  of  place. 

Capabilities  of      Prcviously   to  transferring  the    Euphrates  steamer   to   the 

steam  uaviga-  Bombay  government,  in   accordance  with  the  original  plan  of 

*'°°'  the  Expedition,  reports  stating  the  practicability  of  navigating 

the  river  Euphrates  were  sent  to  the  Home  Government  from 
the  late  Commander  Cleaveland,  R.N.,^  from  Mr.,  now  Com- 
mander Charlewood,  R.N.,^  and  Mr.,  now  Captain,  Fitzjanies, 
B.N.  •/  also  from  Captain,  noAV  Lieutenant-Colonel,  Estcourt, 
M.P.,  and  Mr.  Ainsworth  ;''  and  the  opinions  ex])ressed  in  these 
reports  were  speedily  confirmed  by  the  ascent  of  Lieutenant, 
now  Commander,  Charles  D.  Campbell,  I.  N.^  (one  of  the 
officers  serving  under  Commander  Lynch)  to  Beles,  the  port  of 
Aleppo,  which,  by  the  air  line,  is  only  a  hundred  miles  from 
Iskenderiin.  The  rivers  of  Mesopotamia  also  had  been 
thoroughly  explored,  and  everything  promised  the  permanency 
of  an  establishment  in  those  regions  when  the  services  of  the 

Removal  of     steamcrs  Assyria,  Nimriid,  and  Nitocris  were  required  to  assist 

to  India.         in  the  operations  on  the  Lidus. 

Necessity  of         It  is   to  be  hoped  that  the  inopportune  check  thus  given  to 

placiiii' other      ,  /.     .  •       ,•  ■       i\t  .         •  -ii    i 

steatiurson     the  progrcss  ot  stcam   navigation  m  Mesopotamia,  will  be  re- 

thc  Euphrates.  jj^Qy^^j^j .  .^^,^j   fj^^t  the  day  is  not  very  distant  when  other  and 

more  suitable  vessels  will  be  employed.     A  cheap  and  rapid 

communication   with  India   may  then  be  maintained  by  this 

'  Appendix  (I).  ^  Ibid.  (J).  "  Ibid.  (K). 

*  Ibid.  (L),  (M).  »  Ibid.  (N). 


J 


CHAP.  XVIII.]        ROUTE  TO  ENGLAND  BY  THE  EUPHRATES.  601 

route,  and  at  the  same  time  a  considerable  increase  would 
accrue  to  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain. 

Without  entering  upon   the  subject  at  length,    it  may   be  Smaii 
sufficient  to  observe  that  small  vessels  of  light  draught,  such  as  p3  ft)rE 
can  now  be  constructed,^  will  not  experience  any  serious  diffi-  P'""pose. 
culty  in  carrying  the   Indian   mails  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
Beles,  whence  they  could  be  transported  through  Aleppo,  Isken- 
deriin,  Trieste,  &c.,  to  England.     The  transit  would  be  accom- 
plished in  twenty-five  days  from  the  Gulf,  or  thirty-one  days 
from  Bombay.     The  mails  from  India  might  be  brought  by 
this  route  alternately  with  the  Ked  Sea  line,  according  to  the 
original  intention. 

The  feeling    of   protection   and    support   which   permanent  Advantages 
steam  establishments    must   necessarily   impart   to   mercantile  estai.Vish" 
transactions  in  a  distant   country  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  "'*^"'^" 
beneficial  effect  upon  commerce.     Wood  for  fuel  is  abundant, 
and  easily  procured  through   the   Arabs,   who  not   only  con- 
tributed their  services  in  aid   of  the  Expedition,  but  were  in 
several  instances  desirous  of  British  protection ;  there  is,  conse- 
quently, every  facility  for  conveying  a  cheap  supply  of  goods  not 
only  to  the  people  living  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  but  also  to 
the  adjoining  countries,  Persia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  and  Arabia.  The  Arabs 

A  paper-  has  been  prepared  to  show  the  opening  that  exists  cmZiTi'cif.  ^° 
for    commercial    steam    navigation    in    Mesopotamia,    which, 
whether  undertaken  by  the  nation,  or  by  private  individuals, 
should  be  commenced  on  a  very  limited  scale ;  its  development 
being  allowed  to  take  place  gradually. 

Even  if  the  advantages  of  steam  were  to  be  dispensed  with,  Advantages  of 
it  is  clear,   from  the  success   of  the   Genoese  stations  on  the  ^■^'^'l  "'!:'■«"'* 

T^        •  1    •       r  A     •  depots. 

Euxme  and  ni  Lesser  Asia,  as  well  as  that  of  the  East  India 
Company's  trade  at  a  later  period,  that  establishments  judi- 
ciously located  at  certain  places,  to  serve  at  once  for  depots  of 
trade,  and  as  points  of  support,  would  be  the  means  of  enlarging 
British  commerce  in  western  and  central  Asia  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent. 

Baghdad  has  long  been  an  important  emporium  ; '  but  others 

'  Appendix  (X).  «  Ibid. 

^  Vol.  T  ,pp.  109.  110. 


602  PROPOSED  OPENINGS  FOR  COMMERCE.       [cHAP.  XVIII. 

Commercial     elsewhere  are   indispensable  to  success.     Stations  at  Moham- 

iSghditr''  °    merali  and  Shuster  would  make  the  great  opening  by  the  Kariin 

into  western  Persia  available.     Another  at  Kiirnah  would  be 

Suitable         equally  suitable  for  the  Kerkhah,  and  the  two  other  great  rivers, 

Kih-nah  ^^      whose  junctiou   is  effected  at  this  place.      The  Tigris  being 

already  provided  with  stations  at  Baghdad  and  Mosul,  the  latter 

under  the  vice-consulate  of  Mr.  Rassam,  it  only  requires  another 

at  Diyar  Bekr,  and  the  neighbouring  town  of  Mardin,  since  the 

close  connexion  of  the  former  place  with  the  countries  about  it 

would  speedily  secure  a  revival  of  its  ancient  commerce.^ 

Stations  pro-        The  numcrous  towns  along  the  Euphrates,  and  the  extensive 

th'rEu^phrftes.  population,  partly  permanent  and  partly  nomadic,  on  the  banks 

of  that  river,  will  ultimately  require  several  stations ;  but,  for 

the  present,  one  should  be  at  Hillah,  another  at  'A  nah,  and  a 

third  at  Beles.^ 

The  present  establishments  at  Tarabuziin  and  Tarsiis  give 
some  impetus  to  trade  in  Asia  Minor ;   but  others  might   be 
formed,  with  much  advantage,  at  some  of  the  most  important 
places   in  the    interior,   as   Sivas,  Kaisariyeh,   Kdniyeh,   and 
Other  depots    Angora ;    all  which  have  native  traders,  and  the  last  has  a 
AsirMhior.     considerable  extent  of  commerce,  but  no  longer  in  the  hands  of 
British  merchants.^     It  is  evident  that  the  capital  to  be  em- 
ployed at  the  proposed  establishments  would  enable  them  to 
supply  goods  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  they  can  be  obtained 
at  present,  especially  as  measures  would  be  taken  to  prevent 
those  excessive  exactions  which  are  so  injurious  to  commerce.* 
Fertility  and        Though  the  subjcct  has  only  been   considered  relatively  to 
h°p?ovenieut   ^hc  pcople  iu  their  present  state,   it  should  not  be  forgotten 
ufinil"'^"       that  Mesopotamia  possesses  as  many  advantages  as,  or  perhaps 
more  than,  any  other  country  in  the  world.     Although  greatly 
changed  by  the  neglect  of  man,  those  portions  which  are  still 
cultivated,  as  the  country  about  Hillah,  show  that  the  region  has 
all  the  fertility  ascribed  to   it  by  Herodotus,^  who  considered 

'  Vol.  I.,  p.  15,  and  vol.  IT.,  Appendix  (N). 

■^  Arab  agents,  as  deputies  in  charge  of  fuel,  if  steamers  were  established, 
would  be  required  at  Laniluni,  Hit,  Deir,  &c. 

'  Appendix  (N).  *  Appendix  (E). 

*  Lib.  I.,  cap.  cxcii. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  CAPABILITIES  OF  MESOPOTAMIA.  603 

its  productions  as  equal  to  one-third  of  those  furnished  by  all 
Asia.  Being  equal  to,  and  in  many  respects  even  superior  to 
Eg\^pt,  with  regard  to  its  position  and  its  capabilities,  the  time 
need  not  be  distant  when  the  date  groves  of  the  Euphrates  may 
be  interspersed  with  flourishing  towns,  surrounded  with  fields  of 
the  finest  wheat,  and  the  most  productive  plantations  of  indigo, 
cotton,  and  sugar-cane. 


(     60t     ) 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


Proposed 
skt^tch  ot" 
ancient 
remains. 


The  social 
state  of  a 
people  shown 
by  their 
ai'chitectural 
structures. 

Mtninds.  \c., 
of  babylonia. 


Tlie  bricks 
used  in  their 
construction 


ARCHITECTURE,  SCULPTURE,  ETC.,  OF  I  RAN,  SYRIA,  AND  ARABIA. 

Ruins  in  Babylonia. — Kiln-burnt  and  Sun-dried  Bricks. — Construction  of 
the  Pyramids — Cement  and  Layers  of  Reeds. — Some  Pyramids  of  Brick, 
others  of  Stone. — Pyramids  of  Mexico,  &c. — Excavations  in  Assyria  and 
elsewhere. — Great  Fire  Temple  near  Ispahan. — Singular  Sepulchral 
Excavations. — Ancient  Causeways  and  Roads. — Canals,—  Bunds. — Dikes. 
— Tunnels. — Arelies. — Ancient  Mines. — Rocks  removed  by  Fire. — Phoe- 
nician and  Assyrian  remains. — Tomb  of  Cyrus. — Ancient  Writing, 
Sculpture,  and  Painting.— Ruins  of  Persepolis. — Floating  and  Stationary- 
Bridges. — Cements,  «fcc. 

In  the  preceding  volume  a  brief  description  has  been  given  of 
the  countries  lying  between  the  rivers  Indus  and  Nile ;  and  it 
is  here  intended  to  add  a  sketch  of  the  past  and  present  state 
of  architecture,  sculpture,  &c.,  throughout  those  regions. 

Since  architectural  remains  are  justly  considered  good 
criterions  of  the  social  state  of  the  people  by  whom  the  works 
were  constructed,  those  of  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  which  go 
back  to  the  period  of  the  Noachian  deluge,  must  possess  con- 
siderable interest.  On  approaching  the  site  of  one  of  the 
primeval  cities,  the  attention  is  attracted  by  what  at  first  appears 
to  be  a  natural  conical  hill  of  considerable  size,  which  however 
proves  to  be  the  mouldering  remnant  of  a  vast  building :  such 
a  mound  could  not  fail  to  be  remarkable  in  any  situation,  but, 
rising  out  of  an  apparently  boundless  plain  in  a  transparent 
atmosphere,  the  effect  Mhich  it  produces  on  the  mind  is  most 
striking.  The  celebrated  plains  of  Dura  offer  few  other  remains 
of  antiquity ;  and  none  which  can  be  compared,  in  magnitude 
or  interest,  to  those  gigantic  masses,  which  have  been  formed 
by  the  ruins  of  some  of  the  greatest  works  ever  executed  by  man, 
and  which  now  serve  only  to  guide  the  traveller  on  his  way. 

The  alluvial  district  of  Babylonia  being  without  stone,  it  was 
necessary  to  resort  to  other  materials  for  the  construction  of 
public  and  private  works ;  and,  as  clay  existed  in  abundance, 


CHAP.  XIX.]  THE  BRICKS  OF  BABYLONIA.  G05 

bricks  were  the  materials  chiefly  employed  by  the  builders  of 
that  country.  But  it  is  owing  to  the  pyramidal  shape  of  the 
edifices,  rather  than  to  any  peculiar  qualities  of  the  materials, 
that  these  monuments  of  early  art  still  exist. 

The  Babylonian  bricks  were  of  two  kinds:  one  kind  con- "«'ere either 
sisted  of  such  as  were  burned  in  a  kiln  ;  the  other,  and  by  much  dried.  ; 
the  larger  proportion,  being  simply  dried  by  being  exposed  to 
the  sun.  The  former  vary  in  size  from  I  1  inches  to  13^  inches 
square,  and  they  are  3\  inches  deep;  they  are  sometimes,  how- 
ever, much  smaller,  and  they  are  of  various  colours :  the  bricks 
are  chieflv  cemented  with  common  clav,  but,  in  the  quays,  the  Bi'""i«" '^ed 

.    *  .  *  1       •/  2^  cement 

foundations  and    exterior   parts    of  the    structures    that   once 
adorned  this  mighty  city,  bitumen  appears  to  have  been  exten- Sizeofthe 
sively  used.     One  face  of  each  brick  had  on  it  an  inscription,  bricks. 
and  sometimes  a  figure,  and  in  some  instances  it  is  also  glazed 
and  vitrified ;  and  this  face  was  placed  downwards :  the  cement 
is  usually  found  adhering  to  the  upper  surface. 

The  second,  which  is  an  inferior  kind,  is  rather  larger  than 
those  w^hich  had  been  kiln-dried,  being  nearly  4^  inches  deep, 
and  from  111  to  14  inches  square  ;  the  larger  ones  weigh  38 
pounds  1 1  ounces  avoirdupois,  and  were  formed  of  the  pure 
clay  of  the  country,  rendered  more  tenacious  by  being  mixed 
w^ith  a  little  sand,  and  some  coarse  straw  or  fine  reeds.  These 
bricks,  when  dried  by  exposure  to  a  powerful  sun,  soon  became 
sufficiently  hard,  and  gave  the  means  of  rapidly  raising  a  large 
structure,  which  in  so  dry  a  climate  M^as  exceedingly  durable. 

The  bricks  at  'Akar  Kiif  are  IH  inches  square  by  4  deep.  Bricks  and 

,  I'l  1  i-  1  i-i-p-  1  cement  used 

placed  with  much  regularity,  and  cemented  with  interior  clay,  at'AkurKuf. 
or  rather  common  mud ;  but  the  great  singularity  of  this  struc- 
ture consists  in  the  introduction  from  side  to  side  of  layers  of 
reeds  at  short  intervals,  extending  from  top  to  bottom  of  the 
huge  mass.  These  breaks  usually  take  place  after  seven  rows 
of  bricks  have  been  piled  upon  one  another ;  that  is,  at  intervals 
of  about  2  feet  1 1  inches,  or  occasionally  a  little  more  ;^  and 
the  reeds  forming  these  divisions  are  composed  of  three  layers, 

'  Some  writers  g-ive  nearly  double,  owing,  as  it  may  be  presumed,  to  over- 
looking one  layer  of  reeds.  In  the  author's  examination,  the  sides  of  the 
mound  were  carefully  dug,  in  order  to  determine  these  spaces  exactly. 


606  MOUNDS  OF  ASSYRIA.  [cHAP.  XIX. 

Layers  of       which  together  form  a  depth  of  about  H  inches.     These  layers 
these  "^^'^^°    are   so  arranged  that  they  cross  one  another,  the  upper  and 
structures.       lower  ones  being  in  parallel  positions,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
the  centre  one  at  right  angles  to  both.     This  structure,  doubt- 
less originally  a  pyramid,  is  now  of  an  irregular  shape,  with  an 
Dimensions  of  accuuiulatiou  of  rubbisli  at  the  base.     The  latter  is  about  157 
'AkarKuf.      feet  uorth  and  south,  1 10  feet  east  and  west,  and  about  128  feet 
high.     About  midway  on  the  eastern  side,  there  is  an  aperture 
which  may  have  been   the  entrance  of  a  sepulchral  chamber ; 
and  it  is  in  many  places,  particularly  near  the  top,  perforated 
with  square  holes  similar  to  those  which,  in  the  tapia  buildings 
of  the  Arabs,  probably  served  for  scaffolding.^ 
Size  of  the  The  Mujellibch  at  Babylon  was  constructed   in   the   same 

theMujeiiibeh.  manner  of   bricks  14  inches  square,  but  scarcely  so  thick  as 
those  used  at  'Akar  Kiif,     The  construction  of  the  latter  work 
was   the  more  easy   on   account   of  its  pyramidal   form  ;  and 
this  figure  may  also  be  traced  in  the  Birs  Nimrud.^ 
Construction        The  uiounds  of  Siis,  Kal'ah,    Resen,    and    Nimriid    (near 
of  Stis,™cl'°    Nineveh)  being  more  ruinous,  their  forms  are  less  marked  than 
those  of  the  two  preceding  works  ;   but  they  appear  to  have 
been  pyramidal.     In  all  of  them  the  interior  mass  was  con- 
structed of  sun-dried  bricks  formed  of  clay,  mixed  with  chopped 
straw,  and  the  exterior  of  kiln-burnt  bricks,  many  of  which  are 
stamped  with  figures  and  cuneiform  characters.^    Brick  pyramids 
are  found   in  Nubia,  also  at  Thebes,  Dashour,  and  other  parts 
Somepyra-     of  Upper  Egvpt ;  but  in  Lower  Egypt,  where  stone  was  more 

mids  of  brick,  ,  i    t  i  •  t^    i  i  •      A       •      a     ^        ^  •    i 

Others  of  abundant,  and  likewise  at  x'akkra  m  oyria,  the  latter  material 
was  used  in  order  to  render  the  works  more  durable.  Those 
of  Gizeh  the  greatest  of  all,  had  a  coating  of  stone  which  filled 
up  the  spaces  left  by  the  receding  platforms ;  and  so  correctly 
were  the  coating  stones  formed,  that  on  the  exterior  surface, 
which  sloped  at  an  angle  of  51°,  the  joinings  could  scarcely  be 
perceived.^ 

'  Plate  VIII.  *  Plate  XXX. 

^  For  the  discoveries  recently  made  in  the  ruins  of  Khorsabad,  Niniriid, 
&c.,  see  Nineveii  and  its  Remains,  by  A.  H.  Layard,  Es^q.     Murray,  1849. 

*  See  p.  473. 

*  The  coating  of  the  second   pyramid   (Ct'phren)  still  remains,  near  the 
summit,  and  tliere  the  ascent  becomes  extnmely  perilous. 


J 


CHAP.  XIX.]  THE  GENERAL  USE  OF  PYRAMIDS.  607 

Pyramids,  however,  are  not  confined  to  the  countries  west-  The  pyra- 
ward  of  Babylonia  ;  the  nomadic  Tartars  also  have  such  works,  mr/in^gene'rai 
some  of  brick  and  others  of  stone;   although,  says  Rubruquis,  "^^• 
there  is  no  other  stone  in  the  part  of  the  country  where  they  are 
found. ^ 

The  pyramids  of  Mexico,  which  have  been  so  well  described  Thepyra- 
by  Humboldt,  have  their  sides  cut  in  steps  like  those  of  Egypt ;  Mexico, 
and  it  may  be  observed  that  a  pyramidal  form  is  given  to  the 
religious  edifices  of  India:  thus  in  the  widely-distant  regions 
of  Egypt,  India,  and  America,  are  found  structures  resembling 
in  form  the  mount  of  Babel,  which  was  probably  the  parent  of 
all  the  others.  This  mound  had  on  its  summit  a  temple,"  which 
was  also  the  tomb  of  Belus,^  and  a  Chaldean  observatory.* 

In  the  Chaldean  language  a  cave,  or  an  excavated  chamber  Caves  and 
for  religious  purposes,  was  called  Midrach,  signifying  an  emblem  structures 
or  allegory :  from  this  word  came  the  Greek  ''  Mudross,"  a  "fj^a^j.s^^^c 
designation    of  the    sun,    and    the    eastern   "  Mithras,"  whose 
worship,  according  to  Stephanus,  was  celebrated  in  caves ;  and 
a  cave  was  the  symbol  of  the  world,  which  Mithras,  the  father  of 
all  things,  had  made.    Buildings  on  lofty  pyramidal  structures, 
or  excavations  in  the  sides  of  rocks  were,  in  time,  used  in  Assyria, 
Persia,  &c.,  instead  of  natural  caves,  as  places  of  worship;  and 
the  mounds  of  Babylonia  thus  constituted  the  high  altars  and 
temples  of  the  Chaldeans,  or  w^orshippers  of  the  host  of  heaven. 

Extensive    excavations,    apparently    intended    to    serve    as  Remains  at 
temples,  have  been  formed  in  the  hills  immediately  behind  the  ghuster,  and 
ruins  of  Persepolis,  and  at  Shapiir ;  such  also  is  the  Mesjid-i- ^'^*^'"*^^'"^- 
Maderi  Suleiman,  on  the  plains  of  Murgh'-ab.     At  Shuster,  and 
again  at  Dizfiil,  there  are  similar  excavations ;  but  these  belong 
probably  to   a  much   more  remote  period  :  and  M^herever  the 
Zagros  range  has  been  explored,  others  have  been  found.     At 
Holwan  there   are  several,   and   some   precisely  of  the    same 
character  as  those  of  Persepolis,   but  with  the  addition  of  a 
mound.     At  Deira  is  the  chamber  of  Ferhad  ;^  and  farther  in 

'  Harris's  Collection  of  Voyages,  &c.,  vol.  I.,  page  588. 

*  Herod,  lib.  I.,  cap.  clxxxi.  '  Strabo.,  lib.  XVI. 

*  Died.  Sic,  lib.  II.  cap.  ix.,  and  above,  p.  26. 

*  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  vol.  IX.,  p.  41. 


608  CAVES  AND  RUINS.  [cHAP.   XIX. 

the  Cosssean  mountains  are  the  beautiful  excavations  of  Bisutiin 
and  Takhti-Bostan,  the  Mithraic  caves  of  Karaftii,^  with  the 
celebrated  fire-temple  of  Shiz  or  Takhti-Suleiman  f  and  others 
are  found  in  different  parts  of  these  regions — two  of  them,  viz., 
the  sepulchral  excavations  in  Upper  Mesopotamia,  and  the  fire- 
temples  near  Ispahan,  deserve  particular  notice. 
Caves  and  About  scvcu  iiiiles  from  the  city  towards  the  south-west,  and 

near^ispaMu.  On  the  samc  sidc  of  a  rocky  mass,  are  three  caves  and  as  many 
fire-temples ;  which,  as  well  as  the  mountain  in  which  they 
are  excavated,  are  known  by  the  name  of  Takhti-Eustam.  The 
easternmost  and  largest,  which,  like  the  others,  is  a  natural 
cavern,  opens  to  the  south-west.  It  is  of  a  crescent  shape, 
about  100  feet  wide,  20  feet  deep,  and  nearly  as  many  high  at 
the  entrance ;  but  it  is  only  6  feet  high  at  the  inner  extremity, 
where  two  cisterns  have  been  cut  in  the  rock,  one  6  feet  and 
the  other  4  feet  in  length,  and  each  of  them  is  2  feet  wide.  On 
each  side  a  column  has  been  erected,  as  if  to  support  the  rocky 
canopy ;  and  between  the  two  columns  are  the  dilapidated 
remains  of  several  figures  resting  against  the  rock  ;  there  are 
also  some  undecipherable  tripod-like  characters,  probably  Cufic, 
and  of  various  sizes.  The  cave  itself  is  stained  a  deep  red, 
and  at  the  western  side  are  the  remains  of  the  fire-temple,  wdiich 
is  now  quite  a  mass  of  ruins. 
Description  of  The  most  wcstcm,  and  the  highest,  cave  extends  for  some 
most  cave,  distance  into  the  rock,  and  consists  of  an  inner  and  an  outer 
cavern,  separated  by  a  w^all ;  both  are  partially  stained  of  a 
deep-red  colour,  and  here  and  there  they  display  the  remains 
of  written  characters.  The  central,  and  most  interesting  of 
these  grottoes,  is  of  a  semi-oval  form,  low  in  the  roof,  and 
having  at  its  western  side  a  kind  of  recess  or  second  cave, 
which,  with  the  exterior,  gives  a  depth  of  45  feet.  The  inner 
and  probably  oracular  part  contains  the  remains  of  an  undis- 
tinguishable  figure,  and  there  is  a  second  figure  resembling  an 
and  its  owl  ;  there   are  also  ^ome   sentences  in   ancient  characters,  of 

ancient  re-  i  •    i     ,i        p  n        • 

mains.  wiiich  the  lollowing  are  specimens : — 

'  Described   by  Sir   R.  Ker   Porter.     See  Royal  Geographical  Journal, 
vol.  X.,  p.  45. 

*  Major  Rawlinsoii,  vol.  X.,  pp.  To,  78,  of  Royal  Ceograplucal  Journal. 


CHAP.  XIX.] 


FIRE  TEMPLE  NEAR  ISPAHAN. 

No,  2. 


609 


0 


%.J  w 


X?  oo 


Very  ancient  and  unkno^vn. 


Translated— Malediction  on  the  Prince  of  Hell  ;   also, 
wash  your  feet  without  temptation. 

No  3. 


^OK^  l^WX 


The  third  inscription,  which  probably  is  Aramaic,  wants  The  inscnp- 
something  to  complete  the  sense ;  it  is  supposed  to  express,  fi^e.^mpies. 
Prai/  to  Gid,  through  the  High  Priest.  The  outer  part  of  the 
cavern  contains  several  figures,  some  of  which  are  detached, 
and  others  are  cut  in  the  rock  in  bold  relief;  but  all  are  nearly- 
destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  a  bird  like  an  eagle,  above 
which  there  is  a  circular  figure,  apparently  representing  a 
globe.  At  the  western  side  of  the  opening,  near  the  separating 
wall,  is  the  fire-temple  itself,  still  in  tolerable  preservation. 
The  structure  is  covered  with  a  pediment,  surmounted  by  a 
cupola,  both  built  with  sun-dried  bricks,  9  inches  square  by 
22  inches  deep.  The  temple  is  9  feet  long,  and  as  many  in 
breadth,  and  is  4  feet  high  ;  it  has  on  each  side  9  niches,  each 
10  inches  square  and  8  inches  deep,  in  which  are  the  remains 
of  some  small  figures  and  characters.  Above  is  the  dome, 
whose  diameter  is  less  than  the  base  on  which  it  stands. 
Below,  on  the  eastern  side,  is  the  doorway,  which  runs  a  little 
way  into  the  dome  in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  height.  Description  of 
On  the  other  sides  are  two  shallow  niches,  which,  like  the  rest  ^^^  ^^''^' 
of  the  interior,  are  covered  with  a  yellowish-brown  cement. 
But  as  there  is  not  any  appearance  of  a  fire  having  been  made 
within,  and  the  rock  above  is  thickly  covered  with  smoke,  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  perpetual  flame  was  kept  burning  on  the 
top  of  the  dome,  where  there  is  a  suitable  place  for  it. 

VOL.  II.  2  R 


610 


FIRE  TEMPLES  AND  SEPULCHRES.  [cHAP.  XIX. 


Euined  city 
near  the 
villages  of 
Charmalik 
and  Narsis, 


In  the  vicinity  of  Relioboth,  and  Kalneh,  (Chalanne,)-  also  of 
Beles,  Bir,  Riim  Kal'ah,  Sumeisat,  and  different  parts  of 
Upper  Mesopotamia,  there  are  many  excavations,  which,  for 
the  most  part,  are  of  an  ordinary  character,  but  some  are 
evidently  sepulchral. 

Near  the  villages  of  Charmalik  and  Xarsis,  at  a  spot  about 
three  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  nearly 
thirty  miles  from  Sumeisat,  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city 
and  several  tombs :  the  ruins  are  extensive,  but  without 
columns,  or  any  other  object  particularly  striking,  except  some 
large  tanks  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  with  descents  by  flights  of 
steps ;  the  sepulchres  themselves  are,  however,  particularly 
interesting. 

In  a  gently-swelling  hill,  composed  of  a  mass  of  rock  showing 
above  the  ground  occasionally,  about  ten  of  these  sepulchres 
have  been  excavated  with  great  skill,  and  evidently  at  a  remote 
period :  they  are  at  a  short  distance  from  one  another,  and  are 
separately  "hewn  in  the  rock;"^  nor  would  they  be  visible, 
were  it  not  for  the  sloping  descent  at  the  entrance 


Plan  and 
elevation  of 
some  singular 
sepulchres. 


Vol.  I.,  p.  523. 


Matt.  XXVIT..  V.  60. 


CHAP.  XIX.]       DIMENSIONS,   ETC.,  OF  THE  SEPULCHRES.  611 

Fig.  I  is  a  plan  of  the  tomb,  consisting  of  two  divisions,  a  Dimensions 
andB;  Fig.  2  is  a  section  through  the  outer  portion  of  the  jj^noJ^hi^ 
tomb,   along  the  line  c  d  ;  Fig.  3  is   a  section  through  both  *°™''^- 
apartments,  along  the  line  e  f  ;  and  Fig.  4  is  an  elevation  of 
the  entrance,  on  the  line  x  y. 

The  tomb  is  entered  through  a  small  aperture  or  doorway, 
rather  more  than  3  feet  high,  and  2  feet  6  inches  wide,  with  an 
arched  top,  as  represented  at  ??z.  Fig.  4  ;  the  entrance  is  about 
2  feet  above  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  it  is  closed  by  means  of 
a  circular  stone,  moving  in  two  parallel  grooves,  one  above  and 
the  other  below.  The  stone  is  3  feet  6  inches  in  diameter, 
and  6  inches  thick,  which  rolls  along  its  edge  on  a  gently- 
inclined  plane ;  h  shows  its  place  when  rolled  back,  in  order  to 
enter  the  tomb,  and  some  force  is  necessary  to  bring  it  to  this 
position;  but  a  very  slight  exertion  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to 
roll  along  the  grooves,  J  and  k,  till  it  covers  the  entrance,  as 
marked  by  the  dotted  line  i.  The  hole  marked  h  appears  to 
have  been  for  the  purpose  of  passing  a  chain  through  both  the 
stone  and  the  solid  rock  at  the  side  of  the  doorway,  and  thus 
securing  the  tomb.  Some  of  these  sepulchres  had  the  stone 
and  grooves  perfect,  with  the  exception  of  the  chain  ;  but  in  the 
greater  number,  the  former  had  been  broken  away  and  forced 
out  of  its  place. 

The  excavations  were  all  nearly  of  the  same  dimensions,  and  External  and 
on  the  same   plan.     A  sloping  open  descent,  g,  leads  to  the  dimensions  of 
entrance,  which  is  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  and  of  course  below  *^^  sepulchres. 
the  surface  of  the  ground ;  consequently  it  is  not  visible,  except 
at  this  place. 

Within  the  doorway  there  is  a  descent  of  2  feet  to  the  floor 
of  the  outer  tomb,  a;  an  apartment  of  14  feet  by  9,  with  a 
niche,  c,  cZ,  on  each  side  for  bodies ;  these  niches  are  7  feet  long, 
2  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  high,  and  are  terminated  by  the  arched 
recesses  p  and  p,  Fig.  2 ;  the  roof  is  a  parabolic  vault,  exca- 
vated with  much  neatness,  and  about  9  feet  high  in  the  centre. 

The  inner  tomb,  b,  is  11  feet  by  9,  and  nearly  9  feet  high, 
with  three  niches,  g,  /,  and  ^,  for  bodies.  Two  of  these  are 
shown  in  the  cut,  viz.,  t  g  in  Fig.  2,  and  t  e  in  Fig.  3  ;  t  c  ir. 
Fig.  3  is  the  corresponding  recess  in  a,  Fig.  1.     The  niches 

2  r2 


612 


DIMENSIONS,  ETC.,  OF  THE  SEPULCHRES.        [CHAP.  XIX. 


The  ruins 
may  possibly 
be  those  of 
Anthemusia. 


Koads  cut 
through  the 
Zagros,  &c.* 


Canals  in 
Assyria  and 
Mesopotamia. 


and  roof  are  arched  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  outer  tomb, 
and  the  execution  of  the  whole  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of 
the  tombs  of  the  kings  near  Jerusalem,  or  to  the  ordinary 
excavations  in  Upper  Egypt. 

The  ruins  may  possibly  be  those  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Anthemusia,  which  is  placed  hereabouts  by  Strabo  and  Pliny.^ 

The  practice  of  hewing  temples  with  columns  and  figures  out 
of  masses  of  rock,  as  well  as  that  of  raising  vast  pyramidal 
mounds,  prevailed  through  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  India ; 
and  the  general  resemblance  of  such  works  in  all  these  countries 
sufiieiently  indicates  a  common  origin,  which,  it  is  reasonable 
to  presume,  may  have  been  in  Assyria.  The  caves  of  Ele- 
phanta,  Elora,  Ajunta,  and  the  temples  on  Mount  Aboo,  differ, 
however,  in  their  details  from  those  of  Thebes,  Philoe,  and 
Abii  Simbal ;  but  these  differences  are  probably  only  such  as 
would  naturally  arise  on  transferring  such  a  style  of  architecture 
from  one  country  to  another. 

Amongst  the  less  striking,  but  more  useful  works  in  western 
Asia,  are  the  roads,  which,  in  some  places,  consist  of  causeways 
over  marshes,  and  elsewhere  of  passes  cut  through  rocky 
mountains ;  of  the  latter  kind  are  the  Zagros  at  Keli-shin,"  and 
the  Caspian  Gates. ^  And  in  the  plains  of  Assyria,  numerous 
canals  served  the  important  purposes  of  irrigating  the  land, 
conveying  water  to  the  cities,  and,  occasionally,  as  means  of 
communication. 

Great  water-courses  intersected  Susiana,  as  well  as  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  by  crossing  the  latter  territory  from  side  to  side,  at 
different  places,  they  formed  as  many  lines  of  intercommuni- 
cation between  the  two  great  rivers ;  such  lines  are  the  Nahr 
I'sa,  Nahr  Sersar,  Nahr-Malka,  and  Nahr  Kuthah  :••  canals 
were  also  carried  along  the  country  parallel  to  one  or  other  of 
the  rivers.  Near  the  Tigris,  the  Ishaki,  the  El  Burech,  the 
Nebi  Suleiman,  the  Nahrawan,  the  Dujcil,  and  the  Khalis, 
still  remain ;  and,  diverging  from  the  Tigris,  are  the  Shatt  el 
Hai  and  the  Shatt  el  'A'mah;  the  former  still  falls  into  the 

'  Pliny,  lib.  V.,  ch.  xxiv. 

*  Vol.  X.,  p.  21-23,  of  Royal  Geographical  Journal. 

'  See  vol.  T.,  p.  213  *  See  vol.  I.,  p.  54-56. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  CANALS,  BUNDS,  DIKES,  ETC.  613 

Euphrates,  and,  beyond  the  latter,  is  the  celebrated  Pallacopas, 
with  several  other  channels,  of  wliich  the  most  remarkable  are 
those  near  Mesjid  'All  and  Lamliim. 

By  means  of  these  canals  supplies  of  water  were  obtained  inuseof 
almost  every  direction,  not  only  for  the  towns  and  for  irriga- p^^Jj^^*^"^ 
tion,  but  also  for  navigation,  for  which  last  purpose  the  I'sa  is 
still  available.^  Owing  to  the  impermeable  nature  of  the  soil, 
masonry  was  seldom  used  in  the  formation  of  the  canals.  These 
great  and  useful  undertakings  are  particularly  mentioned  by 
the  earliest  historians,  who  attribute  their  construction  to 
Semiramis  and  other  Assyrian  monarchs,  whilst  tradition 
claims  for  some  of  them  the  more  remote  age  of  Nimriid  ;  but 
be  this  as  it  may,  some  of  the  canals  belong  to  the  period  when 
Babylon  and  Nineveh  were  in  the  highest  state  of  prosperity. 

In  connexion  with  these  canals,  and  in  order  to  secure  all  Dikes  and 
their  advantages,   immense  dikes  were  constructed  in  certain  g^^ure  the 
positions  in  order  to  retain   sufficient  supplies    of  water    for  ■^^'^^• 
different  purposes,  particularly  for  irrigation. 

The  Bunds  of  Zikru-1-awaz,  or  Nimriid,  and  Zikr  Isma'il,  on 
the  Tigris,  and  that  which  crosses  the  'Adhim,  have  been 
already  noticed."  The  like  constructions  were  executed  along 
the  river  Euphrates,  in  the  marsljes  of  Lamliim,  and  also  in  the 
low  ground  of  Susiana  ;  as  at  Shuster,  Band-i-kir,  and  Ahwaz  ; 
such  works  have  also  been  formed  at  Ddrak  and  other  places  Bunds  and 
in  Persia  with  the  most  perfect  success.  Nor  were  these  works  ^^^°  ^^^^' 
confined  to  the  regions  in  question,  the  same  method  of  securing 
supplies  of  water  prevailing  in  Arabia,^  in  Africa,  and  in  Asia. 
Descriptions  of  the  prodigious  bunds  and  tanks  of  India,  China, 
&c.,  are  familiar  to  most  readers,  and  their  resemblance  to 
similar  works  in  Babylonia  will  be  readily  admitted  by 
those  who  have  visited  both  countries.  Some  of  these  works, 
although  no  longer  objects  of  attention  to  the  government, 
are  in  many  cases  maintained,  though  imperfectly,  by  the 
people,  as  at  Shuster,  Band-i-kir,  &c.,  and  they  still  attest  the 
strength  and  utility  of  these  specimens  of  early  art ;  some  of 
them,   probably,  were  constructed  antecedently  to  the  time  of 

'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  55.  '  *  See  vol.  I.,  pp.  21,  30. 

*  'Oman,  Yfrmen,  Nedjd,  &c. 


614  METHOD  OF  RAISING  A  BUND.  [cHAP.  XIX. 

C}TUs,  in  order  to  raise  or  divert  the  waters  of  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  rivers.  In  India,  besides  the  construction  of  the  ordi- 
nary bunds  and  tanks,  the  bolder  operation  of  forming  a  great 
reservoir  by  throwing  a  dam  across  an  extensive  valley,  as  at 
Haider-abad,  is  frequently  practised.  The  dikes  at  Oedipore, 
Aboo,  &c.,  do  not  differ  from  the  celebrated  Arabian  work  at 
Mareb  ;  and  the  method  appears  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Turks  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Method  of  To  preserve  and  husband   water  for  ordinary  purposes,   as 

build™''  ^°^  ^  well  as  to  divert  it  into  irrigating  channels,  must  always  have 
been  objects  of  vital  importance  in  the  parched  countries  of  the 
east,  where  it  is  an  ordinary  occurrence  to  construct  a  bund 
across  a  rapid  stream.  This  operation  is  performed  by  forcing 
into  the  stream  near  one  bank  a  large  mass  of  furze,  faggots  of 
brushwood,  or  numerous  bundles  of  reeds,  to  serve  as  the  sub- 
stratum ;  this  is  kept  down  by  stones,  or  other  weighty  mate- 
rials, till  it  is  so  firmly  fixed  that  another  portion  of  brushwood 
or  reeds  can  be  added  to  its  extremity  ;  and  thus  the  work 
proceeds,  piece  by  piece,  till  the  dam  is  completed  by  touching 
the  opposite  bank  ;  after  which  one  of  more  solid  materials  can 
be  constructed  if  necessary. 
Manner  of  Probably  it  was  in  this  way  that  Cyrus  diverted  the  waters 

FuXates!^     of  the  Euphrates  to  enable  him  to  enter  Babylon ;"'  and  that, 
subsequently,   Alexander  filled  the  channel  of  the  Pallacopas. 
The  method  is  still  used  by  the  people  inhabiting  the  marshes 
of  Lamliim,  where,  by  means  of  dikes,  there  are  two  principal 
derivations  from  the  main  stream,  in  addition  to  thousands  of 
smaller  channels,   which  serve  to  irrigate  this  fertile  tract  of 
country. 
The  tunnel  at       Under  otlicr  circuuistauces,  excavations  were  constructed  with 
^  ^"^"'-         great  labour,  either  to  convey  water  to  certain  places,  or  to  give 
a  direct  road  through  elevated  ground.     A  fine  specimen  of  the 
former  has  already  been  described  ,•"  and  the  Mood-cut  gives  a 
faithful  representation  of  the  central  part  near  the  bridge. 
Ancient  The  art  of  tunnelling  appears  to  have  been  early  practised 

tuunels  in  .       _^  ,^  ii-ii'i  i  i 

Europe.  in  Europe,      ihe  laborious  work  which  conveys  the  waters  oi 

Lake  Alban  under  the  mountain  of  the  same  name,  and  from 
'  Herod.,  lib.  I.,  pp.  190,  191.  '  Vol.  I.,  p.  431. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  TUNNELS  AND  ARCHES.  615 

thence  into  the  Tiber,  is  more  than  a  mile  in  length,  and  mostly 
cut  through  solid  rock. 

A  tunnel  was  constructed  by  Claudius  to  drain  Lake  Celano.  Tunnel  of 
This  work,  which  is  three  miles  long,  is  partly  cut  through 
solid  rock,  and  elsewhere  is  lined  with  masonry ;  in  construct- 
ing it  a  number  of  vertical  shafts  were  sunk  in  the  side  of  the 
mountain,  so  that  several  parties  worked  onward  at  the  same 
time. 

But  probably  the  most  ancient  Mork  of  this  kind  is  the  canal 
in  Samos,  which  is  cut  to  a  distance  of  seven  stadia  under  a 
mountain  900  feet  high,  in  order  to  supply  the  city  with  water.^ 
Herodotus  mentions  (lib.  VII.,  c.  xxii.,  xxiii.)  the  tunnel  of  Tunnels  of 
Mount  Athos;  and  Strabo  (lib.  XL,  p.  246)  the  now  well-known  auTposiilpo! 
Posilipo,  which  runs  for  three-quarters  of  a  mile  under  the  hill 
of  that  name,  near  Naples,  and  is  lighted  by  shafts  from  the  top. 

Xo  traces  have  been  found  of  the  celebrated  work  under  the 
Euphrates  at  Babylon ;  but  the  minute  description  given,  is 
almost  sufficient  of  itself  to  prove  the  fact,  since  there  is  but  one 
step  between  a  well-devised  plan  and  its  execution.  According 
to  Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  IL,  cap.  ix.),  the  subterraneous  com- 
munication between  the  two  palaces,  which  were  situated  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  river,  must  have  been  a  substantial  and 
permanently  constructed  work,  being  15  feet  wide  and  12  feet  Construction 
high,  to  the  commencement  of  the  arch.  The  upper  part  of  at  Babj  ion. 
the  communication  is  here  designated  an  arch ;  but  whether  it 
consisted  of  bricks  or  stones,  disposed  similarly  to  those  of  a 
modern  arch,  or  of  horizontal  stones  resting  at  their  opposite  ex- 
tremities on  piers,  or  of  materials  laid  in  horizontal  courses,  and 
gradually  projecting  from  each  side  wall  till  they  met  over  the 
middle  of  the  covered  space,  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain ; 
yet  it  is  difficult  to  imagine,  unless  the  construction  were  such 
as  that  first  mentioned,  how  the  building  could  support  the 
weight  of  the  soil  and  of  the  river  (here  480  feet  wide)  above 
it.  The  like  observation  may  be  made  respecting  the  substruc- 
tion of  the  hanging  gardens."      The  passage  under  the  Kasr' 

'  Herod.,  III.,  c.  60.  "■  Strabo,  lib.,  xvi.,  p.  738. 

*  Tliis  was  descended   by  the  author  in    1831,  but  when  he  returned  in 
1836  the  bricks  composing  tliis  part  of  the  ruins  were  entirely  removed. 


616  ANCIENT  MINING  OPERATIONS.  [cHAP.  XIX. 

was  formed  with  bricks  in  the  manner  of  a  modern  vault ;  and 
it  appears  to  have  been  a  work  of  great  antiquity. 
Early  use  of        Mauv  coustructions    yet  exist,   which    seem  to  favour    the 

the  arch  in  ..,.  ,  ,  „  ..^ 

Egypt.  opinion  that,  in  a  very  early  age,  arches  were  lorined  in  ii.gypt : 

for  omitting  all  consideration  of  the  galleries  in  the  great 
pyramid,  and  of  the  vaulted  ceilings  in  many  tombs,  since, 
although  they  are  hemicylindrical,  and  formed  of  wrought 
stones,  the  latter  are  not  keyed  together  scientifically,  the 
author,  in  1830,  found  several  specimens  of  regular  brick  arches 
in  the  western  part  of  the  ruins  of  Thebes ;  and  many  more 
remarkable  examples  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Hay,  in  the  valley 
Description  of  of  the  Assassccf  at  Gorua'.  Three  of  these  arches  are  of 
discovered  by  Considerable  magnitude,  and  form  the  entrances  to  tombs 
Mr.  Hay.  which  are  of  the  age  of  Psammeticus.  They  consist  of  several 
courses  of  bricks  placed  edge^vays,  which  are  made  to  take 
the  form  of  an  arch  by  inserting  between  every  two,  at  the 
upper  extremity,  a  piece  of  tile  or  stone ;  and  each  supports 
a  considerable  superstructure.  There  are  some  which  are  only 
one  brick  thick,  and  serve  as  the  linings  of  excavations.  And 
the  plaster  remaining  on  one  of  the  smaller  arches  disco- 
vered by  Mr.  Hay,  bears  the  prenomen  of  Thothmes  the  First  :^ 
this  arch  is  likewise  in  a  tomb,  and  is  constructed  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  regularly  keyed.  Sir  Gardner  AVilkinson  also  found 
one  of  the  same  kind,  having  fresco  paintings  ;  and  on  it  the 
name  of  Amenoph  the  First.  If  this  arch  be  really  of  the  age 
of  that  king,  its  construction  must  be  referred  to  a  period  as  far 
back  as  1487  years  before  Christ;  and  it  might  then  be  con- 
cluded that  the  first  employment  of  the  arch  in  buildings  be- 
longs to  a  still  earlier  period,  either  Assyrian  or  Babylonian.^ 
Mining  In  addition  to  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  existing  specimens 

theandents.  of  Ordinary  mining  operations,  which  were  performed  in  ancient 
times,  as  caves,  cisterns,  open  passages,  and  tunnels,  the  short 
notice  given  by  Moses  of  the  artificer  Tubal-Cain,  shows  that 
the  use  of  metals  was  almost  coeval  with  the  human  race. 
Silver  and  gold  appear  to  have  been  abundant  in  the  time  of 

»  MS.  note  from  Mr.  Bonomi.  -  Ibid. 

All  arcli  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  at  Kimrud  by  Dr.  Layard  in 
January,  lb 50. 


CHAl'.  XIX.]  ANCIENT  MOUNDS  AND  EXCAVATIONS.  617 

Abraham  and  that  of  his  grandson,  and  mining  and  smelting 
were  practised  in  the  time  of  Job.^  The  Alybean  mines  are 
mentioned  by  Homer,"  and  those  of  the  Chalybes  or  Chaldeans 
by  Xenophon.^  The  mountain  of  Thasos  was  completely  bur- 
rowed by  the  Phoenicians  in  search  of  metals ;''  and  a  detailed 
account  is  given,  by  Agatharchides,  of  the  manner  of  carrying 
on  such  operations  in  Egypt,  where  of  late  the  remains  of  the 
works,  and  even  the  tools  have  been  found.  It  appears  that  the 
rocks  being  heated  with  burning  wood,  as  is  practised  to  this 
day  in  China,*  were  cleft  with  iron  implements,  in  the  direction  ^°^^^ 

,  ,      .  removed  by 

of  the  veins  of  gold.  The  fragments  were  first  broken  in  iron  fire  in  Egypt 
mortars,  then  reduced  to  powder  by  grinding  stones  ;  the  pow- 
der was  then  rubbed  on  a  sloping  board  with  some  water,  after 
which  the  lighter  particles  were  removed  with  sponges,  and  the 
heavier  put  into  jars,  with  the  addition  of  some  lead,  tin,  salt, 
and  barley  bran  ;  the  jars  being  put  in  a  furnace,  in  five  davs 
those  materials  were  destroyed,  and  the  pure  gold  only  Avas 
left.« 

The  various  ruins  which  have  already  been  noticed,  are  chiefly  Ancient 
of  three  kinds.     The  most  ancient  may  be  readily  distinguished  °^*^"" 
by  numerous  masses  or  heaps,  of  which  a  high  mound,  among, 
or  near  them,  usually  forms  the   most   striking  object.     The 
second  description  consists  of  ruins  and  extensive  excavations, 
which  usually  belong  to  two  different  periods ;  whilst  the  third 
comprehends  the  cave  architecture  in  an  advanced  state,  toge- 
ther with  great  buildings  serving  as  temples,  palaces,  and  the 
like.     Of  the  first  kind,  Siis,  and  the  primeval  cities  of  Accad, 
Babel,   Erech,   &c.,   are   specimens.      Of  the  second  are  the 
Phoenician  ruins  of  Hagiar  Shera  in  Malta  ;  consisting  of  some  Phoen 
Cyclopian  walls,  with  a  suite  of  small  apartments,  which  con- S'alta 
tain  several  mutilated  figures :  such  also  are  the  excavations 
formed  before  the   time  of  Alexander,  at  Fassa,   Darabgerd, 

'  Chap.  XLIL,  V.  11.  *  Iliad,  lib.  II.,  v.  363. 

^  Cyr.  Exped.,lib.  V.,  p.  282.  *  Herod.,  lib.  VI.,  cap.  .\lvi.,  xlvii. 

*  A  layer  of  wood  about  fifteen  inches  deep  is  placed  on  the  rock,  and, 
being  covered  with  wet  clay,  is  set  on  fire.  The  wood,  after  burning  for  about 
thirty-six  hours,  splits  and  cracks  the  rock,  so  completely  that  a  depth  of 
about  twelve  inciies  is  easily  removed. 

'  Died.  Sic,  lib.  III.,  cap.  vi. 


excavations. 


618 


ANCIENT  SITES  WITH  INSCRIPTIONS.  [CHAP.  XIX. 


Sculptures, 
&c ,  in 
Bisutuu. 


Remains  at 
Shapur. 


Ruins  of  the 
Mesjid-i-Ma- 
dcri  Suleimuu. 


Fakrakah/  and  those  at  lyaraftu  and  Bisutiin,^  already  men- 
tioned. These  last  are  formed  in  the  face  of  some  elevated 
and  scarped  rocks  behind  Kirmanshah,  and  contain  numerous 
figures  finely  executed  in  relief;  with  12  columns  on  which 
cuneiform  letters  are  engraven.  Major  Kawlinson  has  since 
ascertained  that  they  relate  to  Persian  history,  and  chiefly  that 
of  Darius,  who  is  here  represented  as  receiving  Atin  the  usurp- 
ing monarch  of  Susa,  Chitretekhm,  the  king  of  the  revolted 
Sogartii,  and  other  captives,  after  the  death  of  Berjeye,  the 
Smerdis  of  Herodotus. 

These,  as  well  as  the  works  at  Nakshi  Rustam,  Nakshi 
Regib,  a  part  of  Takhti-Suleiman,  Taki-Bostan,  and  Shapur, 
are  almost  exclusively  Sasanian.  The  ruins  at  the  latter  place 
contain  a  number  of  colossal  figures  disposed  in  different  groups, 
one  of  which  is  supposed  to  represent  several  foreign  ambas- 
sadors supplicating  Shapiir  to  release  the  captive  Emperor 
Valerian. 

Of  the  third  class  of  ruined  sites,  which,  like  those  in  Egypt, 
have  excavations  and  exterior  structures,  with  the  addition  of 
ancient  inscriptions,  two  specimens  may  here  be  noticed. 

On  an  eminence  in  the  plain  of  Murgh'-ab,  about  fifty  miles 
north-east  of  Persepolis,  numerous  remains  mark  the  site  of  a 
very  extensive  city;  on  which  it  is  evident  that  much  skill  and 
art  had  been  bestowed,  in  order  to  render  it  worthy  of  being 
the  seat  of  empire.  The  most  remarkable  portion  of  these 
ruins,  the  Mesjid-i-Maderi-SuleTman  (the  mother  of  Solomon), 
has  a  grand  pedestal,  composed  of  immense  blocks  of  white 
marble,  on  a  base  43  feet  long  and  39  feet  broad,  and  rising 
in  six  tiers  or  gigantic  steps  to  the  platform  of  the  monument, 
which  is  at  the  height  of  16  feet  9  inches  from  the  ground. 
The  walls  of  the  sarcophagus  itself  consist  of  four  layers  of 
large  stones ;  and  the  exterior  dimensions  of  the  structure  are 
20  feet  5  inches  long  by  17  feet  2  inches  wide,  and  11  feet 
high  to  the  cornice ;  it  is  covered  with  a  solid  roof,  whose 
exterior  is  arched.  The  entrance  is  in  the  north-western 
end ;  and  above  it  are  the  marks  of  a  tablet.     The  chamber  is 

'  On  the  borders  of  Azerbaijan. 

*  Some  of  the  ruined  bnildines  are  Sasanian. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  PERSEPOLIS.  619 

10  feet  10  inches  long,  by  6  feet  10^  inches  wide,  and  6  feet 
10^  inches  high :  it  has  a  flat  roof,  and  a  stone  floor,  each 
composed  of  two  great  slabs  of  marble  joined  in  the  middle. 
On  the  wall  facing  the  south-west,  has  been  cut  in  later  times 
an  ornamental  niche,  with  an  Arabic  inscription.^  The  pedestals 
of  24  columns  placed  around  at  14  feet  apart,  with  scattered 
fragments  of  their  shafts,  mark  an  area  of  400  square  feet ; 
which  at  one  time  enclosed,  what  is  now  ascertained  to  have 
been,  the  tomb  of  Cyrus.-  The  plain  of  Murgh'-ab  is  moreover 
strewed  with  ruins,  some  of  which  have  arrow-headed  inscrip- 
tions ;  but,  as  a  whole,  these  remains  are  far  inferior  to  those 
which  constitute  the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 

This  city  having  beeu  constructed  of  more  durable  materials  Kuins  of 
thau  Ctesiphon,  Seleucia,  and  the  other  Sasanian  cities,  and  ^'"''^P"'®* 
even  the  more  ancient  cities  of  Babylon^  and  Nineveh,  its 
remains  yet  exist  in  a  state  to  command  the  highest  admiration : 
while  mounds  of  earth  alone  mark  the  sites  of  Susa  and  other 
cities  of  Assyria,  the  Takhti  Jemshid  (throne  of  Jemshid,  or 
forty  pillars)  at  Persepolis,  may  be  classed  with  the  splendid 
buildings  at  Palmyra,  Ba'albek,  Jerash,  and  Amman;  nor  are 
its  excavations  inferior  to  those  of  Petra  in  Arabia,  or  of  the 
like  works  in  Egypt  and  India. 

In  glancing  over  these  elaborate  specimens  of  early  art  at 
Persepolis,  the  first  place  must  be  given  to  the  excavations.  A  Exca\aiious  in 
spacious  niche,  sculptured  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  130  feet  high 
and  72  wide,  forms  the  fa9ade  of  the  principal  tomb ;  which  is 
in  two  portions,  both  highly  finished.  The  upper  compartment 
represents  a  kind  of  chest,  having  numerous  figures  sculptured 
on  it ;  also  a  fire  altar,  with  a  figure  standing  in  the  act  of 
adoration,  and  an  attendant  spirit  hovering  above.  A  false 
door  forms  part  of  the  sculpture  of  the  second  division,  and 
through  its  lower  part  a  passage  has  been  broken  into  the  tomb 
itself.'*     The  latter  is  21  feet  long,  by  1 1  feet  broad,  and  con- 

'■  Rich's  Journey  to  Persepolis,  pp.  242,  243. 

*  See  above,  p.  172,  and  Appendix  (A). 
^  See  Ruins  of  Babylon,  plate  Ixi. 

*  The  regular  entrance  to  this  and  the  other  tomb  is  supposed  by  Ciiardin 
to  have  been  by  a  subterranean  passage,  but  as  yet,  this  has  not  been 
discovered. 


620        THE  TERRACE,  PORTALS,   ETC.,  OF  PERSEPOLIS.      [cHAP.  XIX. 

tains  two  sarcophagi  cut  out  of  the  rock.     The  second  tomb  is 
a    little    way    eastward    of    the   first,    and    the    niche    at    the 
entrance  contains  figures  in  relief:   it   is  nearly   of  the  same 
design  as  the  first,  but  is  more  ruinous,   and  probably  more 
ancient. 
The  terrace         The  othcr  objects  of  antiquity  are  in  front  of  the  tombs;  and 
pt^sepoiis!  °^  ^  general  idea  of  these  remains  may  be  conveyed  to  the  reader 
by  observing,  that  they  occupy  different  parts  of  a  grand  terrace, 
which  forms  a  very  irregular  parallelogram  at  the  foot  of  a 
stupendous  range  of  rocks.      On  the  eastern  side,  the  terrace  is 
nearly  1,600  feet  long,  and  three  of  the  sides  are  surrounded 
by  massive  walls,  having  in  each  a  number  of  breaks  or  inden- 
tures forming  right  angles  ;  but  the  direct  distances  from  side 
to  side  are  respectively  1,540  feet  for  the  western  face,  893  feet 
for  the  northern  ;  and  for  the  southern  face,  703  feet.^ 
Double  flight       This  terracc  is  approached  near  the  northern  extremity  of 
of  steps,  -^g  western  side,  by  means  of  two  double  flights  of  steps,  which 

are  separated  by  a  landing-place  37  feet  long  by  24  feet  wide ; 
and  so  gradual  is  the  ascent,  that  it  is  suited  for  horsemen.  It 
is  constructed  with  such  ponderous  blocks  of  marble,  that  each 
piece  contains  several  steps,  17  feet  long  by  18  inches  broad, 
and  3  inches  deep  ;  and  the  pieces  are  so  neatly  joined,  that 
the  whole  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock.  A  little  way  from  the  top  of  this  grand  approach, 
the  road  leads  through  two  gigantic  portals ;  and  there  are  yet 
standing  two  of  the  four  great  columns,  which  once  occupied 
the  space  between  the  two  entrances  ;  their  heights  are  39  feet 
and  28  feet  respectively.  The  front  and  interior  sides  of  the 
Two-'scingcd  first  portal  are  supported  by  two  huge  unicorns,  14^  feet  high; 
and  those  of  the  second,  by  two  winged  animals,  each  having 
the  head  of  a  man,  which  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  cap :  the 
unicorns  are  in  front  of  the  grand  staircase,  and  the  other 
animals  are  towards  the  mountains. 
Various  re-  The  ruiiis  occupy  different  parts  of  the  terrace  southward  of 

terrace'waiis,  the  grand  ascent,  and  form  separate  inclosures,  each  with  three 
*^  or  four  apartments  on  different  levels.     Four  of  these  portions 

'  See  Plate  XLVIII.     These  dimensions  were  taken  by  the  late  Colonel 
D'Arcy,  R.A.,  K.L.S. 


animals  at  the 
entrance 


m 


CHAP.  XIX.]  SCULPTURE.  621 

are  of  a  square  form,  and  nearly  of  the  same  kind  of  arclii-  Portals  and 
tecture ;  the  numerous  doorways  and  window-frames  are  of  ^^*^**  '*  ^' 
striking  dimensions,  and  beautiful  proportions,  and  many  of 
them  still  retain  their  places.  The  portals  are  formed  of  huge 
blocks  of  dark  polished  marble,  having  niches  with  bas-reliefs 
of  superior  workmanship  ;  and  they  are  also  remarkable  for 
that  kind  of  bold  cornice,  which  so  generally  terminates  the 
portals  of  the  Egyptian  temples.  In  addition  to  the  archi- 
tectural ornaments  around  the  inclosures,  and  the  vestiges  of 
columns  scattered  about  the  interior,  the  supporting  walls  con- 
tain numerous  groups  of  figures  representing  combats  between 
men  and  animals  of  imaginary  forms,  all  sculptured  with  great 
care. 

One  compartment  represents  a  monarch,  or  some  other  dis- 
tinguished person,  followed  by  two  attendants,  clad  like  himself 
in  long  robes  ;  one  of  them  carries  a  fly-flap,  and  the  other  holds 
an  umbrella  above  the  head  of  the  chief.     In  another  compart- 
ment, there  is  a  figure  seated  upon  a  high  chair,  resembling 
one  of  those  specimens  of  Gothic  carved  work,  which  are  occa-  Figures,  &c., 
sionally  to  be  seen  in  our  time.     In  the   fifth   and   principal  process^ion! 
portion  of  the  ruins  are  the  remains  of  the  grand  colonnade  of 
the  hall  of  reception  or  temple ;  the  platform  of  which  extends 
162  feet  southward  of  the  portals,  and  communicates  with  the 
lower  portion  of  the  grand  terrace  by  means  of  a  double  stair- 
case of  finished  workmanship.    This,  like  the  principal  approach, 
has  two  pairs  of  flights ;   and   its  sides,  as  well  as  the  adjoining 
walls,  are  thickly  covered   with  figures  in  relief,   disposed  in 
different  compartments  and  groups.     The  principal  scene  repre- 
sents a  grand  procession,  composed   of  the  royal  guards  and 
attendants,  all  clad  in  the  ancient  Persian  costume,  armed  with 
bows,  quivers,  spears,  shields,  &c.,  and  having  a  mass  of  hair 
projecting    behind    the    head    like   a  wig.     Other    individuals 
wearing  short  dresses,  and  apparently  captives  of  various  nations, 
compose  the  rest  of  the  train  ;  these  follow  in  succession,  leading 
chariots,  horses,  oxen,  and  camels,  and  bearing  gifts  and  offer- 
ings.    In  a  separate  compartment  is  represented  a  fight  between 
a  lion  and  another  animal  like  a  unicorn,  with  an  arrow-headed  Combat  of 
inscription  at  the  side  of  the  figures.  ammais. 


622 


THE  GREAT  HALL  OR  TEMPLE. 


[chap. 


XIX. 


Eemains  of 
columns. 


Architecture 
of  the  palace 
or  temple. 


Hall  of 
reception  at 
Persepolis. 


A  little  way  from  the  edge  of  the  terrace,  may  be  traced  the 
remains  of  four  divisions  of  colunms,  consisting  of  a  central 
group  flanked  by  a  lower  one  on  each  side,  with  a  fourth  at 
right  angles  to  the  others.  Thirteen  of  these  noble  columns 
are  standing,^  and  the  positions  once  occupied  by  fifty-nine 
others  may  still  be  traced,  as  well  as  portions  of  their  remains : 
within  the  enclosure  there  are  likewise,  at  intervals,  four  huge 
blocks  of  stone,  which  were  either  pedestals  for  figures  or 
portions  of  portals."  Some  remains  of  Kanats,  partly  of 
masonry,  and  partly  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  extend  from  the 
hills  to  this  part  of  the  ruins.  The  great  columns  are  of  an 
order  of  architecture  almost  peculiar  to  this  place,  and  of  two 
sizes.  The  cup  and  leaves  of  a  pendant  lotus  form  the  pedestal. 
The  shaft  is  finely  fluted  in  fifty-two  divisions,  and  is  16  feet  in 
circumference  below  ;  but,  at  about  two-thirds  of  its  height,  it 
has  a  swell,  and  it  terminates  with  a  very  peculiar  kind  of 
capital,  which  seems  to  represent  the  hinder  parts  of  two  animals, 
resembling  bulls  of  different  sizes,  so  joined  together  as  to  leave 
between  them  a  hollow,  suited  for  the  reception  of  one  extremity 
of  a  beam  or  stone  to  support  the  roof  The  whole  is  composed 
of  white  marble  blocks,  beautifully  fitted,  and  connected  by  an 
iron  spindle  running  up  the  centre  ;  the  greater  columns  are 
86  feet  in  height,  and  the  lesser  about  60  feet,  both  kinds 
having  the  same  relative  proportions.  The  form  of  the  capitals, 
together  with  the  indications  that  they  were  used  as  supports, 
show  that  the  edifice  had  at  one  time  a  roof:  in  such  a  climate 
this  must  have  been  indispensable,  whether  the  structure  were  a 
palace  or  a  temple:  a  portion  at  each  side  was  lower  than  the 
centre,  and  this  style  of  building  is  still  followed  in  the  halls  of 
reception  at  Ispahan.  These  interesting  remains  betoken  a  state 
of  art  worthy  of  the  best  days  of  Greece  or  Rome ;  whilst  the 
cuneiform  writing  and  the  hieroglyphic  symbols  which  adorn 
the  walls,  indicate  an  antiquity  much  more  remote.  The 
solitary  grandeur  of  these  edifices  have  long  interested  travellers ; 
and  the  inscriptions  upon  them  have  unsuccessfully  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  learned  during  the  two  last  centuries.    The 

'  Plate  XL VI II. 

*  Niebuhr,  tome  II.,  p.  110. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  FLOATING  AND  STONE  BRIDGES-  623 

most  probable  conjecture  is,  that  the  excavations  formed  part  of 
a  temple  to  Mithras,  or  Ormazd ;  and  that  the  exterior  build- 
ings were  subsequently  added  as  a  hall  of  reception,  by  Jemshid, 
or  by  the  first  Darius.^ 

Bridges,  such  as  were  formed  by  Darius  over  the  Bosphorus,  Bridges  at 
and  Xerxes  across  the  Hellespont,  are  still  constructed  at  Hiiiah,'&c. 
Baghdad  and  Hillah  by  means  of  a  line  of  country  boats,  firmly 
moored  from  side  to  side  of  the  river,  with  their  bows  towards 
the  current;  and  at  such  distances  apart,  as  will  permit  the 
intervals  to  be  covered  with  a  platform  of  sufficient  strength  to 
bear  a  number  of  laden  camels.  In  order  to  facilitate  the 
passage  of  these  animals  at  all  times,  a  moveable  platform 
extends  from  each  bank  to  the  bridge  :  this  platform,  by  moving 
up  and  down  with  the  bridge,  is  suited  for  any  degree  of  eleva- 
tion or  depression  to  which  the  stream  may  be  subject  throughout 
the  year. 

The  bridges  are  displaced  and  restored  with  great  facility.  Manner  of 
In  case  of  a  sudden  flood,  for  example,  or  when  necessary  for  Jepiacin|  the 
the  passage  of  a  large  boat,  or  from  any  other  cause,  they  may  ^"'^g^- 
be  loosened  at  either  extremity,  or  separated  in  the  middle,  and 
allowed  to  swing  round  with  the  stream,  so  as  to  lie  along  one 
bank,  or  both.     In  order  to  restore   a  bridge  which  has  thus 
been  removed  in  an  entire  body,  it  is  drawn  up  along  the  bank, 
against  the  current,   till  the  lower  extremity  is  brought  up  to 
the  place  where  the  head  was  before,  and  the  head  being  pushed 
out,  the  bridge  is,  by  the  force  of  the  current,  made  to  swing 
across  the  river.     Judging  from  the  jetties,  and  other  remains, 
at  Zelebi,  Thapsacus,  &c.,  such  must  have  been  the  method  of 
forming  bridges  at  those  places  in  ancient  times. 

In  Persia,  the  bridges  on  piers  are  particularly  light  and  Nature  of  the 
elegant;  each  arch,  instead  of  being  formed  with  a  single  Persfr ° 
course  of  stones,  frequently  consists  of  two  light  courses,  which 
touch  one  another,  and  a  cylindrical  vault  or  tunnel  passes 
quite  through  each  of  the  hances,  between  the  curve  and  the 
pier.  Some  bridges  have  at  the  top  a  covered  way  on  each 
side  for  passengers,  whilst  in  others  there  is  one  in  the  body  of 
the  structure ;  in  this  case  the  top,  which  is  paved,  and  level 

'  Appendix  (C). 


624  ARCHES,   HOUSES,  ETC.  [CHAP.  XIX. 

throughout  the  whole  extent,  is  free  for  the  use    of  camels, 
horses,  kc.     In  the  present  day  the  bridges  ?re  generally  of 
brick,  but  the  older  structures  are  frequently  of  stone. 
Cupolas  and         The   karvanscrais,^   baths,^  and  mosques,  with  the  cupolas 
■without '^^       and  graceful  arches  of  the  Persians,  have  been  already  noticed.^ 
centring.         g^  light  are  the  materials  w'ith  which  the  two   last  are  con- 
structed, and  so  good  is  the  cement  (which  is  chiefly  made  of 
gypsum),    that  these  works  are  formed  without  any  kind    of 
centring.     All   that   is  necessary  being,   that  the   bricklayer's 
attendant  should  hold  the  portion  of  the  work  already  executed 
for  a  few  minutes,  till  the  bricks  or  tiles  have  taken  the  proper 
curve ;  more  materials  are  then  gradually  added,  till  the  arch 
or  cupola  is  keyed.     Bricks,  one  inch  and  a  half  thick,  placed 
edge  to  edge,  serve  for  the  cupola,  and  some  of  larger  dimen- 
sions, often  sun-dried,  for  the  arch  :  not  only  an  arch  over  a 
doorway  is  thus  formed ;  a  whole  room,  or  even  a  small  house, 
is  often  covered,  from  one  gable  to  the  opposite,  with  a  succes- 
sion of  such  arches,   each  one  brick  thick ;    the  form  of  the 
curve  being  first  traced  on  each  gable. 
Arches  con-         On  other  occasions,  the  two  sides  of  a  Saracenic  arch  are 
^^^'■^j^^^'^j®^^'^^  constructed  on  the  ground,  from  whence  they  are  then  raised 
sections.         up  to  their  places  and  keyed.     Of  late  years  something  of  this 
kind  has  been  practised  in  England ;  sections  of  a  cylindrical 
drain,  for  example,  being  separately  formed  and  cemented,  and 
then  put  together. 
Dwellings  of        Great  similarity  prevails  among  the  habitations  in  the  east, 
people'^^'°      which,   whether  in   town  or    country,    generally   consist   of  a 
certain  number  of  apartments  built  round  a  court.    In  the  case 
of  the  richer  people,  these  apartments  are  numerous,  and  above 
them  are  corridors:  fountains  play  in  the  courts,  and  a  raised 
stage  or  diwan  is  formed  in  the  reception-rooms.     The  apart- 
ments which  are  excavated  in  masses  of  rock,  nearly  resemble 
the  buildings  raised  on  the  ground.* 

The  ordinary  cottages  of  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  &c.,  have 
already  been  described.^  The  houses  in  Mesopotamia  and  the 
southern  provinces  of  Persia  have  under-ground  arched  apart- 

'  Vol.  I.,  pp.  235,  369.  *  Ibid.,  370. 

=*  Ibid.,  235.  •*  Ibid.,  365,  366.  '  Ibid.,  241,  365,  367. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  CEMENTS  OF  i'raN  AND  ARABIA.  6*25 

ments,  called  serdaubs.  From  these,  the  light  is  almost  Summer  apart- 
excluded,  but  a  current  of  fresh  air  is  admitted  to  the  different  ground, 
apartments  by  means  of  a  wind-tower  (badgir),  which  is  a 
square  turret,  having  vertical  apertures  on  the  sides,  and  cross 
divisions  in  the  interior.  The  temperature  in  the  serdaub 
during  the  day  in  the  hot  season  is  from  8°  to  11°  less  than  in 
the  ordinary  apartments,  and  therefore  the  inmates  of  the 
house  then  occupy  it ;  the  roof  is  used  as  a  sleeping  place  by 
night. 

The  common  clay  used  to  cement  sun-dried  bricks  in   the  Use  of  clay- 
large  structures  of  Babylonia,  as  well  as  the  better  kind,  which  cements. 
is   employed  in  the    foundations    of  those   works,   have   been 
noticed,  and  it  is  intended  now  to  describe  the  nature  of  some 
other  cements  which  are  used  in  that  territory,  and  in  different 
parts  of  western  Asia. 

The  remains  of  Babylon  attest  the  fact  mentioned  by 
Herodotus,'  that  some  parts  of  the  walls  of  that  city  were 
cemented  with  bitumen ;  and  the  same  material  is  still  used  in 
this  part  of  the  world."  It  is  boiled  with  a  certain  proportion  Use  of  bim- 
of  oil,^  and  is  impenetrable  by  water.  It  is  used  to  cover  cement, 
water-courses,  tanks,  the  floors  of  bath-rooms,  and,  with  the 
addition  of  a  proportion  of  sand  or  earth,  it  serves  to  fonn  the 
terraced  roofs  of  houses:  its  exceeding  durability  is  manifest 
from  the  specimens  at  Babylon  and  elsewhere. 

In  the  fountains  at  Kerkiik,  Apcheron,  and  other  places,  Uses  to  which 
this  mineral  is  found  mixed  with  different  substances,  particu-  applied!  '^ 
larly  salt  and  oil  of  naphtha ;  and  a  bucket,  made  of  skin,  being 
shaken  beneath  the  surface,  these  three  ingredients  are  drawn  up 
together  by  means  of  a  swipe.  The  mixture  is  thrown  into  a 
reservoir,  and  afterwards  poured  into  a  shallow  receptacle,  when 
the  bitumen  and  salt  crystallize,  and  the  oil,  being  collected,  is 
put  into  jars.  The  oil  is  generally  employed  in  Persia  to  give 
light :  rags  well  saturated  with  it  being  burned  in  an  iron  frame, 
a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  thoroughly  illuminate  the  court  of 
a  khan  or  other  enclosure.     Occasionally,  as  at  Apcheron,  M'hite 

'  Lib.  I.,  cap.  clxxix.  ^  Rich's  Babylon  and  Perscpolis,  p,  100. 

'  Where  exposed  to  water,  and  in  the  moist  places  in  the  ditch,  the  walls 
of  Baghdiid  are  built  with  bitumen. 

VOL.  II.  2  S 


626  CHUNAM  OF  BABYLONIA  AND  INDIA.  [cHAP.  XIX. 

and  black  naphtha  are  found  at  the  same  source ;  the  former  is 
vakiable  as  a  varnish  and  in  mixing  paints,  also  for  the  cure  of 
bruises  and  sprains  in  men  and  animals,  and  is  taken  internally 
by  the  Russians  as  a  cordial,  or  as  a  cure  for  the  stone  and 
other  diseases. 
Mortar  used  at      Amidst  the  ruins   of  the  Kasr,   the  hanging  gardens,   and 
Sprepa'ra°^  othcr  placcs  in  Babylon,  there  is  another,  and  a  more  tenacious 
tion.  cement,  which  so  firmly  unites  the  kiln-burnt  bricks,  that  it  is 

almost  impossible  to  separate  them  without  breaking  the  bricks. 
The  substance  composing  the   mortar,   generally  found  in  the 
most  ancient  remains  which  are  built    of   burnt  bricks,   is  a 
calcareous  earth,  called  jus  by  the  Arabs,  and  karej  by  the 
Turks  •,^  it  is  found  in  the  desert  westward  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  is  even  now  the  common  cement  of  the  country.     Probably 
owing  to   the  large  proportion  of  mineral  particles  which  it 
contains,  it  becomes  exceedingly  hard  as  well  as  durable ;  and 
as   it  possesses  in  a  peculiar  degree  the  valuable  property  of 
instantly  uniting,  it  greatly  facilitates  the  construction  of  arches 
and  domes.     The  inhabitants  of  Minorca  are  indebted  to  the 
Cement  of  the  Arabs  for  the  use  of  a  similar  cement,  called  guish,"  which  sets 
gu^h!^^  ^      so  quickly,  that  groined  arches  of  cut  stone  are  formed  by  it 
without  centring ;  poles  being  used  to  support  the  work  till  the 
cement  is  quite  hard.^ 
Chunam  of         On  the  cxposcd  sides  of  the  bricks  once  forming  the  exterior 
?nff "  *°^    of  the  Kasr  and  the  remains  of  the  hanging  gardens,  the  third 
and  finest  description  of  cement  is  found ;  it  covers  them  like  a 
thin  coating  of  modern  stucco,    and  it   is   now  as  hard  and 
perfect  as  it  was  the  day  it  was  put  on :  borak  appears  to  have 
formed  the  substance  of  this  kind  of  plaster.     In  its  natural 
state  it  is  found  in  large  craggy  lumps  resembling  gypsum,  of 
an  earthy  appearance  externally ;  but,  being  burnt,  it  forms  an 
excellent  stucco  or  whitewash." 

The  beautiful  stucco  still  used  in  Babylonia  and  Persia  differs 

'  Rich's  Babylon  and  Persepolis,  p.  102. 

*  A   greyisli    gypsuni,  partly   transparent,  is  ground,  and    water  added, 
■when  it  lernients ;  and  in  tliis  state  it  is  thinly  spread  between  the  stones. 

*  IMS.  note  by  Mr.  Colin  Mackenzie. 

*  Ricli's  Babylon  and  Persepolis,  p.  102. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  CEMENTS  OF  PERSIA  AND  AFRICA.  627 

but  little  from  the  well-known  chunam  of  India,  the  use  of  irigredienta 
which  was  probably  carried  thither  at  an  early  period  from  the  preparing 
former  regions.  This  is  prepared  by  mixing  20  lbs.  of  molasses  ^  "'^^™' 
with  one  peck  of  gramm,  in  the  state  of  meal  or  coarse  powder, 
and  a  similar  quantity  of  myrabolans  (Indian  plums),  boiled 
separately  to  a  jelly  ;  slaked  lime  and  fine  pit-sand,  well  com- 
bined together,  and  allowed  to  stand  three  days,  are  then  added 
to  the  mixture,  in  such  quantities  that  the  whole  may  form  a 
very  liquid  cement.  This,  when  applied  in  thin  layers  between, 
or  outside  of,  the  bricks,  is  admirably  suited  for  tanks,  reser- 
voirs,^ &c.  When  required  for  stucco,  the  white  of  four  or  five 
eggs,  4  ozs.  of  butter,  or  sessamum  oil,  and  a  pint  of  butter- 
milk, are  to  be  mixed  with  every  half  bushel  of  cement  at  the 
very  moment  when  it  is  to  be  applied.  But  the  tanks,  cisterns, 
baths,  and  the  lower  parts  of  walls  in  Babylonia,  are  coated 
with  cement  formed  of  a  calcareous  earth  called  noora,"  mixed  Cement  called 

•  ,1         1  noora. 

With  ashes. 

The  cement  used  by  the  Persians  to  line  water-tanks  and 
cisterns,  or  to  coat  water-ways,  is  no  less  durable.     The  pro- 
portions are,  one  part  of  red  earth,  which  is  highly  charged  with 
mineral  particles  or  poor  ore,  two  of  well-slaked  lime,  and  one 
of  fine  sand :  these  being  well  worked  up,  and  made  into  a  heap,  Cement  used 
hardens  in  the  space  of  about  eight  hours,  after  which  it  is  cut  Persians  to 
down  and  worked  up  again  with  water,  morning  and  evening,  ^'°^  ^"^®'  ^*^' 
for  seven  days,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.     When  used  as  a  lining, 
it  must  be  shaded  and  carefully  watched  for  forty-eight  hours 
to  detect  and  fill  up  any  cracks  that  may  appear  in  the  work.^ 

According  to  Tabiri,  the  cement  used  by  Shapur  in  construct- 
ing the  Shadarwan  at  Shuster,  was  a  mixture  of  sheep's  milk, 
with  lime  and  white  plaster  (nawreh  and  gatch). 

The  Moors  have  another  mixture  called  jabbah,  which  is  Cement  of  the 
composed  of  two  parts  of  ashes,  three  of  clay,  and  one  of  sand  jabbah!^  ^ 
or  pounded  bricks.     These  being  mixed  together  with  a  pro- 
portion of  oil,  and  applied  either  as  a  coating  or  a  cement,  will 
resist  the  weather  better  than  marble  itself,  as  we  find  exempli- 

'  This  cement  has  been  used  by  the' Author  with  perfect  success  for  a  tank. 

*  Rich's  Babylonia  and  Persepolis,  p.  102. 

'  Note  by  the  late  Colonel  D'Arcy,  K.L.S. 

2  s  2 


628 


HIMYARITIC  INSCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  [cHAP.  XIX. 


Antiquity  of 

■written 

characters. 


Assyrian 
"writing  on 
ancient 
cylinders,  ' 


probably 
astronomical. 


Other  ancient 
cliaracters. 


fied  in  the  tanks  constructed  by  the  Moors  under  the  castle  of 
Gibraltar,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Spain,  during  their  domi- 
nion over  that  kingdom. 

That  the  use  of  some  kind  of  written  character  is  of  the 
highest  antiquity,  may  be  inferred  from  the  sculptured  columns 
and  pillars  of  stone  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Osiris,  Bacchus, 
Sesostris,  and  Hercules,  to  commemorate  their  respective  ex- 
peditions ;  and  likewise  from  the  history  and  theology  of  the 
first  ages,  which  are  said  to  have  been  written  by  Thoth,  or 
Hermes,  on  tables  and  pillars.  Some  of  the  inscriptions  may 
have  been  both  hieroglyphical,  and  in  letters,  like  the  bilingual 
inscription  on  the  black  stone  at  Siis,  and  the  mutilated  inscrip- 
tion on  a  marble  block  at  the  same  place.  But  more  ancient 
relics  than  these  are  found  in  the  same  region,  and  also,  though 
less  frequently,  in  Phoenicia  and  Egypt.  These  are  cylindrical 
masses  of  haematite,  cornelian,  opal,  jasper,  agate,  and  other 
precious  stones.  Their  size  varies  from  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  from  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  length ;  they  are  bored 
through  the  axis  longitudinally,  and  much  of  the  surface  is 
covered  with  arrow-headed  characters,  apparently  in  connexion 
with  the  mythological  and  astronomical,  or  rather  astrological 
figures,  which  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  space.  One  of  these 
relics  appears  to  have  been  a  sacerdotal  signet  which  had  been 
employed  to  impress  and  sanctify  the  victims  that  were  offered 
to  Mazal-tob,  literally  King  of  Stars,  who,  according  to  the 
Chaldeans,  once  in  nearly  144  years,  was  the  sovereign  of  the 
winter  solstice.  The  figure  is  the  Taurine  Jupiter,  and  above 
it  is  engraved  the  crescent  moon,  the  Chaldean  sign  of  Feasts, 
which  is  here  in  the  situla  of  Aquarius ;  in  which  Jupiter  is 
posited  once  in  every  twelve  of  his  revolutions  (about  144  years), 
and  where  he  remains  about  a  month.  But  since  the  time 
when  the  colure  of  the  winter  solstice  was  in  tlie  constellation 
Aquarius,  it  has  retroceded  through  somcNvhat  more  than  two 
asterisms ;  the  sign  was  therefore  engraven  at  least  forty-two 
centuries  ago.' 

Among  the  specimens  of  ancient  characters  belonging  to  Iran 
'  Note  by  IMr.  Landseer,  author  of  the  Sabean  Researches,  »&c. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  BRICK  FIRMANS  629 

and  Arabia,  are  the  unknown  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  in  the 
Wadis  El  Naszeb,  Aleyat,  and  Mokatteb.'     Iliniyaritic  speci- The  earliest 
mens  of  the  latter,  probably  the  oldest  extant,  have  lately  been  probably  the 
found  on  the  rocks  of  Kiimurhan,  near  Malatiyah  ;^  and  others  y'™y'^"^'<=- 
had  been  previously  discovered  in  Arabia  by  Seetzen,  Reinaud, 
Wellsted,    and    Pritchard.      The    Chaldee,    the    Syriac,     the 
Hebrew,  and  the  Phoenician  characters  have  some  resemblance 
in  form  to  these ;  and  when  the  specimens  shall  be  fully  deci- 
phered, it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  languages,  not  only 
of  those  nations,  but  also  that  of  the  people  using  the  cuneiform 
character,  are  derivatives  from  this  earlier  stock. 

Numerous  specimens  of  the  cuneiform  character,  which  may  Probable 

1         1         *  •  1  r>  -t-^^'         1  n  ^     •         i  •  " n  remains  of 

be  the  Assyrian  character  oi  rliny,    are  lound  in  the  ruins  oi  written 
Susa,  Persepolis,  Hamadan,  and  many  other  places,  where  they   '^*°'^^' 
are  engraven  on  stone  ;   but  a  richer  field  is  offered  on  the 
stamped  bricks  found  amidst  different  ruins,  and  particularly 
those  at  Babylon,  where  they  are  much  more  numerous  than 
elsewhere.      Exclusive  of  the  space  left  as  a  margin,  and  the 
figures  of  lions  and  other  animals  which  are  occasionally  intro- 
duced, a  face  of  each  brick  presents  a  written  page  of  12  or 
13  inches  square;  and  so  exactly  do  the  same  letters  resemble 
one  another,   that,  when  repeated,   slight  flaws  or  blemishes, 
when  they  exist,  are  found  on  all ;  from  which  circumstance  it  Supposed  use 
has  been  supposed  *  that  the  Babylonians  made  use  of  a  move-  tyi^s^ir  ^ 
able  type  to  stamp  the  bricks  whilst  they  were  soft.  Babylon. 

This  kind  of  printing,  however,  is  not  confined  to  the  larger  Barrel-shaped 
type  on  the  bricks,  for  a  still  more  interesting  specimen  is  baked  day. 
occasionally  found  in  these  regions.  This  is  a  barrel-shaped 
cylinder,  of  baked  clay,  4i  inches  long  by  2^  inches  diameter 
in  the  centre,  and  Ij  inch  diameter  at  each  extremity,  having 
nearly  the  whole  surface  covered  with  small  arrow-headed 
characters.  The  Arabs  call  it  a  firman,  and,  according  to  local 
tradition,  it  was  baked,  in  order  that  the  intended  edict  might 
not  be  changed.     Signets  of  stone  and  metal  are  very  numerous, 

'  Burckliardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  pp.  479,  613,  620. 

*  By  Captain  Mulilback  of  the  Pruss^ian  Engineers. 
»  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  Ivi. 

*  By  Mr.  Morison,  author  of  the  Religious  History  of  Man, 


630 


ENGRAVING  AND  WRITING  IN  THE  EAST.      [cHAP.  XIX. 


Use  of 
hieroglyphics 
in  the  East. 


Sculpture  of 
the  ancients. 


and  the  bold  style  in  which  they,  as  well  as  the  other  written 
characters  which  are  found  in  this  region,  more  particularly  at 
Persepolis  and  Bisutiin,  are  executed,  is  well  known.  The 
figures  and  writing  engraven  upon  the  cylinders  found  amongst 
the  ruins  of  Babylon,  as  well  as  the  testimony  of  Herodotus,^ 
demonstrate  that  engraving  upon  metal  and  stone  must  have 
been  well  understood  previously  to  the  destruction  of  that  city. 
The  employment  of  hieroglyphics  was  anciently  very  general 
in  the  East;'  and  they  are  supposed,  in  many  cases,  to  consti- 
tute astronomical  records.^ 

Public  documents  were  inscribed  or  written  on  various  mate- 
rials, besides  bricks  and  stones,  as  on  tablets  of  wood,  copper, 
or  ivory,  rolls  of  papyrus,  the  bark  of  trees,^  linen,^  and  dyed 
skins.*^ 

Of  the  sculptures  of  the  ancients  there  are  numerous  speci- 
mens in  high  relief,  belonging  to  a  remote  period,  at  the  above- 
mentioned  ruins,  in  the  rocks  at  the  Nahr  el  Kelb,''  in  Lycia,® 
and  in  many  other  places.  The  block  at  Siis,  with  the  figures 
of  a  man  and  two  lions,  shows  that  sculpture  was  anciently 


'  Lib.  I.,  cap.  cxcv. 

-  It  prevailed  in  Babylonia,  Egypt,  India,  and  Armenia.  See  Antiqui- 
ties, by  John  Delafield,  p.  97.     Cincinnati,  1839. 

^  In  the  time  of  Epigenes,  Pliny,  lib.  VIL,  cap.  Ivi. ;  the  records  em- 
braced a  period  of  720  years.     See  also  Cicero,  De  Divin. 

*  Quint.  Curt.,  lib.  VIII.,  cap.  ix. 

*  As  in  Colchis,  Herod.,  lib.  II.,  cap.  cv.,  and  Egypt,   Ezekiel,  chap. 


XXVII.,  V.  7. 

*  Exo(his,  chap.  XXV.,  v. 
and  XXXIX. 

'  Vol.  I.,  chap,  xix.,  p.  466. 

*  Discoveries  in  Lycia,  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows,  pp.  428,  430. 
excursion. 


also  chaps.  XXVI.,  XXXV.,  XXXVI., 


Second 


CHAP.  XIX.]    OBELISKS  AND  STATUES  IN  ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLON.     G3  1 

practised  with  success;  probably  the  earliest  specimen  is  that 
at  Babylon,  Mhich,  notwithstanding  the  very  mutilated  condition 
of  the  figures,  on  a  careful  examination  appear  to  be  an  elephant 
crushing  a  man  beneath  his  ponderous  weight.  A  portion  of 
the  back  may  be  distinguished ;  but  the  space  cut  out  of  the 
back  for  the  howdar  leaves  uo  doubt  that  an  elephant  was 
represented.  The  great  weight  of  this  mass  of  granite,  as  well 
as  of  some  other  specimens,  prevented  their  removal.^ 

We  are  told  that  a  colossal  obelisk  was  transported  from  statues,  &c., 
Armenia,  and  erected  by  Semiramis  at  Babylon  ;  also  that  she 
adorned  one  of  the  palaces  with  animals  in  relief,  and  the  other 
with  golden  statues  of  Jupiter,  or  Belus,  of  Ninus,  of  herself,  and 
her  principal  oflBcers."  At  a  later  period  another  statue  in  gold,  of 
great  dimensions,  was  erected  on  the  plains  of  Dura,^  probably 
to  the  Babylonian  deity  Ba'al ;  and  this,  or  some  other  like  it, 
existed  as  late  as  the  time  of  Herodotus.* 

The  arts  of  statuary  and  sculpture  must,  therefore,  have  been  Use  of  statuary 
known  in  Babylonia  in  the  eighth  century  b.  c.  In  AssjT-ia,  at  ^'^  ^  ^  °°' 
Bisutiin  and  Persepolis,  they  were  practised  probably  in  the 
sixth  century  b.  c.  ;  and  the  art  of  painting  is  quite  as  ancient. 
It  is  stated  that  Semiramis  ornamented  the  celebrated  bridge  of 
Babylon  wath  painted  figures  of  animals;  and  on  the  wall  of 
the  Kasr  there  was  a  hunting-piece,  the  principal  figure  of  which 
represented  the  queen  herself  on  horseback  piercing  a  tiger  with 
a  dart.^ 

Thousands  of  fragments  scattered  about  this  part  of  the  ruins, 
and  displaying  colours  still  vividly  bright,  like  those  of  Egypt, 
make  it  probable  that  the  city  was  thus  ornamented  ;  more  par-  Figures  repre- 
ticularly  the  Kasr  and  hanging  gardens,  where,  up  to   1836,  haiisofthe 
portions  of  the  finest  stucco,  with  colours  still  perfectly  fresh,  ^^'■• 
indicated  that  there  was  some  kind  of  representation  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  walls. 

'  Some  black  stones  with  inscriptions,  one  of  them  a  species  of  jasper,  was 
sent  to  the  British  IMuseum  by  Sir  Harford  Jones  Brydges. 

*  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii.  and  ix. 
^  Daniel,  chap.  III.,  v.  1, 

*  Lib.  I.,  cap.  clxxxiii. 

'  Diod.  Sic,  lib.  II.,  cap.  viii. 


632  MANUFACTURES  OF  THE  EAST.  '     [CHAP.  XIX. 

The  fine  shawls  and  carpets  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor  have 
already  been  noticed/  as  well  as  the  superior  steel  manufactures 
of  Khorasan  and  Damascus ;  the  mixed  stuffs  made  at  Aleppo 
and  Damascus  of  silk  and  cotton  ;  and  the  preparation  of 
coloured  leather,  in  the  art  of  which  the  Arabs,  particularly 
those  of  Barbary,  are  unrivalled.^ 

'  Vol.  I.,  pp.  334,  363. 

^  Since  the  preceding  pages  were  written,  the  diligent  researches  of 
Europeans  have  been  repaid  by  tlie  most  important  discoveries.  Under 
the  pyramid,  in  the  hollow  of  which,  according  to  Xenophon  (Lib.  III.,  cap. 
iv.j,  the  Assyrians  took  refuge,  suites  of  apartments  have  been  recently  dis- 
covered in  a  ruin  beneath  the  remains  of  anotlier  structure.  Nimrud,  it  is  now 
well  known,  has  furnished  specimens  of  the  arts  belonging  to  the  early  period 
of  the  Assyrian  dynasty,  and  showing  a  more  advanced  state  than  that  of  the 
arts  in  Egypt.  It  is  unnecessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  Layard's  Nineveh 
shows  that  the  Assyrians  were  acquainted  witli  the  use  of  ivory,  also  of  iron 
and  of  other  metals.*  They  had,  besides,  a  knowledge  of  the  pulley  and  lever, 
of  fortifications,  chariots,  horses,  ships,  &c.,  and  even  of  the  arch.  Of  all 
these,  nothing  was  copied  from  Greece;  nor  were  they  taken  from  Egj'pt, 
since  the  remains  are  very  superior  to  tliose  discovered  in  the  latter  country. 
Assyria  may  consequently  now  recover  her  place  in  the  history  of  the  world. 


(     G33     ) 


CHAPTER  XX. 

BOATS  AND  HYDRAULIC  WORKS  OF  THE  EAST. 

Logs,  Rafts,  and  inflated  Skins. — Boats  of  Branches  and  Wicker-work, 
covered  with  Bitumen. — The  Boats  of  Hit,  and  their  Construction. — 
Dimensions,  «&:c.  of  Noah's  Ark. — Round  Boats  of  Mesopotamia. — Canoes 
of  Reeds  and  of  Timber. — AVooden  Boats  of  Hit  and  'A'nah. — Ferry- 
boats, and  mode  of  using  them. — Sea-going  Boats. — Persian  and  Arab 
Boats. — Trankej's  and  Bagahis. — Early  use  of  the  Compass. — Chinese 
Vessels  and  Boats. — Subaqueous  Walls. — Water-baskets. — Water-levers. 
— Bullock-rollers. — Water-wheels. — Persian  Wheels. — Kantits  or  Kah- 
reezes. — Souterazi. — Cisterns. — Reservoirs,  Tanks,  and  Cisterns  in  Syria, 
India,  &c. 

In  western  Asia  are  found  specimens  of  every  kind  of  means  of  Various  means 
transport  which  has  at  any  time  been  used  for  navigating  rivers  useTiil^^*'"" 
or  the  sea,  from  the  tree  on  which  Usous  is  supposed  first  to  ^^''^stern  Asia. 
have  floated,^  to  a  complete  ship.     The  use  of  a  simple  log  is 
very  common  among  the  people  on  the  Upper  Euphrates,  by  LogsandRafts 
whom  not  only  single  trees,  but  also  rafts  of  timber,  are  fre-  iJliphra^er'^ 
quently  floated  to  their  places  of  destination. 

Another  mode  of  navigating  the  rivers  is  by  a  better  descrip- 
tion of  raft ;  this  is  prepared  of  any  required  size,  by  lashing  a 
number  of  hurdles  together ;  and  such  means  of  transport  are 
in  use  along  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  but  more  frequently  on  • 
the  latter  river. 

But  in  certain  places  where  they  abound,  reeds  are  substi-  Rafts  made  of 
tuted  for  timber ;  and  of  these  a  flying  bridge  is  prepared,  [nfltLTskins. 
in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  suitable  for  transporting  indi- 
viduals and  their  baggage  across  a  river,  the  animals  swimming 
by  the  side  of  the  raft.^  The  usual  method  of  passing  rivers  is 
however,  by  means  of  inflated  skins  of  sheep  and  goats,  on 
which  the  Arabs,  male  and  female,  fearlessly  cross,  or  descend 
to  a  considerable  distance  along  the  great  streams  of  Mesopo- 

'  Ancient  Fragments,  by  1.  P.  Cory,  Esq.     W.  Pickering,  London,  1832. 
*  Plate  IV. 


634  CROSSING  AND  DESCENDING  RIVERS.  [cHAP.  XX. 

tamia,  for  agricultural  and  other  purposes,  taking  everything 

they  possess ;  even  bowls  of  milk  are  carried  in  this  way.^ 

The  shepherds      In  a  pastoral  country  like  Mesopotamia,  the  great  object  of 

flocks  cross     feeding  their  flocks  makes  it  almost  a  daily  occurrence  with  the 

the  river         inhabitants  to  cause  the  buffaloes  and  other  animals  to  cross 

daily. 

from  one  bank  of  the  river  to  the  other  in  the  morning,  return- 
ing in  the  afternoon  in  the  same  manner.  This  operation  is 
generally  accomplished  without  any  other  precaution  than  that 
of  the  shepherd  accompanying  the  animals  on  an  inflated  skin, 
carrying  his  clothes,  and  a  small  supply  of  bread,  upon  his 
head. 
Passage  of  Two  inflated  goat-skins,  attached  to  one  another  by  means  of 

mean's  onwo   ^  couple  of  hoops,  fomi  the  next  step  in  navigating  these  rivers : 
inflated  skins.  ^|-^-g  ^ustom  prevails  also  in  central  Asia,  with  this  difterence, 
that  larger  skins,  such  as  those  of  oxen,  asses,  or  horses,  are 
substituted  for  those  of  the  goat  or  the  sheep ;  and  with  these, 
says  Wendover,  they  pass  rivers  and  other  waters  without  loss.^ 
Small  rafts  are      Four  such  skins  being  attached  by  means  of  writhes  of  willow, 
fou^iufllted    or  tamarisk,  there  is  placed  over  them  a  kind  of  platform,  con- 
skins,  sisting  of  branches  in  layers,  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  and 
reaching  from  side  to  side.     This  constitutes  the  smallest  kind 
of  kellek,  on  one  of  which  may  be  seen  an  Arab  family  moving 
W'ith  the  stream  from  one  pasture  ground  to  another,  carrying 
its  bags  of  corn  and  other  effects.     This  kind  of  raft  is  exceed- 
ingly convenient,  since  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  easily  landed  and  carried  to  any  part  of  the  country. 
Construction        For  Commercial  purposes,  or  when  proceeding  to  a  greater 
distance  than  that  which  is  required  in  changing  pasture  ground, 
a  larger  construction  of  this  kind  is  substituted,  w^hich,  like  the 
preceding,  is  extremely  simple.     A  rectangular,  or  more  gene- 
rally a  square  platform,  having  a  sort  of  well  or  inlet  at  one 
extremity,  is  first  constructed,  by  means  of  successive  layers  of 
branches,  crossing  at  right  angles,  till  the  whole  has  become 
sufficiently  stable,  which  is  usually  the  case  when  the  flooring  is 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  deep.     On  this  platform  there  is  a 

'  Plate  LXXXVIII. 

*  Voyage   of  Wendover,   an.    1239.      Vol.   III.  of  Purchas'   Pilgrims, 
p.  62  ;  also  Candish's  Voyage,  ibid.,  p,  61. 


of  larger  rafts. 


CHAP.  XX.]  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  RAFTS.  635 

fire-place  or  hearth,  within  a  little  enclosure  of  damp  clay,  to  Fire-place, 
prevent  accidents.  Rough  planks  arc  then  laid  over  the  rest  ofThe'ra'fts.'^ 
of  the  space,  which  is  occupied  by  the  boatmen  and  merchandise; 
the  necessary  buoyancy  being  obtained  by  attaching  in  parallel 
rows  a  number  of  inflated  goat  or  sheep  skins  to  the  bottom  of 
the  platform.  These  skins  are  refilled  with  air,  from  time  to 
time,  by  means  of  a  reed  pipe ;  an  operation  which  can  be  per- 
formed at  pleasure,  since  most  of  the  skins  can  be  reached  at 
the  sides,  and  by  means  of  the  inlet  alluded  to,  which  is  left  in 
the  body  of  the  raft  for  this  purpose,  as  was  the  case  in  the  raft 
used  by  the  author. 

The  ordinary  kellek,  or  raft,  is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet  Dimensions, 
long  by  fourteen  or  sixteen  broad,  and  is  supported  by  about  rafts  for  tiie 
thirty-two  or  thirty-four  skins  ;'  but  the  larger  ones  are  thirty  or  go^o"ds^°'^ 
even  forty  feet  in  length,  and  have  at  least  fifty  skins,  and  some 
are  so  large  as  to  require  three  hundred  skins.      The  latter  are 
used  chiefly  to  carry  merchandise  from  Mosul  to  Baghdad,  and, 
as  already  observed,  the  river  has  in  consequence  been  called  the 
cheap  camelier.^ 

The  rafts  are  generally  kept  mid-stream  during  the  voyage.  The  rafts  are 
by  means  of  two  rude  oars,  made  of  the  rough  branches  of  trees,  Ihe'^-ompfetion 
a  palm  branch  fan  at  the  end  of  each,  forming  the  blade.  of  the  voyage. 

When  the  cargo  has  reached  its  destination,  the  materials 
composing  the  raft  are  sold  for  fire-wood,  and  the  skins  are 
taken  back  by  land,  for  future  use.     Doubtless  this  was  the 
kind  of  raft  used  by  the  Gerrha^ans,  who  transported  the  chief  Rafts  of  the 
part   of  their  articles  of   commerce,    including   some   of  the  and 
spices  of  Arabia,  from   their  capital,  by  means  of  rafts,  into    ^  ^  omans. 
Babylonia,^   and   onward   to   Thapsacus,   to    be    carried    from 
thence  to  other  places  by  land.     Rafts  were  also  used  for  com- 
mercial transport  from  Armenia  to  Babylon,  the  skeleton  being 
of  wood,  which  was  usually  overlaid  with  reeds,  and  the  bottom 
covered  with  skins. 

In  one  part  of  the  territory  a  similar  raft  is  used  to  this  day  Rafts  in 
by  the  merchants  and  cultivators  when  conveying  their  fruit,  jeUaiabad  to 
&c.,  from  Jellalabad  to  Peshawur  and  Attock.     When  this  P*-'^'^^''^''^''- 

'  Plate  LII.  -  Vol.  T.,  p.  32.  "  Strabo,  lib.  XVI. 


636  RAFT  OF  NADIR  SHAH.  [CHAP.  XX. 

voyage  is  accomplished,  the  raft  is  taken  out  of  the  water,  and 

the  wind  having  been  allowed  to  escape  from  the  skins,  the 

latter  are  conveyed  back  by  their  owners  to  the  place  from 

whence  they  started.^ 

Used  also  in        The  Kabul  Hver  was  lately  crossed  on  a  small  raft  made  of 

Kdbui  river,    inflated  buffalo-skins,  which  were   attached  to  one  another  by 

means  of  a  few  cross  sticks.    The  passage  took  place  at  a  rapid 

occurring   in  a  rocky  place   between   Dukha  and   Muckem;^ 

skins  are  well  adapted  for  overcoming  the  difficulties  of  such 

situations,  as  they  yield,  particularly  when  wet,  should  the  raft 

happen  to  encounter  a  rock. 

Rafts  used  for       Pictro  dclla  Vallc  speaks  of  rafts  transporting  goods  to  the 

and  military    value  of  100,000  dollars  ;  and  that  which  carried  Tavernier  had 

purposes.        merchandise   of  33,000  pounds,   Paris  weight,  in  addition  to 

thirty  persons,  with  the  necessary  accommodation.     It  is  usual 

to  construct  on  the  raft  a  kind  of  shed,  for  the  convenience  of 

passengers. 

From  Xenophon's  history  it  appears  that  the  Greeks  crossed 
the  Euphrates  opposite  Carmandee,  on  rafts  made  with  the 
skins  of  their  tents,  stuffed  with  rushes  and  tightly  sewn 
together  ;■''  and  a  part  of  Jovian's  army  crossed  the  Tigris  on  a 
raft  made  of  the  inflated  skins  of  sheep,  oxen,  and  goats,  covered 
with  a  floor  of  earth  and  fascines.*  At  a  later  period^  the 
troops  of  Nadir  Shah  crossed  the  latter  river  by  means  of  a 
very  large  raft,  on  which  2,500  men  were  transported  the  first 
day  and  15,000  on  the  second,  after  which  the  raft  fell  to 
pieces.  This  float  was  formed  by  large  beams  of  palm-tree 
wood,  fastened  together  with  cables,  and  rendered  more  buoyant 
by  having  a  number  of  camels'  ^kins  tied  to  it,  these  being 
sewed  up  and  filled  with  air.® 
Boats  built  on  A  remarkable  kind  of  boat  is  constructed  at  Tekrit  and 
and  Euphrates,  ii^  the  marshes  of  Lamliim,  but  more  commonly  near  the 
bituminous  fountains  of  Hit.  At  these  places  the  operation 
of  boat-building  is  an  every-day  occurrence,  and  extremely 
simple.     The    self-taught    shipwrights    have   not,    it    is    true, 

'  Captain  Stirling's  Pamphlet  on  tiiis  part  of  Asia.  "  Ibid. 

^  Anabasis,  lib.  1.,  cap.  v.  *  See  above,  p.  441. 

'  February  8,  1733.  '  Sir  W.  Jones's  Life  of  Nadir  Shah,  p.  48. 


CHAP.  XX.]  THE  HIT  BOAT.  G37 

the  advantage  of  docks,  basins,  or  even  slips;  yet  they  can 
construct  a  vessel  in  a  very  short  time,  and  without  employing 
any  other  tools  than  a  few  axes  and  saws,  with  the  addition  of 
a  large  metallic  ladle  to  pour  out  the  melted  pitch,  and  a  wooden 
roller  to  assist  in  smoothing  it.  The  first  step  in  this  primitive 
mode  of  ship-building  is  to  choose  a  level  piece  of  ground  of 
suitable  size,  and  sufficiently  near  the  edge  of  the  water ;  on  Method  of 
this  the  builders  trace  out  the  size  of  the  vessel's  bottom,  not  structiou. 
w^th  mathematical  precision,  it  is  true,  still  a  line  is  used,  and 
a  certain  system  followed,  the  floor  or  bottom  of  the  boat  being 
the  first  object.  In  the  space  marked  out  a  number  of  rough 
branches  are  placed  in  parallel  lines,  at  about  a  foot  distance ; 
other  branches  are  placed  across  them  at  similar  distances,  and 
interlaced.  These,  with  the  addition  of  a  sort  of  basket-work 
of  reeds  and  straw,  to  fill  up  the  interstices,  form  a  kind  of 
rough  platform,  across  which,  to  give  the  necessary  stability, 
stronger  branches  are  laid  transversely  from  side  to  side,  at  dis- 
tances of  about  eight  or  twelve  inches.  The  bottom  being  in 
this  state,  the  work  proceeds  to  its  second  stage,  by  building  up 
the  sides.  This  is  done  by  driving  through  the  edge  of  the 
former,  upright  posts,  about  a  foot  apart,  of  the  requisite 
height;  these  are  filled  up  in  the  same  way,  and  the  whole  is, 
as  it  were,  consolidated  by  means  of  rough  pieces  of  timber, 
which  are  placed  at  intervals  of  about  four  feet  from  gunwale 
to  gunwale.  All  parts  are  then  coated  with  hot  bitumen,  which  Completed  by 
is  melted  in  a  hole  close  to  the  work,  and  reduced  to  a  proper  bitumen, 
consistency  by  a  mixture  of  sand  or  earth.  This  bituminous 
cement  being  spread  over  the  frame-work,  the  application  of  a 
wooden  roller  gives  the  whole  a  smooth  surface,  both  within  and 
without,  which  after  a  brief  space  becomes  not  only  quite  hard 
and  durable,  but  impervious  to  water,  and  well  suited  for  navi- 
gation. The  usual  shape  of  the  boats  thus  constructed  is  Dimensions 
much  like  that  of  a  coffin,  the  broadest  end  representing  the  Hit  boat? 
bow ;  but  others  are  of  a  neater  shape.  Such  a  boat,  44  feet 
long,  11  feet  6  inches  broad,  and  4  feet  deep,  drawing  1  foot 
10  inches  of  water  when  laden,  and  only  6  inches  when  empty, 
can  be  constructed  at  IL't  in  the  course  of  one  day.* 

'  See  vol.  I.,  p.  54. 


638 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ARK. 


[chap.  XX. 


Supposed 
construction 
of  Noah's  ark. 


Various  trees 
supposed  to 
represent  the 
Gopher  of 
Genesis. 


Muhammedan 
tradition 
respecting 
Noah. 


Dimensions 
and  capacity 
of  the  ark. 


This  kind  of  boat  is  generally  used  to  carry  bitumen,  salt, 
and  lime  to  Hillah,  Basrah,  and  even  to  Baghdad,  sometimes 
through  the  Saklawiyah,  but  more  generally  the  Hai  canal. 
When  arrived  at  her  destination  she  is  broken  up,  and  the 
bitumen  with  which  she  was  coated  is  sold,  as  well  as  the 
cargo. 

It  was  probably  in  this  manner  that  Noah  constructed  the  ark- 
Of  the  details  we  know  little,  beyond  the  fact  that  this  floating 
habitation  was  constructed  of  "  Gopher  wood,  covered  within  and 
without  with  pitch."  The  kind  of  wood  used  by  the  patriarch 
is  uncertain,  but  of  the  various  trees  which  have  been  named, 
either  the  pine,  the  cedar,  or  the  cypress  seems  to  have  the 
best  claim  to  be  considered  as  the  representative  of  the  Gopher 
wood  of  Genesis.  All  these  are  found  in  the  regions  adjoining 
Babylonia,  in  which  they  may  be  said  to  be  indigenous,  espe- 
cially the  last,  the  Cupressus  sempervirens^  whose  compactness 
and  durability  make  it  most  probable  that  it  furnished  one  of 
the  two  materials^  of  which  the  antediluvian  vessel  was  con- 
structed. Mineral  pitch  (chemer)  was  the  other  substance, 
and  was  better  adapted  than  almost  anything  else  to  exclude 
water,  vessel  worms,  and  to  prevent  decay. 

Scaliger,  following  Eusebius,  states  that  Noah's  three  sons  were 
born  beyond  the  Euphrates,^  probably  on  the  high  ground  near 
Sinjar,  in  which  neighbourhood  the  cypress  tree  and  bituminous 
fountains  still  exist,  the  former  in  the  Hamrm  mountains  and 
the  latter  near  Kerkuk.  This  might  correspond  with  the 
Muhammedan  tradition  that  Noah  was  reviled  for  his  useless 
labour  in  preparing  a  huge  vessel  in  a  place  where  it  could 
not,  by  any  apparent  possibility,  be  floated.^  He  was,  they  add, 
engaged  on  this  work  for  two  years  after  he  returned  from 
warning  Zohak,  the  king  of  Persia,  of  the  approaching  flood. 

The  ark,  as  we  are  all  aware,  was  three  hundred  cubits  in 
length,  fifty  cubits  in  breadth,  and  thirty  cubits  in  height, 
finished  in  a  cubit,  or  sloping  roof.  These  dimensions,  pre- 
suming the  smallest  cubit  to  have  been  in  use,  would  give 
450  feet  for  the  length,  75  feet  for  the  breadth,  and  45  feet  for 

'  See  above,  p.  5,  and  Gen.,  cliap.  VI.,  v.  14. 

*  Cuniberland's  Sanchoniatho,  p.  174.  ^  See  above,  p.  6. 


CHAP.  XX.]       DIMENSIONS  AND  CAPACITY  OF  THE  ARK.  639 

the  depth  of  this  enormous  structure,  whose  burthen,  making 
an  allowance  for  the  cross-beams  with  which  it  was  braced '  and 
the  supports,  would  be  upwards  of  40,000  tons.  From  the 
description  just  given  of  the  Hit  boats,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  not  anything  to  prevent  the  people  of  that  town,  or  of  the 
neighbouring  country,  from  constructing  such  a  vessel,"  a  larger 
scantling  only  being  necessary  for  the  frame-work.  The  lower  its  compart- 
story  being  intended  for  quadrupeds,  must  necessarily  have  been  ^^°[fg  ^f  ^^j. 
divided  into  compartments;  and  these  divisions,  as  a  matter  of  construction. 
course,  would  support  the  second  floor,  which  was  appropriated 
for  the  people,  whose  apartments,  again,  supported  the  upper 
story,  or  that  allotted  for  the  birds.^  As  this  arrangement 
required  three  floors  and  a  roof,  the  divisions  and  the  necessary 
supports  would  have  given  suflacient  stability  to  the  whole 
structure ;  therefore  the  objections  raised  on  account  of  the  sup- 
posed difficulty  of  the  work,  may  be  considered  as  obviated, 
more  particularly  as  the  ark  was  destined  to  remain  and  be 
floated  on  the  same  spot ;  for  we  are  told  that  "  the  waters 
increased,  and  bare  up  the  ark,  and  it  was  lift  up  above  the  earth. "^ 

Round  boats,  similar  to  those  of  the  ancients,  still  float  on  The  round 
the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris.     Herodotus  describes  them  Herodote. 
as  being  round,  like  a  shield,  without  any  distinction  of  stem 
or  stern ;  formed  of  willow,  lined  within  with  straw  or  rushes, 
and  covered  without  with  leather. 

They  were  of  various  sizes,  and  some  were  even  capable  of  Description 
carrying  a  cargo  of  the  weight  of  5,000  talents,  which,  if  the  ?he  Jal-go  ^ 
greater  Attic  talent  be  meant,  would  be  about  164^  tons,  and  "^^'*:\^^^y 
if  the  lesser,  127 k    tons.      They  were   managed  by  two  men 
standing  up,  one  of  whom  propelled  an  oar,  whilst  the  other 
drew  one  back.     The  smallest-sized  boat  had  an  ass  on  board, 
and  the  largest  several ;  these  animals  were  used  to  carry  back 
to  Armenia  the  skins  with  which  the  boats  were  covered,  all 
the  other  materials  having  been  sold  at  Babylon.     The  ordi- 

*  See  above,  p.  6. 

*  nan-    The  beth  is  used,  Gen.,  chap.  VI.,  v.  14  ;  and  repeated,  in  speaking 
of  the  ark  in  wliich  the  infant  IMoses  was  saved,  Exodus,  cliap.  II.,  v.  3. 

^  Muliammed  Tabari,  pp.  101,  102. 

*  Gen.,  chap.  VII.,  v.  17. 


640  THE  KUFAH,  OR  BASKET-BOAT.  [cHAP.  XX. 

nary  freight  carried  from  Armenia  and  other  countries  on  the 

route  from  thence  to  Babylon,  was  pahn-wine,  in  earthen  jars.^ 

Use  of  the  The  kufah,  or  basket-boat,  is  used  on  the  Tigris  and  the 

bas  et-  oat.     j^q^^^^j.  Euphrates ;    but   they  are   in   greater  number  and   in 

more  general  use  at  Baghdad  than  at  Hillah,  or  elsewhere. 

They  are  constructed  of  osiers,  plaited  together,  precisely  like 

baskets,  over  a  circular  frame  of  stout  materials.     The  section 

shows  a  gentle  curve  at  the  bottom,  with  a  deeper  one  above, 

forming  the  side."     In  some  instances,  though  but  rarely  in  the 

present  day,  the  basket-work  is  covered  with  leather,  which  is 

stretched  over  it  after  being  soaked,  and  whilst  still  in  a  wet 

The  boats  are  state,  SO  that,  when  dry,  the  vessel  becomes  water-tight.      But 

withTeather^  the  commou   method   is   to   cover  the  bottom  with   bitumen, 

orbitumeu.     ^^ich,   being  smooth   as  well  as  hard,  effectually  excludes  the 

water,  and  is  more  easily  and  cheaply  procured. 
Dimensions  of  The  smallest-sizcd  kiifah  is  about  3  feet  8  inches  in  diameter, 
basket-boat,  and  about  2  feet  6  inches  deep.  This  vessel  is  managed  by 
one  man,  who  uses  a  large-bladed  paddle  alternately  on  each 
side.  There  are  other  kiifahs,  however,  varying  in  size  up  to 
10  feet  diameter,  with  a  depth  of  3  to  3h  feet;  but  some  are 
15  feet  fi"om  gunwale  to  gunwale,  and  are  capable  of  carrying 
a  camel,  with  several  passengers  in  addition;  none  of  the 
existing  kiifahs,  however,  would  carry  such  a  cargo  as  that 
mentioned  by  Herodotus. 
Advantages  of  A  boat  of  this  shapc  is  more  easily  built  than  any  other 
vessel,  and  is  scarcely  more  difficult  to  construct  than  a  raft. 
It  possesses  a  decided  advantage  over  all  other  vessels  when 
crossing  a  rapid  current,  for,  owing  to  its  circular  shape,  there 
is  less  injury  sustained  when  a  collision  takes  place ;  there  is, 
however,  a  proportionate  disadvantage  when  going  against  the 
current.  These  boats  in  descending  the  river  have  a  bundle  of 
hurdles  attached,  which  float  in  advance,  and  a  stone  of  the 
weight  of  two  talents  drags  along  the  bottom  to  guide  them. 
In  these  remarkable  vessels  may  possibly  be  recognized  the 
swift  messengers  of  Isaiah,^  the  vessels  of  bulrushes  coming 

'  Herod,,  lib.  I.,  cap.  cxciv. 

*  See  vol.  I.,  p.  57  ;  also  Plates  LX.  and  LXll. 

'  Chap.  XVIIT.,  V.  1  and  2. 


CHAP.  XX.]  COMMON  USE  OF  BASKET  BOATS.  641 

from  beyond  the  rivers  of  Ethiopia ;  also  that  of  the  Nile  in  the 
time  of  the  Israelites.^ 

As  boats  of  a  similar  construction  bore  in  Egypt,  as  in  Circular  boats 
Babylonia,  the  name  of  baris,  it  may  be  concluded  that  countries. 
the  manner  of  constructing  them  was  carried  thither  from 
the  latter  region,  as  well  as  many  other  works  of  art.  But 
this  particular  kind  of  boat  is  not  confined  to  those  countries, 
for  it  is  in  use,  in  the  present  day,  as  far  eastward  as  the  Indian 
rivers,  and  w^e  distinctly  recognize  these  curious  vessels  in  the 
coth,  or  corrach,  of  Ireland,^  the  coracle  of  Wales,^  and  the 
light  boat  of  the  Anglo-Saxons:'*  the  latter  was  probably  Boats  of  the 
brought  originally  from  the  shores  of  Pontus  and  the  Caspian 
Sea.  These  vessels  were  covered  with  skins  sewed  together, 
and  so  lightly  framed  that  no  coast  was  too  shallow,  no  river 
too  small  for  them.  They  dared  to  ascend  the  streams  for 
eif  hty  or  a  hundred  miles,  and,  if  danger  pressed,  their  owners 
carried  them  on  their  shoulders  from  one  river  to  another,  and 
thus  escaped  with  facility  from  a  superior  foe.^ 

It  is  remarkable  that  boats  of  this  particular  construction  are  Those  of  the 
in  use  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  known  w^orld ;  they  exist  ^njE^.p'Jfaus 
even  among  the  Esquimaux,  who  cover  them  with  seal  and 
fish^  skins.  An  ancient  author"  states  that  the  green  willow 
was  woven  into  a  little  boat,  which  served  the  Yeneti  to  cross 
the  river  Po,  and  the  Britons  the  ocean.  In  like  manner, 
a  boat  is  made  of  the  papyrus-leaf,  in  order  to  pass  the  Nile 
during  the  inundations  of  that  river :  the  leaf  is  formed  into 
wicker-work,  which  in  this  and  almost  every  other  instance 
serves  as  the  frame-work,  and  is  afterwards  covered  with  skins 
in  a  raw  state. 

Floats  of  hides  are  particularly  mentioned  during  Alexander's 

'  The  ark  daubed  with  slime  and  with  pitch,  Exod.,  chap.  II.,  v.  3. 
'  Col.  Valiancy's  "Vindication  of  the  Ancient  History  of  Ireland.     Intro- 
duction, p.  27. 

^  Eev.  J.  Evans,  Hist,  and  Antiquity  of  N.  Wales,  p.  2T8. 

*  Sharon  Turner's  Hist,  of  the  Anglo  Saxons,  vol.  I.,  p.  74. 
'  Ibid.,  pp.  74  and  78. 

*  Travels  of  Nicolo    Zeno,  Purclias'  Pilgrims,  vol.  III.,  p.  610;    and 
Martin  Forbisher's  Discoveries,  Purchas'  Pilgrims,  vol.  V.,  p.  811. 

'  Lucan,  lib.  IV.,  v.  130. 
VOL.  II.  2  T 


642 


CANOES  OF  THE  LAMLUM  MARSHES.  [cHAP.  XX. 


The  canoe  of 
the  Lamlum 
marshes. 


Round  boats  expedition/  and  the  round  boat  is  still  used  in  India.  In  the 
inTndia  ^^^  Duke  of  Wellington's  Despatches  there  is  an  Order,  addressed 
to  Colonel  Munroe,  to  prepare  some  of  them  for  the  Malpoorba 
river,  in  India.^  Another  general  might  have  been  satisfied  to 
trust,  as  usual,  to  a  single  covering  for  the  boats ;  but  that  great 
commander,  with  a  degree  of  forethought  peculiar  to  himself, 
desires  a  second  leathern  cover  should  be  provided.^ 

To  the  round  construction  no  doubt  succeeded  that  of  a 
larger  and  swifter  kind  of  vessel,  such  as  those  used  in  the 
Lamlum  marshes.  These  are  chiefly  of  reeds,  small,  low,  and 
long,  like  canoes,  with  the  exception  of  being  covered  with 
bitumen  instead  of  skins.  The  stem  and  stern  of  the  boat 
being  alike,  she  moves  either  way  with  equal  facility,  and  is 
propelled  either  by  one  man  sitting  towards  the  stern,  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  larger  canoes,  by  one  at  each  extremity,  facing 
the  direction  in  which  the  boat  is  proceeding,  and  using  their 
paddles  on  opposite  sides,  by  which  means  a  degree  of  speed  is 
obtained  scarcely  exceeded  by  that  of  the  swiftest  Esquimaux 
canoe. 
Size  of  canoes,  The  beautiful  boat  in  question  is  confined  chiefly  to  the 
andMoham-^  Khezail  and  Kualem,  two  tribes  of  Shi'ahs,  known  to  have 
come  originally  from  the  heart  of  Persia.  This  bark  is  occa- 
sionally met  below  the  marshes,  but  at  Kiirnah,  Basrah,  and 
Mohammerah  it  is  replaced  by  one  of  a  more  substantial  con- 
struction, in  the  management  of  which  the  people  of  the  country 
are  exceeding  expert.    These  canoes  are  formed  out  of  a  single 


merah. 


'  Arrian,  cap.  XX. 

*  Despatches  by  Col.  Gurwood,  vol.  I.,  p.  136. 

"  Camp  at  Hattiary,  50  miles  from  Meritch, 
^  "  My  dear  Munroe,  April  8, 18U3. 

"  As  it  is  possible  that  the  service  on  which  I  am  employed  may  last 

after  the  rivers  will  fill,  it  is  necessary  that  I  should  make  arranj^ements  for 

having  boats  upon  all  of  them  ;  I  have  accordingly  written  to  Purneah  and 

to  Mr.  Head,  to  have  some  prepared  in  Mysore,  and  in  Soondah  ;  and  I  must 

request  you  to  have  twenty  basket  boats  made  in  the  ceded  districts.     They 

should  be  the  size  of  10  feet  diameter  and  3  feet  deep  ;  and  I  wish  that 

they  may  be  covered  with  double  leather.     The  leather  ought  to  be  sewed 

with  tliongs,  and  of  such  a  size  as  to  cover  the  gunwales  of  the  boats  all 

round.     I  intend  that  your  boats  should  be  on  the  Malpoorba. 

"  To  Licut.-Col.  Mimroe." 


CHAP.  XX.J   CANOES  OF  BASRAH,  AND  BOATS  OF  'a'nAH.      643 

tree,  which  is  commonly  of  beech,  brought  from  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  The  usual  dimensions  are  from  18  to  25  feet 
long  by  18  or  22  inches  deep,  and  from  2  feet  to  2h  feet  broad 
nearly  in  the  whole  length. 

This  boat  is  generally  managed  by  one  man,  sitting  as  far  aft  Method  by 
and  as  low  as  possible,  using  his  paddle  alternately  on  each  side;  propelled. 
but,  as  in  those  of  Lamliim,  a  second  individual  is  sometimes 
placed  at  the  bow,  also  using  a  short  paddle,  in  the  manner 
already  described.  A  light  neat  awning  of  striped  cotton 
covers  these  canoes,  and  shades  the  boatmen  as  well  as  the 
sitters.  This  is  suspended  by  means  of  two  little  spreaders  at  the 
extremities,  and  a  moveable  curtain  is  added,  which  is  placed 
on  the  sunny  side.  The  canoe  will  accommodate  four  or  even 
five  persons,  without  inconvenience,  and  if  they  continue  steadily 
in  a  sitting  posture,  she  will  prove  to  be  both  swift  and  safe, 
but,  owing  to  the  round  and  narrow  bottom,  a  very  slight 
movement  is  sufiicient  to  upset  her. 

Between  Hit  and  'A'nah,  as  well  as  to  some  distance  above  The  wooden 
the  latter  town,  there  is  used  a  roughly-built  wooden  bark,  and^-A^i^h. 
without  a  mast,  which  is  tracked  upward  by  hand,  and  returns 
with  the  current.      These  boats  are  flat-bottomed,  and,  like 
those  of  Hit,  partly  wall-sided,  but  sharp  at  the  extremities, 
where  they  rise  abruptly  several  feet  higher  than  amidships ; 
those  portions  only  are  decked.    By  this  arrangement  the  track 
line  is  sufficiently  high  to  pass  brush-wood  and  other  ordinary 
obstacles,  whilst  more  command  is  given  to  the  helmsman,  who 
stands  on  the  platform  at  the  other  extremity,  steering  by  means 
of  a  very  long  crooked  pole,  which  terminates  with  a  fan  or 
blade,  to  increase  its  power.^     These  boats  are  carvel-built,  of  Their  descnp- 
roughly-sawn  planks  of  the  beech  and  other  trees  growing  in  '  °'      '     ' 
that  part  of  the  country,  and  being  very  liable  to  leak,  a  coating 
of  bitumen   is  sometimes   added,   to   make   them   water-tight. 
They  are  principally  of  two  sizes,  the  larger  of  which  is  rather 
more  than  40  feet  long  by  14  feet  beam,  and  the  smaller  33  feet 
long,  13  feet  2  inches  broad,  and  3  feet  6  inches  deep  amid- 
ships.    They  are  chiefly  used  in   transporting  bulky  articles 
upwards,  such  as  wool,  grain,  onions,  cotton,  sheep,  lime,  &c., 

'  See  Plate  LVII. 

2  T  2 


644  FERRY-BOATS  AT  ARAS  AND  bIr.  [chAP.  XX. 

their  return  cargoes  being  timber,  or  brushwood  and  charcoal, 
for  fuel. 
Ferry-boat  of       Besides  the  round  boat,  which  is  so  admirably  suited  for  the 
Aras.  purpose,  another  construction,  varying  according  to  local  cir- 

cumstances, serves  for  the  passage  of  rivers.    The  ferry-boat  of 
the  river  Aras  is  a  mere  box  open  at  one  end,  and  rudely  con- 
structed.    It  is  about  22  feet  long,  by  13i  feet  broad,  and  3 
feet  deep.     A  platform,  consisting  of  rough  pieces  of  timber, 
extending  the  whole  length,  and  strongly  planked  across,  forms 
the  bottom  of  the  boat,   on  which  the  three  sides  are  raised,  by 
means  of  uprights,  planked  in  the  same  way.^     The  boat  is 
poled  across  the  stream,   except  when  the   water  is   too  deep, 
when  oars  are  used. 
The  passage-        Those  used  at  Bir  for  the  passage  of  the  caravans  are  of  the 
^^^  °    ^^'    same  rough  build  as  the  former,  but  they  are  wider  and  rather 
shorter,    with    an    open    stern,    having   a    moveable   platform 
attached,   which    enables   the   camels   and   horses   to   walk   on 
board  with  ease.     These  boats  will  transport  six  of  the  former 
or  eight  of  the  latter  animals.     Their  usual  dimensions  are 
from  35  to  40  feet  long,  and  from  12  to  14  feet  broad  at  the 
stern,  which  breadth  continues  almost  to  the  bow.     The  latter 
portion  approaches  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  and  is  covered  with 
an  elevated  platform,  or  forecastle,  about  5  feet  in  length,  on 
Method  of      which  the  naqudah,  or  helmsman,  stands.^     This  man  makes  a 
stream  whh     dextrous  use  of  a  long  curved  pole,  having  a  blade  or  fan  at  its 
them.  extremity,  which  is  so  placed  as  to  form  a  lever  against  the 

stream ;  the  current  does  the  rest,  for  by  tracking  the  boat  up 
the  stream  to  a  sufficient  distance,  after  the  camels  are  em- 
barked, a  passage  is  insured  to  the  proper  landing-place  on  the 
opposite  side.  During  the  freshes,  however,  it  is  not  only 
necessary  to  take  these  ferry-boats  still  higher  before  crossing, 
but  also  to  use  two  oars,  and  to  pull  stoutly  to  gain  the  opposite 
bank  at  all ;  whereas  the  use  of  a  swing  cable,  as  in  Europe, 
would  at  once  convert  the  boat  into  a  flying  bridge,  so  that  one 
would  do  at  least  the  work  of  six  of  the  sixteen  which  are 
usually  kept  at  Bir  for  this  purpose. 
Construction        The  workuiauship,  which  is  of  rough  planking,  overlapped, 

of  the  passage- 
boats  of  Hi'r.  '  vSee  Plate  II.  *  See  vol.  I.,  p.  45. 


CHAP.  XX.]     BOATS  ON  THE  TIGRIS  AND  LOWER  EUPHRATES.        645 

and  fastened  either  by  nails  or  wooden  pegs,  sufficiently  indicates 
that  there  has  been  little  change,  and  perhaps  no  improvement, 
for  ages  in  the  construction  of  these  boats. 

It  is  only  below  Baghdad  and  in  the  parallel  portion  of  the  Saiiing-boats 
Euphrates,  where  more  speed  is  required,  and  greater   com-  EuphrateVand 
merce  by  sea  is  carried  on,  that  there  exists  a  form  of  vessel  "^'sris. 
which  combines  the  advantages  of  sails  and  oars.    These  are  of 
various  sizes,  from  five  tons  to  nearly  seventy  tons  burthen,  and 
they  are  all  of  one  uniform  wedge-like  form,  having  a  sharp 
raking  bow,  much  of  which  is  out  of  the  water,  and  a  full  and 
heavy  stern,  with  a  kind  of  open  poop,  raised  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  naqiidah  and  his  crew,  the  rest  of  the  space  being 
left  for  the  cargo.     In  general,  the  rig  is  the  same,  consisting 
of  one  mast,  nearly  amidships,  leaning  very  much  forward,  and 
spreading  an  immense  latine  sail,  which  extends  fi'om  stem  to  Their 
stern.    The  ordinary  size  of  such  a  boat  ^  is  90  feet  long,  and  20  and  use,  &c. 
feet  wide ;  the  draught  of  water  is  7  feet  3  inches,   and  the 
vessel  carries  about  70  tons. 

This  is  the  boat  generally  in  use  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Kariin,  as  well  as  at  the  upper 
parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  especially  for  bringing  cargoes  of 
dates,  in  the  season,  down  the  rivers.     The  larger  ones  have, 
besides  the  principal  mast,  a  smaller  one,  with  a  latine  sail  at 
the  stern.     Those  destined  for  voyages  to  India  or  the  coast  ofTheBagaias 
Mekran  vary  from   70  to  about  300  tons  burthen,  and  occa-  and  Arabian'^ 
sionally  even  more.     These  bagalas,  as  they  are  called,  are  ^'^'^^* 
rigged  with  two  masts,  carrying  latine  sails.     This  kind  of  craft 
abounds  both  in  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs, ^  also  along  the 
coast  of  Mekran,  the  western  shores  of  India,  and  in  the  channel 
of  the  Mozambique.     That  in  use  along  the  Persian  shore  is 
prettily  formed,  having  a  very  sharp  bow,  a  curious  rudder,  and 
wide-bladed  oars  f  but  those  of  the  Arabs  are  of  a  superior  con-  Trankeys  or 
struction  to  any  other  class  of  vessels  used  in  the  eastern  seas.    J^V^'^^-  *°* 

•'  ^  tneir  con- 

The  smaller  ones  are  either  called  trankeys  or  batillas,*  and  stmction. 

'  Plates  XI.,  LXIII.,  and  LXVI. 

*  See  Plates  X.,  XIII.,  XXVIII.  and  XLII. 

''  See  Plates  X.  and  XIII. 

'  Commander  Ormsby's  Paper  in  the  Asiatic  Journal,  October,  1837,  p.  108. 


646 


EARLY  USE  OF  THE  COMPASS. 


[chap.  XX. 


The  Mediter- 
ranean boats, 
&c.,  like  the 
ancient 
galleys. 


Early  use  of 
the  compass 
in  the  Indian 
sea. 


Early  navi- 
gation of  the 
Chinese 


are  the  more  remarkable  because  little  or  no  iron  is  used  in 
putting  their  timbers  together,  its  place  being  supplied  by  coir- 
string,  and  the  seams  payed  with  bees'-wax.  The  Arabs 
first  tie  the  planks  together,  and  then  fasten  them  to  the  ribs. 
This  method,  in  consequence  of  the  elasticity  it  imparts  to  the 
vessels,  gives  them,  in  point  of  sailing,  some  advantages  over 
those  fastened  entirely  with  nails ;  and  the  superiority  is  very 
observable  in  the  war-boats  used  by  the  Arabs  of  the  Persian 
Gulf.^ 

Vessels  of  the  above  rig  and  build  are  general,  not  only  on 
the  rivers  of  India,  and  throughout  the  regions  just  alluded  to 
with  little  variety,  but  also  along  the  Nile,  and  in  the  Caspian, 
the  Euxine,  and  the  Mediterranean  Seas. 

In  some  of  those  countries,  as  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  may  be 
observed  a  kind  of  galley,  apparently  similar  to  the  long  ships 
of  Sesostris ;  the  long  raking  bow  and  the  huge  latine  sail, 
stretching  from  thence  over  the  stern,  having  remained  un- 
changed since  the  building  of  the  pyramids ;  for  we  find  this 
rig,  even  to  the  details  of  sails,  oars,  &c.,  depicted  on  the 
walls  of  their  chambers. 

On  the  shores  of  Arabia  the  same  kind  of  sea-going  ships, 
as  well  as  river  boats,  are  common  ;  the  former  being,  at  one 
season,  employed  in  the  lawless  trade  of  piracy,  and  during  the 
other  in  trading,  as  in  ancient  times,  to  India  on  one  side,  and  to 
the  southern  shores  of  Africa  on  the  other.  These  latine-rigged 
boats,  probably  representing  the  long  ships  of  the  Carthaginians 
and  Phoenicians,  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  Archipelago  of 
India,  and  were  actually  trading  with  compasses,  sea-charts,  and 
astrolabes  on  board,  between  the  Mozambique  and  the  coast  of 
India,  when  the  Portuguese  first  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  1497 ;  their  knowledge  of  navigation  having  been 
derived,  it  is  supposed,  from  the  Chinese,  who  had  long  applied 
to  such  purposes  the  polarity  of  the  needle.- 

The  boats  and  vessels  of  the  latter  nation   claim   a  brief 

'  Commander  Ormsby's  Paper  in  the  Asiatic  Journal,  October,  1837,  p.  108. 

*  Humboldt's  Cosmos,  vol.  II,,  pp.  190,  256,259,  translated  by  Lieut.-Col. 
Sabine,  R.A.,  F.R.S.,  compared  with  Anderson's  Hist,  of  Commerce,  vol.  I., 
p.  322.     Dublin,  1790. 


CHAP.  XX.]  CHINESE  BOATS  AND  VESSELS.  647 

notice  here,  as  specimens  of  the  craft  employed  by  the  earliest 
navigators ;    the   Chinese   having,    apparently,    adopted   fewer 
changes  in   every  respect  than  any  other  people  in  the  world.  Form  of  the 
Of  whatever  size  the  boat  may  be,  the  part  immersed  is  inva-  their'boats 
riably  spoon-shaped,  and  almost  without  a  keel.     The  smaller  l^g^sam '^ 
extremity  is  the  bow,  and  at  the  other  a  powerful  rudder  is 
placed,  which  can  be  triced  up  by  a  winch  at  pleasure,  into  a 
recess  left  for  the  purpose  between  the  parts  of  the  double  stern- 
post  ;  but  when  in  its  place  it  is  entirely  below  the  body  of  the 
boat,  clear  of  the  dead  water ;  and  as  she  has  scarcely  any  keel, 
the  rudder  gives  the  principal  lateral  resistance  when  under 
sail. 

The  boats  are  carvel  built,  but  the  planks  are  connected  by 
nails,  which  being  counter-sunk  into  one  of  the  planks,  are 
drawn  into  the  other,  the  seams  and  spaces  being  filled  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  chunam  which,  when  hardened,  is  perfectly 
water-tight,  and  is  not  liable  to  crack. 

The  cabin  is  aft,  the  cook-house  forward,  and  a  capacious 
water  tank  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  heel  of  the  mainmast : 
the  bulk-heads  of  Chinese  boats  are  all  water  tight.  The  whole 
deck  is  formed  of  flying  hatches,  which  are  fitted  over  groved 
carlines,  so  as  not  to  allow  any  water  to  run  below. 

Ordinary  oars,  or  peculiar  sweeps  of  great  power  are  em- 
ployed when  the  vessel  is  not  using  her  sails.  These  last 
present  little  variety,  being  almost  invariably  a  kind  of  lug- 
sails,  of  matting,  which  are  admirably  suited  for  work.  In 
general,  there  are  only  two  masts,  but,  occasionally,  there  is  a 
small  mizenmast;  the  mainmast  is  placed  nearly  amidships, 
raking  aft  a  little,  and  the  foremast,  which  is  small,  and  stepped 
well  forward,  is  nearly  upright.  The  masts  work  upon  a  pin  at 
the  height  of  the  deck,  and  each  is  kept  in  its  place  by  a  fid  at 
the  keel.  On  each  mast  there  is  a  mat-sail,  with  several  bamboo 
stretchers  across  it,  and  these  have  spans  passing  round  the 
mast,  so  formed  as  to  give  the  sail  ftill  play,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevent  its  flying  away.  The  sheets  are  attached  to  the 
end  of  each  stretcher,  having  spars  similar  to  bowline  bridles 
fitted  to  them,  in  order  to  keep  the  sail  taut ;  and  when  the 
wind  is  abaft  the  beam,  a  sail  set  on  each  side  gives  the  whole 


648  EGG  AND  FISHING  BOATS.  [cHAP.  XX. 

the  appearance  of  a  butterfly's  wings.  The  sails  are  reefed 
in  the  easiest  manner,  simply  by  settling  the  halliards  and 
allowing  the  sail  to  roll  into  its  place  between  two  tricing 
lines,  one  before,  and  the  other  abaft  the  mast.  Almost  every 
boat  serves  as  a  dwelling,  and  has,  therefore,  a  family  on  board 
ready  at  all  times  for  employment :  the  people  are  occupied  in 
fishing  or  in  commercial  pursuits  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
culinary  utensils  and  supplies  of  provisions  form  part  of  their 
equipment. 

The  egg  or  The  tanka,  or  egg-boat,  the  use  of  which  is  so  general  in  the 

harbours  of  China,  is  of  a  wide,  short,  and  flat  construction, 
having  a  spoon-shaped  bottom,  the  smaller  end  being  the  bow. 
She  is  propelled  by  means  of  an  oar  and  scull,  the  former 
which  is  placed  forward,  is  pulled  with  a  grummet  on  a  thoul, 
while  the  latter,  which  is  aft,  works  upon  a  pivot  on  the 
taflrail :  this  pivot  enters  a  socket  of  hard  wood,  which  is  let 
into  the  scull,  and  the  extremity  of  the  latter  is  hooked  to  a 
short  line  attached  to  the  deck,  so  as  to  permit  it  to  move 
from  side  to  side,  in  order  to  give  additional  power  to  the  man 
or,  as  is  more  frequently  the  case,  to  the  woman,  who  sculls  ; 
assisted  occasionally  by  a  mat-sail  at  the  bow.     These  boats, 

serves  as  a      though  Only  from   10  to    14  feet  long,  accommodate  a  family, 

pilce'"^  who  are  protected  from  sun  and  rain  by  a  tilt-shaped  sliding 
cover  of  bamboo,  which  covers  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  boat 
at  pleasure.  The  cooking-place  and  utensils  are  in  the  after- 
part  of  the  boat. 

A  light  kind  of  wherry,  from  20  to  25  feet  long,  having  two 
mat  lug-sails  with  spreaders  and  numerous  braces,  such  as  has 
just  been  described,  may  next  be  mentioned.  These  either  row 
in  the  ordinary  manner  or  sail,  and  are  not  only  swift  but  par- 
ticularly manageable.  The  passengers  sit  on  ratan  stools  or 
chairs  on  the  after-part  of  the  deck. 

Boats  fishing  The  fishing-boat  is  stronger  and  more  heavily  built,  but  of 
the  same  rig.  These  boats  go  in  pairs,  using  a  net  between 
them.  The  crews  possess  perfect  command  over  these  boats  ; 
and,  having  the  means  of  regulating  their  speed  by  taking  in 
any  quantity  of  sail  that  may  be  necessary,  they  keep  pace  with 
each  other  as  to  speed  and  distance  so  completely,  that  a  large 


an  pairs. 


CHAP.  XX.]        FLOWER  AND  WAR  BOATS.  G49 

trawl  or  drift  net  is  dragged  along  as  evenly  as  if  it  were  done  Fishing  on 
by  hand.  This  kind  of  craft  varies  in  size  from  20  to  30  tons,  in  tL'rivers. 
and  the  whole  line  of  coast,  from  50  to  60  miles  out  to  sea,  is 
frequcntlv  thronged  with  them.  The  author,  as  he  approached 
in  the  "John  of  Gaunt,"  counted  about  150  pairs  thus 
employed.  Various  modes  are  adopted  by  the  Chinese  to 
entrap  the  finny  tribe,  and  one  may  here  be  noticed,  as  it  shows 
the  skill  of  that  people,  in  combined  operations,  and  how 
suitable  their  boats  are  for  the  purpose. 

A  group  of  eight  or  ten  small  fishing-boats  may  be  seen 
dropping  down  the  Canton  river,  having  at  the  scull,  in  each, 
a  woman  with  a  child  slung  at  her  back,  and  a  man  standing  at 
the  bow.  Suddenly,  these  boats  are  formed  into  a  circle,  with 
the  bows  towards  the  centre,  and  at  a  preconcerted  time  a 
casting  net  is  simultaneously  thrown  out  by  each  man  at  the 
bow,  so  that  the  whole  covers  the  space  enclosed  by  the  boats. 

There  are,  besides,  various  descriptions  of  cargo  boats,  some  Cargo  and 
of  large  size,  having  a  pair  of  shears  resting  on  the  sides  instead  ^^^^"'^ 
of  a  mast,  in  order  that  the  hold  may  be  free  for  chests  of  tea. 
Streets  of  boats,  moored  in  parallel  rows,  present  as  animated  a 
scene  as  the  streets  of  a  town  ;  and  it  is  calculated  that  60,000 
people  live  entirely  on  the   water  in   the   Canton  river,  with 
floating    eating-houses,     gambling-houses,     Joss    temples,     &c. 
Amongst  these  may  be  distinguished  the  gorgeously  ornamented 
flower-boat,  which  is  fitted  up  with  suitable  accommodation  for 
water-parties;  and,  when  moving  up  the  river,  is  propelled  by 
one  large  sweep,  and  sometimes  by  two  such  at  the  stern,  thus 
leaving  the  rest  of  the  vessel  free  for  the  use  of  company. 
The  ordinary  sea-going  cargo-boat  is  of  nearly  the  same  rig  as 
the  fishing-boat ;  having  two  .large  lug-sails  of  matting,  with  a 
smaller  one  at  the  stern,  and  having  very  much  the  appearance 
of  a  lugger  when  her  jib  is  lowered.     Between  the  fishing-boat  Appearance 
and  the  large  heavy  junk  there  are  various  intermediate-sized  ^oJ,^^    "°^^® 
vessels,  of  a  peculiar  construction,  some  of  which  are  used  for 
smuggling,  and  others  for  warlike  or  piratical  purposes. 

The  war-boat,  though  approaching  the  spoon  shape,  is  of  a  The  war  or 
fine  form  :  she  is  very  long-,  and,  having  a  great  many  sweeps  andher^' 
on  each  side,  with  a  numerous  crew,  she  is  exceedingly  fast,  armament. 


650  ARMAMENT  AND  POWERS  [cHAP.  XX. 

The  armament  usually  consists  of  two  guns  in  the  stern,  and  a 
pivot-gun  in  the  bow,  with  six  jinjals  on  each  side,  which  are 
made  to  load  at  the  breach,  besides  a  quantity  of  spears,  swords, 
shields,  stink-pots,  and  other  combustibles  to  throw  on  board  an 
enemy.  These,  appropriately  named  fast  boats,  have  three 
lug-sails ;  but  in  calm  weather  they  depend  entirely  upon  their 
sweeps  for  speed.  Of  these  there  are  usually  from  12  to  15 
of  each  side,  manned  by  two  and  frequently  three  men  each. 
Method  of  ^  plank,  well  secured  by  means  of  an  iron  hook,  projects  about 
managing  the  ^^^-q  f^^^  bevoud  the  sidc  of  the  vessel,  in  the  extremity  of  which 

sweeps.  •'  _  _  '  -'  ^ 

the  sweep  works  on  an  iron  pivot  placed  at  about  one-fifth  of 
the  length  of  the  sweep,  which  is  attached  to  the  deck  by  a 
short  line.  One  man  stands  on  the  board  to  assist  the  other, 
and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  egg-boats,  they  move  the  sweep 
backwards  and  forwards,  so  as  to  give  to  its  blade  an  undulating 
motion  nearly  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  boat.  This  appears  to 
be  much  more  efficient  than  the  ordinary  mode  of  using  sweeps, 
which  is  at  right  angles  to  the  vessel,  and  the  sculling  motion 
of  the  Chinese  has  been  adopted  with  advantage  by  some  of 
our  sloops  of  war. 
Ships  or  brigs  Nothing  approaching  to  a  ship  or  brig  is  to  be  found  in 
China!"^ '°  China,  where  the  vessels  of  burthen  are  confined  to  the  far- 
famed  junks,  which  are  of  large  size,  and  in  many  respects 
Description  of  wcll  suitcd  for  trade.  As  in  the  case  of  the  boats,  the  spoon 
jaa£'^"'^^^  shape  prevails ;  but  though  the  form  of  the  part  immersed 
is  calculated  to  produce  buoyancy  with  as  little  resistance  as 
possible,  nothing  can  be  more  unwieldy  than  the  upper  part  of 
these  vessels,  which  seem  to  be  almost  a  copy  of  the  Noachian 
structure,  having  a  succession  of  apartments  above  the  water 
line. 

A  huge  eye,  painted  at  each  side,  distinguishes  the  head  of 
the  junk,  which  being  flat  above  water,  like  the  stern  of  an 
ordinary  vessel,  w^ould  seem  to  be  entirely  incapable  of  sailing. 
The  stern,  which  is  apparently  still  more  clumsy,  is  distin- 
guished by  a  ponderous  rudder,  with  a  windlass  attached,  to 
lower  and  trice  it  up.  Entering  at  the  waist  or  midships,  a 
hatchway  leads  from  the  deck  into  the  hold,  which  is  divided 
into  compartments  for  different  kinds  of  cargo.     In   the  bow 


CHAP.  XX.]  OF  THE  CHINESE  JUNKS.  651 

under  the  forecastle  there  is  tin  open  apartment  with  small 
cabins  at  the  side.  Aft,  an  open  staircase  leads  into  a  large 
cabin,  above  which  there  is  another  apartment  under  the  poop, 
and  again  another  above  in  which  the  helmsman  is  placed;  and 
either  here  or  immediately  below,  there  is  the  joss-house,  con- 
taining gaudy  idols  and  lights  burning,  with  a  small  cabin  on 
each  side.  The  length  of  these  junks  sometimes  exceeds  170 
feet,  and  the  beam  between  35  and  40  feet ;  and  occasionally  Size  and 

mi  •       •        armament  of 

they  are  capable  of  carrying  a  bulk  oi  500  tons.      ihe  rigging  these  vessels, 
is  simple :   a  large  mast,  placed  nearly  amidships,  a  smaller 
in  the  bows,  and  one  still  less  in  the  stern  at  one  quarter ;  on 
each   there  is  a  lug-sail  made  of  mats,   and  having  as   usual 
numerous  bamboo  spreaders.      Some  guns  are  placed  in  the 
waist,  others  on   the  forecastle  and   quarter-deck,  with  a  pro- 
portion of  jinjals.     The  great  unwieldiness  of  this  vessel   is, 
however,  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the  shape  of  the  bottom.  Facility  in 
the  great  power  of  the  rudder,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  sails  these  unwieldy 
are  worked,  give  a  degree  of  facility  in  managing  the  junks  which  ^^^^^^®- 
could  not   be  expected.     The  author  has  seen  one   of  these 
vessels  in  calm  weather  maintain  her  place  against  a  fast-sailing 
clipper.     Between  200  and  300  of  these  modern  arks,  with  a 
huge  wooden   anchor  at  the  bow,  may  be   seen  entering  the 
Foochoo-Foo  and  other    rivers   of  China   at  the  same  time, 
freighted  with  cargoes  from  the  Straits,  or  from  Japan,  Loochoo, 
&c. ;  and  if  they  are  not  the  most  suitable  kind  of  vessel,  it 
must  be  admitted  that   they  do  the  work  well  and  cheaply 
throughout   the  China  seas  and  Archipelago.     Their  voyages 
are  made  with  precision,    guided  as  they  always  have  been 
by  needles,  which  in  this  part  of  the  world  are  marked  as  if  Use  of  the 
they  pointed  to  the  south  instead  of  the  north.     Eound  the  Ts^S"^"*^ 
needle  there  is  a  kind  of  index  of  time  as  well  as  space,  one  ^art^^^^ 
part   of  which  serves  as  a  sort  of  chart,  having  those  places 
marked  on  it  which  would  be  successively  passed  in  following  a 
particular  line ;  Pekin  being  the  supposed  point  of  departure. 

Chain  cables   are  occasionally  met  in   the  north   of  China, 
where  they  have  been  in  use  for  many  centuries.     The  existence 
of  a  chain  bridge  on  the  highway  of  Yunnan,  in  the  province 
'  Some  junks  carry  12,000  pekuls,  or  800  tons. 


652  MANAGEMENT  OF  WATER  BY  THE  ANCIENTS.      [CHAP.  XX. 


Management 
of  water  in 
ancient  times. 


Subaqueous 
■walls  for 
irrigation. 


Baskets  with 
double  cords 
to  raise  water, 


of  Koeitcheou  is  mentioned  by  Duhalde,  and  there  are  three 
of  similar  construction  in  the  province  of  Su-chuan,  and 
another  in  that  of  Kwei-choo,  and  possibly  many  others  else- 
where. 

Having  endeavoured  to  trace  the  gradual  progress  of  navi- 
gation amongst  a  primitive  people,  from  the  humble  beginning 
of  a  log  or  a  bundle  of  reeds  hastily  tied  together,  through  the 
various  gradations  upwards,  such  as  boats  and  canoes  covered 
with  bitumen,  to  sea-going  boats,  and  the  bagalas  trading  to 
India  and  China,  the  management  of  water  next  claims  our 
attention;  and  the  existing  constructions  show  that  many  im- 
portant circumstances  concerning  this  branch  of  engineering 
have  been  well  understood  for  ages  by  the  people  of  Meso- 
potamia. Between  'A'nah  and  Hit  especially,  massive  suba- 
queous walls  are  run  out  from  opposite  sides,  in  such  directions 
that,  if  continued,  they  would  overlap  in  the  centre,  where, 
however,  a  small  space  is  left  to  permit  the  navigation.  These 
walls  are  carefully  built,  some  in  the  Cyclopian  style,  others 
with  cement ;  but  owing  to  the  effects  of  time,  they  are  now  for 
the  most  part  mere  masses  of  rubble  masonry,  impeding  the  free 
course  of  the  stream,  and  increasing  its  rapidity  below  the  wall, 
but  seldom  accomplishing  the  object  for  which,  as  will  presently 
be  seen,  they  were  intended. 

As  the  fertility  of  the  country  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
the  supply  of  water,  the  methods  of  irrigation  vary  according 
to  the  different  levels  of  the  surface  of  the  river. 

When  the  banks  are  but  little  elevated  above  the  stream,  as 
in  Lower  Mesopotamia,  a  quantity  of  water  is  thrown  up  in  a 
short  time  by  a  very  simple  process.  A  basket  made  of  date 
branches,  closely  woven,  being  filled,  and  a  man  with  a  pair  of 
ropes  being  stationed  on  each  side,  a  simultaneous  motion 
empties  the  contents  of  the  basket  into  a  channel,  which  con- 
veys the  water  inwards  from  the  bank ;  a  tilting  jerk  then 
replaces  the  basket  in  the  stream,  when  it  is  again  filled  almost 
at  the  same  moment :  this  operation  is  continued  as  long  as 
may  be  necessary  by  a  rapid  swinging  motion  alternately  up 
and  down. 

But  when  the  bank  is  too  high  to  throw  up  the  water  in  this 


CHAP.  XX.J   THE  WATER  LEVER  AND  BULLOCK  ROLLER.       653 

manner,  it  is  raised  by  another  process  equally  simple.  A  Lever  and 
wooden  lever,  from  13  to  15  feet  long,  is  made  to  revolve  freely  Mesopotamia, 
on  the  top  of  a  post  3  or  4  feet  high,  about  two-thirds  of  the  ^^'P^'  ^^'^^ 
length  of  the  lever  projecting  over  the  river,  with  a  leather 
bucket,  or  closely-made  basket  of  date  branches,  suspended  from 
the  extremity :  this  is  balanced,  when  full  of  water,  by  means 
of  a  bucket  of  earth  or  stones  at  the  other  end,  and  this  simple 
machine  is  so  well  contrived,  that  very  slight  manual  exertion 
will  raise  the  bucket  sufficiently  high  to  empty  its  contents  into 
a  cistern  or  other  kind  of  receptacle  ;  from  whence  it  is  dis- 
persed over  the  fields  by  means  of  numerous  small  channels. 
From  continual  practice,  an  Arab  is  so  adroit  in  the  use  of  the 
machine,  that  it  seems  to  require  but  one  motion  to  fill  and 
empty  the  bucket ;  and  as  the  latter  contains  five  or  six  gallons, 
which  are  raised  at  least  seven  times  in  a  minute,  one  man  can 
in  this  way  raise  as  much  water  as  a  bullock.  This  simple 
method  is  in  use  not  only  along  the  rivers  of  Mesopotamia,  but 
in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  India,  and  on  the  Pei-ho  in  China. 

But  when,  from  the  great  height  of  the  banks,   it  becomes  Rollers  and 
impossible  to  raise  the  water  in  this  manner,  a  brick  shaft,  with  worked  by 
some  simple  machinery,  is  substituted.     The  former,  which  is  ^'^^^°<^^^- 
rather  more  than  a  semicircle,    is  built  into  the   bank  of  the 
river  ;  and  the  water  is  drawn  up  by  a  single  bullock,  or  camel. 
A  short  but  steeply-inclined  plain  is  so  disposed  as  to  increase 
the  impetus  given  by  the  power  of  the  animal,  in  pulling  by  a 
strong  rope  which  runs  freely  either  over  a  wooden  roller,  or  a 
small  wheel  working  on   an   iron  spindle,   and  is  attached  to 
a  leather  vessel  of  a  particular  description.'     The  latter  is  rather 
less  than  three  feet  diameter,  and  of  a  sufiicient  depth  to  con- 
tain about  forty  gallons ;  it  terminates  on  one  side  on  a  level 
with  the  bottom,  by  a  long  spout,  which,  as  the  vessel  ascends, 
is  bent  upwards  by  means  of  a  cord.     The  latter  passes  under 
the  roller,  and  its  length  is  so  adjusted,  that  the  spout  is  drawn 
out,  and  the  contents  discharged,  at  the  precise  moment  when 
the  machine  has  reached  the  necessary  height :  the  well-practised  Method  of 
animal  halts  at  the  bottom  of  the  inclined  plane,   during  the  l^^ater^  ^^*^ 
brief  space  necessary  to  allow  the  water  to  be  discharged  into 

'  Plate  III. 


654 


MANNER  OF  WORKING. 


[chap,  XX. 


Quantity  of 
■water  raised 
by  this 
process. 


Countries 
■where  this 
process  is  in 
use. 


Water-wheels 
and  their 
constructiou. 


a  kind  of  trough  or  channel,  usually  coated  with  bitumen,  which 
is  placed  to  receive  it. 

In  the  act  of  turning  towards  the  side  on  which  the  rope  is 
attached  to  the  bucket,  the  harness,  which  is  made  of  raw  hides, 
is  detached  for  a  moment  from  the  shoulders  of  the  animal,  so 
as  to  allow  the  vessel  to  descend  by  the  run  into  the  water;  and 
as  a  stone  placed  for  this  purpose  weighs  down  one  side,  the 
vessel  is  quite  filled  by  the  time  the  bullock  has  reached  the  top 
of  the  inclined  plane,  and  has  turned  round :  at  this  moment 
the  harness  is  replaced  in  the  proper  position  for  draught,  and 
the  animal  then  descends,  drawing  up  the  water  as  before. 
Lieutenant  Murphy,  with  his  usual  care,  ascertained  that  the 
vessel  is  filled  and  discharged,  on  an  average,  once  in  a  minute ; 
and  that  a  tolerably  active  current  is  kept  up  in  the  little 
aqueduct  at  the  top,  which  is  about  12  inches  in  diameter. 

In  general  there  are  two  such  water-bags  in  every  shaft,  each 
drawn  by  one  bullock,  and  working  up  and  down  alternately ;' 
but  in  some  cases  there  are  three,  and  even  occasionally  four, 
of  these  machines  working  together.  Bullock-rollers  are  found 
at  short  intervals,  not  only  on  the  rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and 
Kariin,  but  machines  like  them  are  used  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile ;  also  in  India,  and  other  countries  eastward  of  Assyria. 
The  Chinese,  however,  accomplish  this  object  in  a  more  effica- 
cious manner.  An  endless  chain  with  numerous  boards  attached 
at  intervals  of  about  18  inches,  is  made  to  work  in  a  well- 
fitted  wooden  trough,  which  is  placed  in  the  water  at  an  angle 
of  about  45°.  The  revolving  motion,  which  is  either  given  by 
manual  labour  or  horse-power,  is  so  effective,  that  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  is  quickly  raised  by  this  simple  process  to  a 
moderate  height. 

But  in  certain  places  on  the  Euphrates,  more  particularly 
below  'A'nah,  the  ground  is  irrigated  in  a  different  manner. 
The  current,  which  here  runs  from  one  to  three  miles  per  hour, 
is  made  to  raise  water  to  a  height  sometimes  of  nearly  40  feet ; 
and  this  by  such  simple  and  efficient  means,  that  the  Arabian 
authors  have  placed  the  contrivance  amongst  the  wonders  of 
the  world.     A  rude  wheel,  usually  33  or  35  feet  diameter,  is 

'  Plate  III. 


CHAP.  XX.]  WATER-WHEELS.  655 

formed  of  rough,  crooked  branches  of  tamarisk  or  mulberry 
trees,  tied  together  so  as  to  radiate  from  its  wooden  axis  like 
the  spokes  of  a  more  perfectly-formed  wheel.  The  rim  of  the 
wheel  is  constructed  of  light  and  narrow  scantling,  but  more 
perfectly  put  together  than  the  rest  of  the  work.  Around  the 
exterior  of  the  circumference,  a  row  of  roughly-made  earthen 
pots  or  buckets  is  placed,  at  about  18  inches  apart.  These  are 
nearly  20  inches  long,  and  about  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
opening,  but  swelling  out  to  4  or  4i  inches  towards  the  other 
extremity.     The  wheel  being  thus  prepared,  is  so  placed  be-  Use  of  a 

succGssiou  of 

tween  two  walls  as  to  dip  nearly  a  foot  into  the  water,  and  earthen 
being  exposed  to  the  strength  of  the  stream,  it  revolves  freely,  ^^^^^  ^' 
but  slowly,  on  its  axis ;  the  buckets  enter  the  water  at  the  mouth, 
and  being  thus  filled,  and  then  forced  round  by  the  current  in 
succession,  each  vessel  as  a  matter  of  course  becomes  uppermost 
in  turn,  and  discharges  its  contents  into  a  trough  communicating 
with  the  conduit  of  an  aqueduct,  which,  from  a  single  wheel, 
receives  about  150  tons  of  water  in  24  hours.    One,  two,  three,'  Aqueducts  in 

connexion 

and  not  unirequently  four  of  these  wheels  are  placed  parallel  with  wheels. 

to  one  another,  in  a  bend  of  the  river,  at  the  commencement  of 

the  aqueduct,  and  nearly  at  a  right  angle  to  the  latter ;  and  as 

these  wheels  are  moveable,  their  axes  can,  by  means  of  stones 

and  beams  of  wood,  be  elevated  or  depressed,  so  as  to  work 

equally  well  whether  the  river  be  at  its  utmost  height  or  lowest 

level. 

In  general,  the  earthen  vessels,  of  themselves,  give  a  sufficient  Fans  used  to 
impetus  to  the  wheel ;  but  when  the  current  happens  to  be  very  i^pet'us  to  the 
weak,  the  deficiency  is  supplied  by  adding  to  the  rim  of  the'^^^^^®' 
wheel  six  or  eight  fans,  made  of  palm  branches,   each  about 
18  inches  square  :  such  additions,  however,  are  very  rare,  when 
the  water  is  raised  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation  only,  but  they 
are  indispensable  when  the  water  is  raised  for  other  purposes, 
such  as  for  grinding  corn  at  'A'nah,  or  for  turning  the  saw-mill 
at  Hit. 

Only  a  few,  however,  of  these  mills  are  used  by  the  Arabs  ofUse  of  water- 
the  present  day,  who  say  that  they  belong  to  the  times  of  igno-  China, 
ranee,  probably  meaning  those  of  the  ancient  Persians  ;  but  at 

'  Plate  LVIl. 


656  PERSIAN  WHEELS  AND  AQUEDUCTS.  [CHAP.  XX. 

any  rate  they  prove  that  the  borders  of  the  Euphrates  were 
once  thickly  inhabited  by  a  people  who  had  made  some  advances 
in  the  application  of  hydraulics  to  purposes  of  the  first  necessity. 
A  similar  wheel  is  used  by  the  Chinese :  tubes  within  it  receive 
the  water,  and  fans  are  applied  to  the  rim ;  the  whole  is  of 
bamboo.  No  doubt  the  useful  but  roughly-constructed  machines 
Persian  employed  along  the  Euphrates  led  to  the  Persian  wheel  which 

Autioeb.   is  substituted  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Orontes.^     The  water- 


uear 


wheels  in  and  near  Antioch  are  solid,  and  scarcely  inferior  to 
those  of  Europe.  The  ordinary  diameter  is  about  33  feet,  but 
sometimes  it  is  as  much  as  45  feet ;  some  have  a  double,  and 
others  a  single  row  of  tubes,  which,  like  the  earthen  buckets  of 
the  Euphrates,  fill  as  they  pass  through  the  water;  being  after- 
wards reversed,  and  discharged  at  the  top  of  the  wheel.  But 
when  the  current  is  not  sufficiently  powerful,  a  number  of 
small  fans,  made  of  date  branches,  are  added  to  the  wheel,  and 
a  wooden  trough  at  the  top  carries  the  water  into  an  aqueduct 
like  those  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates. 
Description  of  Thesc  aqueducts  have,  as  may  be  supposed,  suffered  in  various 
t  e  aque  uct.  j^g^ggg  during  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages ;  but  owing  to  the 
favourable  state  of  the  atmosphere,  some,  like  the  buildings  in 
Egypt,  are  surprisingly  perfect.  They  are  of  cut  stone,  well 
jointed  and  firmly  cemented  together.  The  breadth  at  top  is 
from  20  inches  to  2  feet,  and  increases  towards  the  base  m  pro- 
portion to  the  height,  which  varies  according  to  circumstances.^ 
In  some  places  there  are  two  rows  of  arches  to  give  the  requisite 
height,  and  in  others,  when  the  distance  is  shorter,  there  is 
but  one. 
Particular  Thcsc  archcs,  which  appear  to  be  of  Persian,  or  rather  of 

kiud  of  arch        .  .  ••  i  ,r.  .    •         -i  ii*  v 

used  in  the  Assyriau  origm,  almost  lorm  a  triangle,  and,  bemg  ot  a  very 
aqueducts.  early  age,  it  may  be  presumed  that  they  gave  rise  to  the  Sara- 
cenic, or  pointed  curvilinear  kind.  They  were  evidently  cast 
without  any  kind  of  centreing,  by  causing  the  stones  or  bricks 
gradually  to  project  inwards,  till  the  sides  met  and  were  keyed ; 
and  the  building,  including  the  conduit,  being  covered  with 
durable  cement,  the  effect  is  particularly  striking,  although  de- 
prived of  columns,  pilasters,  and  other  ornaments. 

'  Plate  XXII.  '  Plate  L VII. 


CHAP.  XX.]  ANCIENT  WELLS  AND  CANALS.  657 

The  preceding  is  not,  however,  the  only  kind  of  aqueduct  in  Subterranean 

1  n  1  II*  water-courses. 

the  east,  for  subterranean  water-courses  have  been  u\  common 
use  throughout  Susiana,  Persia,  and  the  rest  of  the  land  of 
Cush,  from  the  time  of  Houshung,  to  whom  their  invention  is 
attributed.'  Almost  everywhere  throughout  those  regions,  this 
method  of  obtaining  a  supply  of  running  water  is  familiar  to  the 
people,  the  mode  of  construction  being  handed  down  from  father 
to  son,  as  the  calling  of  particular  faiuilies. 

Polvbius  notices  what  is  now  called  a  kanat,  or  kahreez,  in  a  Use  of  the 

''        .      ,  T       T  -1  •         j'l  •  r     A         ancieut  wells 

very  particular  manner.  In  describing  the  campaigns  or  An- 
tiochus,  he  observes,  that  in  these  parts  (i.  e.  beyond  Ecbatana) 
no  water  is  ever  seen  above  ground,  although  there  are  many 
subterraneous  wells  and  streams  throughout  the  deserts,  which 
are  known  only  to  the  people  of  the  country.^ 

We  know,  likewise,  that  such  is  the  value  of  water  at  the  adopted  by  the 
present  time,  that  the  Persians  give  to  those  who  bring  a  stream 
mto  a  place  where  none  existed  previously,  the  free  inheritance 
of  the  ground  for  five  generations ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  corresponding  privileges  were  granted,  on  the  like  occa- 
sions, in  ancient  times.  Encouraged  by  such  a  recompense, 
neither  labour  nor  expense  was  spared  to  convey  the  water 
through  subterraneous  channels  to  places  where  it  was  wanted. 
At  the  present  time,  those  who  use  the  waters  know  neither  the 
beginning  nor  the  course  of  the  channels  through  which  they 
flow. 

During  the  mad  expedition  of  Cambyses,  a  king  of  Arabia  Canaisofskins 
caused  a  canal  to  be  made  of  the  skins  of  oxen  and  other  ani-  distanc  °of 
ma]s,  sewn  together  whilst  raw :  this  extended  from  the  river  ^^^^^^  ^'^y^- 
Corys,^  a  distance  of  twelve  days' journey  into  the  arid  country, 
where  it  filled  the  large  cisterns  which  had  been  constructed  to 
contain  the  necessary  supply  of  water  for  his  army.     Here,  no 
doubt,  the  skins  represent  the  primitive  kanat  or  kahreez,  the 
formation  of  which  may  be  due  to  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Arabia. 

The  extreme  dryness  of  the  climate,  together  with  the  scarcity  Constmction 

of  a  kanat. 

*  Sir  Jolin  Malcolm's  History  of  Persia,  vol,  I.,  p.  14. 
«  Folard's  Polybius,  lib.  X.,  chap.  IV. 

•  Polybius,  lib.  III.,  cap.  ix. 

VOL.  IL  2  U 


658  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  KANAT.  [cHAP.  XX. 

of  running  water,  obliges  the  people  of  Persia  to  turn  their 
anxious  attention  to  the  discovery  of  springs  :  this  being  accom- 
plished, and  a  promising  head  of  water  obtained,  the  subterra- 
nean tunnel  is  executed  now,  as  it  was  anciently,  in  the  following 
manner. 

From  five  to  nine  shafts  are  usually  sunk  at  different  depths 
near  one  another,  on  some  elevated  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
where  it  is  presumed  water  may  be  found  :  a  good  supply  being 
thus  obtained  at  a  suitable  depth,  it  is  made  available  by  galle- 
ries of  intercommunication  between  the  different  shafts.  This 
being  effected  at  a  suitable  level,  the  next  operation  is  to  convey 
the  water  in  one  channel  to  the  village  which  it  is  proposed  to 
supply,  or  to  the  fields  which  are  to  be  irrigated. 
Successive  Having  ascertained  the  most  suitable  line  of  communication, 

and  connected,  as  wcll  as  the  Icvcl  of  the  plain  where  the  water  is  to  be  brought 
into  use,  successive  shafts  are  sunk  in  the  proper  direction, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  soil ;  and  these  are  severally  carried 
to  such  depths,  that  the  main  channel  or  kanat  connecting  them 
may  give  a  free  current  of  flowing  water  from  the  head  or  group 
of  wells,  till  it  has  reached  the  surface  at  the  proposed  spot : 
from  thence,  when  irrigation  is  contemplated,  it  is  conveyed  in 
open  channels. 
Method  of  The  Operation  of  sinking  the  shafts  to  the  level  of  the  bottom 

shafts.^    ^      of  the  kanat  is  extremely  simple.     After  a  circular  excavation 
has  been  carried  to  such  a  depth  that  the  soil  cannot  be  conve- 
niently thrown  by  hand  to  the  surface,  a  wooden  trundle  is  placed 
over  the  aperture,  from  which  a  basket  is  suspended,  and  the  latter 
being  filled  with  the  excavated  earth  by  a  man  working  below,  it 
is  wound  up  and  emptied  by  another  workman  above.     But 
when  the  soil  is  particularly  soft,  the  walls  are  secured  by  ma- 
sonry,  which,   however,  is  seldom  necessary ;    and  when  the 
Levels  carried  shafts  havc  reached  the  intended  level,  the  kanat  is  carried  by 
progress  of     Separate  portions  from  one  shaft  to  another  along  the  proposed 
tiiework.        jjj^g^     j^y  ^jjjg  arrangement,  many  workmen  are  employed  at 
the  same  time  in  different  places;  and  habitual  practice  has 
rendered  the  whole  operation  so  easy  and  so  certain,   that  a 
failure  in  the  necessary  slope  or  direction  seems  to  be  almost 
unknown.     The  main  cliannel  of  a  kanat,  as  well  as  the  shafts 


CHAP.  XX.]  GREAT  LENGTH  OF  THE  KANATS.  659 

leading  down  to  it,  is  about  3i  feet  diameter,  and  it  is  almost 
always  completed  without  resorting  to  any  artificial  support  of 
the  soil.  But  when  the  latter  does  not  possess  the  necessary 
tenacity,  the  difficulty  is  overcome  either  by  masonry  in  parti- 
cular places,  or  by  a  lining  consisting  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
earthen  rings.  These  are  of  baked  clay,  from  5  to  9  inches  Baked  rings 
broad  in  the  rim,  about  2  inches  thick,  and  large  enough  to  us^d^i" sup^rt 
enable  a  man  to  crawl  through  the  channel  formed  by  placing  ^^^^  ^°'^- 
them  either  at  short  distances,  or,  if  necessary,  in  contact  one 
with  another.  To  facilitate  their  introduction,  as  ^vell  as  the 
replacement  of  those  which  are  broken,  the  rings  approach  an 
oval  shape,  so  that  when  placed  upright  they  rest  against  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  tunnel,  and  are  kept  in  their  places  by  stuflSng 
earth  into  the  spaces  left  on  each  side.  The  pipe  thus  formed, 
being  as  hard  as  ordinary  pottery,  is  very  durable,  and  suflSciently 
strong  to  restrain  the  earth  from  falling  down  and  interrupting 
the  free  passage  of  the  water.' 

These  aqueducts  are  very  numerous,  and  frequently  at  a  great  Kanats  carried 
depth ;  such  are  those  near  Shuster,  and  in  other  parts  w^here  disunces. 
the  supply  is  augmented  by  the  continual  oozing-in  of  water 
from  other  parts.  In  some  instances  lateral  galleries  have  been 
added  to  the  main  shaft,  to  open  up  the  springs  indicated  by 
the  water  trickling  into  the  main  channel.  Throughout  Susiana, 
as  well  as  along  most  of  the  plains  of  Persia,  the  courses  of  the 
kahreezes  may  easily  be  traced  by  means  of  low  flat  mounds 
about  the  apertures  of  the  shafts ;  and  the  distances  through 
which  such  streams  are  sometimes  conducted  is  extraordinary. 

Since  the  formation  of  the  vast  tunnel  under  the  Thames  at 
Eotherhithe,  and  of  the  tunnels  at  various  places  on  the  rail- 
roads, this  subterraneous  work  has  become  very  common  in 
Great  Britain.  These  are,  however,  of  small  extent  compared 
with  the  kanats  of  Persia,  which  are  frequently  carried  to  a 
distance  of  12  or  15  miles,  and  sometimes  much  more.  The  Kanats  are 
karvanserai,  on  the  march  between  Dangan  and  Mushed,  ^^ "veu  tw^ty 
draws  its  supply  of  water  from  a  distance  of  about  21  miles  ;™iies. 

'  The  account  in  the  text  is  given  cliiefly  from  a  note  furnished  by  Sir 
John  M'Neill,  G.C.B.,  Her  Majesty's  Envoy  at  the  Court  of  Teheran. 

2  U  2 


660  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SOUTERAZI.  [cHAP.  XX. 

and  ill  the  plain  of  Sultaniyah,  water  is  in  one  instance  carried 
nearly  40  miles. 

The  kanats  yield  a  considerable  revenue  to  the  Shah,  who, 
in  many  cases,  receives  rent  for  the  water  instead  of  the  land  ; 
this  amounts  to  20  per  cent,  for  a  flowing  stream,  and  15  for 
kanats ;  but  for  wells  or  reservoirs  only  5  per  cent.^ 

Such  is  the  importance  of  a  new  kahreez,  that  the  day  of 
bringing  the  water  to  its  ultimate  destination  is  made  one  of 
rejoicing  among  the  peasants ;  who,  having  patiently  awaited 
the  fortunate  hour,  named  by  the  astrologers,  receive  the  gush- 
ing forth  of  the  stream  with  shouts  of  joy,  accompanied  by 
songs,  music,  and  loud  expressions  of  the  anxious  desire  that 
prosperity  may  attend  it. 
Use  of  the  The  ancient  system  of  conveying  water  appears  to  have  been 

Arabia°and     extended  eastward  as  well   as  westward,   for   the  kahreez  is 
Barbary.        commou  in  Afghanistan,^  in  Kirman,^  and  in  'Oman,^  also  in 
Arabia  Felix ;  and  one  near  Tangier  was  still  perfect  when 
seen  by  the  author  in  1824.     This,  however,  is  a  permanent 
work,  being  cased  with  masonry,  and  covered  with  that  durable 
kind  of  cement  for  which  the  works  of  the  Moorish  Arabs  are 
so  remarkable. 
The  souterazi       The  aqucducts  just  described  being  only  adapted  for  ground 
and  Moors.  ^    that  is  tolerably  even,  the  eastern  people  have  overcome  the 
difficulties  of  a  hilly  and  irregular  surface  by  means  of  another 
description  of  canal,  which  is  met  with  in  Barbary,  and  also  in 
Turkey,  where  it  assists  in  supplying  the  capital.     To  the  great 
cisterns  in  Constantinople  water  is  conducted  from  the  well- 
known  reservoirs  near  the  village  of  Belgrade,  by  means  of  a 
slightly  inclined  subterraneous  canal,  called  souterazi.     This  is 
Method  of       merely  a  system  of  earthen  conduit  pipes  about  four  inches  and 
constructing    ^  j^j^]£  jj^  diameter,  having  a  number  of  inverted  syphons  con- 

these  works.  .  .  . 

nected  together,  and  opening  at  the  superior  parts  into  small 
cisterns  placed  at  the  top  of  towers  of  a  particular  description. 
The  latter  are  massive  pieces  of  masonry  from  20  feet  to  40 

'  Malcolm's  History  of  Persia,  vol.  II.,  p.  473. 

*  Elphinstone's  Cabul,  p.  304.  ^  Ouseley's  Ibn  Haukal. 

*  Near  Bediali.— Lieut.  Wellsted's  Travels,  vol.  I.,  p.  276. 


CHAP.  XX.]  RESERVOIRS,  CISTERNS,  AND  TANKS.  661 

feet  high,  decreasing  like  an  Eg}^ptian  obelisk  towards  the  top, 
on  which  is  the  basin  or  cistern  just  mentioned.  The  latter 
receives  two  leaden  pipes,  by  one  of  which  the  water  ascends 
from  the  conduit  on  one  side,  and  by  the  other  it  again  de- 
scends into  it  on  the  opposite  side.  This  last  conveys  the  water 
in  a  similar  manner  to  another  tower,  and  so  on :  this  takes 
place  over  the  undulations  of  the  ground  till  it  reaches  its  ulti- 
mate destination.     The   use  of  the   towers,  however,  is  not  Toners  with 

cisterns. 

confined  to  the  passage  of  a  glen  or  valley ;  they  are  also  con- 
structed on  level  ground,  with  the  double  object  of  giving  addi- 
tional distributions  when  requisite,  and  also  of  enabling  the 
workmen  more  easily  to  ascertain  where  an  injury  may  have 
occurred  in  the  pipes. 

Receptacles  for  water  are  of  three  kinds ;  first,  grand  reser-  Reservoirs  to 
voirs  formed  by  throwing  bunds,  as  already  mentioned,^  across  orwater!^^^ 
rivers  or  valleys  which  give  a  large  supply  of  water,  as  at  Bel- 
grade in  Turkey,  and  at  Oedipore,  Haider- A'bad,  and  other 
places  in  India ;  secondly,  smaller  bodies  of  water  are  collected 
by  means  of  open  cisterns,  enclosed  by  substantial  walls,  such 
as  those  of  Solomon,^  of  Hesbon,^  and  of  Irbid  ;■*  and  thirdly, 
covered  tanks  which  are  coated  with  cement ;  these  of  various 
sizes,  and  are  either  for  general  use  or  merely  for  individual 
edifices.  Some  tanks  constructed  by  the  Arabs  have  already 
been  noticed.  Two  of  these  at  Constantinople,  in  connexion  with  Covered 
the  souterazi,  are  remarkable  for  their  size  and  architecture ;  stantinopie. 
and  one,  called  the  Thousand  and  One  Columns,  is  about  200 
paces  long  by  100  wide  :  it  is  now  dry  and  occupied  by  silk 
twisters.  It  has  upwards  of  300  columns,  some  plain  and  others 
of  the  composite  order,  supporting  the  arches  on  which  the  roof 
rests.  The  other,  called  the  Subterranean  Palace  (Yeri  batan 
Serai),  is  more  extensive  and  is  still  serv'iceable.  This  extends 
under  several  streets,  and  has  an  arched  roof  supported  by  336 
thick  marble  columns,  some  of  the  Egyptian  kind,  and  some 
of  the  composite  order. 

Those  of  Ramleh  *  and  some  other  places  in  Syria  are  also 

'  See  above,  p.  613.  *  See  vol.  L,  p.  496. 

»  Ibid.,  p.  516.  *  Ibid.,  p.  413. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  492. 


662  SYRIAN  WATER-WORKS.  [CHAP.  XX. 

extensive,  but  in  general  at  the  towns,  villages,  and  ruins 
throughout  this  country,  as  well  as  in  the  desert  of  Arabia, 
these  receptacles  for  containing  water  are  of  moderate  size, 
having  one  small  aperture  at  a  depth  of  from  30  to  40  feet ; 
and  occasionally  there  is  a  flight  of  steps  to  descend  to  the  level 
of  the  water.  In  general  they  are  not  built,  but  excavated  in 
the  rocks,  and  as  the  inhabitants  of  Syria  chiefly  depend  upon 
tanks  for  a  supply  of  water,  such  structures  are  very  numerous 
throughout  the  country. 


END  OF  VOL.  ir. 


APPENDIX. 


A  P  P  E  i\  D  I  X. 


(A.) 

Although  wc  are  nowhere  informed  that  the  body  of  Cyrus  was  carried  back  to 
Persia,  we  can  hardly  suppose  it  would  have  been  otherwise,  since  it  was  the  custom 
of  the  now  united  nations  to  give,  if  possible,  more  than  regal  sepultm-e — to 
which  a  monarch,  at  once  distinguished  and  beloved,  would  have  an  irresistible 
claim.  The  Persian  inscription,  "  I  am  Cyrus,  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy," 
with  the  expressive  addition  made  by  Alexander  the  Great — "  Envy  me  not, 
therefore,  the  small  portion  of  earth,  wherein  my  body  lies  enclosed,"'  and  the 
golden  coffin,  &c.,  have  long  disappeared  from  the  interior;  but  the  identity  of 
the  tomb  is  established  by^the  following  brief  cuneiform  Inscription,  which  is  five 
times  repeated  on  pilasters  among  the  mins  at  Murgh-ab : — 

Adam  Qm'us  khsarja 

piy'd  H'akhamanisiya. 

This  has  been  deciphered — Ego  C)tus  rex,  Achtemenius ;  and  from  the  absence 
of  the  usual  style,  "  the  gi'eat  king,"  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  might  possibly 
refer  to  the  younger  Cyrus  ;*  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  never  was 
king,  and  also  that  the  high-sounding  title  in  question,  and  that  of  king  of  kings, 
were  not  applicable  to  the  first  Achaemenian  sovereign,  but  rather  to  some  of  his 
successors. 


(B.) 

Long  since  this  part  of  the  text  was  written,  a  sufficient  knowledge  has  been 
obtained  of  the  Median  and  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions  to  establish  some  cir- 
cumstances of  much  interest  in  connexion  with  the  reign  of  this  sovereign  (Darius 
Hystaspes),  Four  of  these  remarkable  records  were  found  among  the  ruins  of 
Persepolis  ;  a  fifth  is  on  the  royal  tomb  opposite  to  the  palace ;  a  sixth  is  near 
Hamadan  (Elwand),  and  the  seventh  at  Bisutun.  One  of  the  first  gives  the 
original  of  the  name  : — 

Darvawas  khsayapi\a 

w'azark'a.  khsayapiv'a  khsa— 

y apiyanam ,  khsy apiy a 

dahyuu'am,  Vistaspahv- 

a  puthra,  Hakhamanisi\  a,  h— 

ya  imam  t'aaxram  aqunus. 

'  Arr.  Ex.,  lib.  VI.  cap.  xxix.,  and  Plutarch  in  Alex. 

*  Me'moires  de  la  Societe  Koyale  dus  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  pp.  422,  423.     Copeuliagen,  1844. 

VOL.  11.  2  X 


QQQ  APPENDIX. 

And  the  whole  makes  known  that  "  The  mighty  King  Darius,  King  of  Kings, 
Kino-  of  Reahns,  the  son  of  Kystaspes,  an  Achaemenian,  built  this  house."  * 

Another  one  against  the  niuis  of  Persepolis,  and  above  the  Sasanian  sculptures, 
and  now  called  Nakshi  Rustam,  is  very  long,  and  one  portion — 

11.  HA- 

12.  K  DAEIYA-nOJS  KU  NAARI  ZU  VI YI  AURA- 

13.  ZDAN  SA  DAHTUS  PPG  YO  BERIEZZA  ZA- 

14.  RAKHA  PHAASA  KHKHABE  YO  .  ,  ZRADANITHVEXA- 

15.  M  YO  '  N  QDTIS,  PPG  YO  KHKHABE  PTHRIKHA 

16.  YUTU  YUT  .  DAT  AM  PPO  YO  .  X  YUTU  PI  BERI- 

17.  S 

is  very  remarkable,  on  account  of  its  allusion  to  conquered  countries,  and  the  use 
of  ships :  the  translation  runs—"  I  am  the  noble  Darius,  king  according  to  the 
will  of  Auramazdes.  These  countries,  which  I  conquered  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Persians,  paid  tribute  to  me  (worthy  to  be  reverenced),  and  afforded  the 
contmual  assistance  of  ships.     What  was  thus  given  to  me,  I  have  preserved.* 

In  another,  probably  alluding  to  Greece,  he  speaks  of  "  Those  whom  Darius 
the  king  commanded,  brought  help  in  every  way  against  the  rebelUon,  which  I 
skilfully  put  down."* 

Again,  on  the  subject  of  their  religion  : — 

56.  Martiya  a  hya  Aur'am'azdah- ■ 

57.  a  phramana  huwatiy'a  gas- 

58.  ta  ma  padaya  papim 

59.  tyam  rastam  ma 

60.  awar'ada  ma  sta-wa. 

(  Translation.^ 

"  The  races  of  mortals  depend  upon  the  authority  of  Auramazde :  their  own 
counsels  come  to  nought.  May  they  not  forsake  this  right  way ;  may  they  not 
offend,  may  they  not  destroy  it  I"* 

And  linked  with  the  latter,  as  intimately  connected  with  Persian  life,  it  is 
stated  that  the  terrace  and  propytea  were  constructed  by  Darius  and  his  people 
according  to  the  will  of  Auramazdes.^     Again,  on  the  same  subject : — 

7.  TKHAT  SA- 

8.  WAQQA  .  BERO  SA  QUSlKHA 

9.  P  .  KHA  SAWA  .  BERO  I  . 

10.  QUSIKH  ZU  VIYI  AURAZ- 

11.  DAN  SA  .  BERO  YO  QUSl- 

12.  YA  BAK  AURAZDA  SA. 

13.  THU  ROVI  .  N  ANAPPETUTH- 

14.  TA  EDAKHA  PPO  SA  .  BERO 

'  Me'moires  dc  la  Societc  Koyale  des  Antiquaires  du  Xonl,  p.  otJJ.     Copenhagen,  1844. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  a74.  8  Ibid.,  pp.  383,  384.  ■»  Ibid.,  p.  401.  Mbid.,  p.  419. 


APPENDIX.  667 

15.  QUSIKHA  IIAK  YO  QUsIYA  QUT- 

16.  TA  QUSIYA  .  WA  HAK  SiS. 

17.  QUTTA  .  THUK  SA  .  THU  .  P 

18.  YO  ROVEN. 

In  this  passage,  according  to  the  interpretation  given,  Darius  tells  us  that  he 
erected  the  principal  terrace,'  which  to  the  east  abuts  upon  the  mountain,  forming 
a  magnificent  platform,  which  has  been  already  described.* 

But  what  on  every  account  most  deserve  attention  are  the  four  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions, on  the  southern  wall  of  the  great  platform,  each  containing  twenty-four 
lines : — 

Ist.^ 

1.  Auramazda  wazarka,  hya  mapista  bag- 

2.  anam,  huwa  Dary'awum  khsay'api- 

3.  yam  ad'ada,  husiy'a  khs'athr'am  phraba- 

4.  ra .  w'asna  Auramazdaha  Dary'awn— 

5.  s  khsay'apiya.  patiya  Daryavrus 

6.  khsayapiy'a  iyam  dahyaus  Par— 

7.  sa,  tyain  mana  Auramazda  phi-aba- 

8.  ra  hya  niba  uwaspa  umarti- 

9.  ya :  wasna  Auramazdaha  manac— 

10.  a  Daryaw'ahus  khsayapiyahv. 

11.  a  haca  aniyana  niy'a  farsat- 

12.  iya:  patiya  Darya\\nis  khsava- 

13.  piya .  mana  Auramazda  upastaiu 

14.  baruwa  hada  vipibis  bagi- 

15.  bis  ,  uta  imam  dahyamn  Aura- 

1 6.  mazda  pa5uwa  haca  hinay- 

17.  a ,  haca  thusiyai-a ,  haca  d'ar- 

18.  uga.abiy'a  imam  dahyaima  ma 

19.  azmiya,  ma  hina,  ma  thus- 

20.  iyaiam  ,  ma  d'aruga.     Ait'a  adam 

21.  yan-m  yachiyaniya  Auramazd- 

22.  am  hada  vipibis  bagibis  a- 

23.  datadiya  .  .  .  Auramazda  uda3- 

24.  uwa  hada  vipibus  bagibis. 

(Translation.) 

"  The  might\'  Auramazdes,  who  is  the  greatest  of  the  gods,  himself  appointed 
Darius,  being  benevolent  to  him,  bestowed  upon  him  the  chief  power.  By  the 
grace  of  Auramazdes,  I,  Darius,  am  king.  The  noble  Darius,  king  of  this  Per- 
sian counti'y,  which  Auramazdes  bestowed  upon  me  in  this  court  [or  open  plat- 

^  Me'moires  de  la  Socie'te  Royale  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  p.  419.     Copenliagen,  1844. 

*  See  above,  p.  617-620. 

s  Me'moires  de  la  Socie'te  Royale  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  pp.  405,  40G.    Copenhagen,  1844. 

2x2 


668  APPENDIX. 

form]  by  the  power  of  a  horse  of  excellent  virtue,  and  accordingto  the  will  of 
Auraraazdes  sacred  adoration  falls  to  the  lot  of  me,  King  Darius.  I  am  the  noble 
Darius  kino-,  O  Auramazdes !  accept  from  me  adoration  with  the  national  gods ; 
and  O  Auramazdes,  defend  the  country  from  disease,  from  barrenness,  and  from 
falsehood !  Let  not  the  storms  of  winter,  nor  disease,  nor  sterilit)',  nor  falsehood 
enter  this  countiy.  This  happy  condition  I,  with  the  national  gods,  entreat 
Auramazdes :  O,  most  wise  Aiiramazdes,  preserve  me  witli  the  national  gods !" 

2nd.' 

1.  Adam  Daryawus  khsayapiya  waz'a- 

2.  rka,  khsayapiya  khsayapiyana- 

3.  m  ,  klisavapiya  dahyunam  tyi- 

4.  sam  parunam,  Vistaspahya 

5.  puthra,  Hakham'anisiya .  patiya  Dar- 

6.  yawus  klisavapiya  wasna  Aurani'a- 

7.  zdaha  .  una  dahvawa ,  tya  adam 

8.  adarsiya  hada  ana  Parsa  ka- 

9.  ra ,  tya  hacam  afars  ,  mana  baj- 

10.  im  ab'ara :  Uwaza,  Mada,  Babif u- 

11.  s,  Arabaya,  Apura,  Qhudray- 

12.  a,  Armina,  Katpaduka,  Spard'a,  Y- 

13.  una,  tviva  uskahya  uta  ty- 
14:,  iya  daryahva  ;   uta  dahyawa  t- 

15.  va  :  Parutva,  Asagarta  Parpawa  Zara- 

16.  ka,  Hai-iwa,  Bakhtris,  Sugda,  Uw- 

17.  ar'azmiya,  patagus,  Haruwatis,  H- 

18.  'Ahus,  Gadara,  Saka,  Maka,  patiya 

19.  Daryawus  khsayapiya  yachiyS 

20.  awama  manivahya  h'aca  aniy'd- 

21.  na.  ma  d'arsam  imam  Parsam  karam  pachi- 

22.  ya  .  yachiya  kara  Parsa  patah'atiya  hya 

23.  thuAvistam  siyatis  akhsata  huwaci- 

24.  va  Aura  nirasatiya  abiya  imam  vipim. 

{Translation.') 
"  I,  Darius,  am  a  mighty  king,  king  of  kings,  king  of  these  many  countries, 
the  son  of  Vistapes,  an  Achagmenian ;  I  am  the  noble  Darius,  king  by  the  grace  of 
Auramazdes.  These  ai-e  the  countries  which  I  held  in  subjection — in  this  thuig 
the  Persians  were  the  actors — and  wlio  paid  adoration  to  fire,  and  i)aid  tribute  to 
me  :  Cissia,  Media,  Babylonia,  Arabia,  Africa,  the  Gordjeei,  Armenia,  Cappadocia, 
Sparda,  the  lonians,  both  those  on  the  continent  and  the  islands ;  and  also  these 
countries,  Parutia,  Asagarba,  Parthians,  Zaranga,  the  Harians,  Bactria,  Sogdia, 
Chorasmia,  Palayas,  Arachosia,  India,  Gaudara,  Sacians,  Maca.  The  noble  King 
Darius,  worthy  to  be  reverenced.     May  such  adoration  be  consecrateil  to  me. 

'  Me'moires  de  la  Socie'te'  Royalc  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  p.  407.     Copenliagen,  1844. 


APPENDIX.  669 

May  I  never  see  this  Persian  acting  in  an  himible  condition.  The  Persian  is  an 
agent  to  be  reverenced  as  one  who  is  a  defender.  May  fortune  remain  safe  to  this 
nation  to  most  distant  ages.  O  thou  who  art  justly  celebrated  with  Divine 
honours ! " 

It  has  been  observed,  that  as  the  Scythians  (Squdra)  are  not  here  enumerated, 
but  afterwards  included  among  the  nations  tribufciry  to  Xerxes,  it  is  probable  that 
these  inscriptions  were  cut  previously  to  the  expedition  undertaken  by  the  great 
king  against  the  tribes  of  Scythia.' 

The  interpretation  of  the  important  and  detailed  trilingual  inscriptions  of 
Bisutiin  have  thrown  much  additional  light  on  the  liistory  of  this  reign,  especially 
the  details  of  the  various  conquests  and  expeditions  of  Darius  Hystaspes  for  the 
suppression  of  revolts,  previous  to  his  invasion  of  Thrace.  These  inscriptions,  and 
their  interpretation  as  deciphered  by  Major  RawUnson,  will  be  found  at  length  in 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Journal,  vol.  X.,  part  i.,  and  vol.  X.,  part  iii.  The  still  more 
recent  and  valuable  interpretations,  by  Major  Rawliuson  and  others,  of  the  Perse- 
politan  inscriptions  given  above,  are  found  to  agree  in  all  essential  points  with 
those  of  the  Societe  Royale  des  Antiquaires  du  Xord,  already  quoted. 


(C.) 

The  inscriptions  which  have  been  deciphered  since  this  work  was  prepared 
elucidate  the  present,  as  the  others  already  noticed  have  done  in  the  case  of  the 
former  reign ;  and  in  the  same  inflated  language.* 

16.  patiya  Khsyarsa  narpha  w'azar- 

17.  ka  w'asna  Aurahya  m'azdaha 

18.  ima  hacliis  Dary'awus  narpha 

19.  aqunus,  hya  mana  pet- 

20.  a.  mam  Auram'azda  pa3u- 

21.  wa  hada  bagibis  uta  t- 

22.  yamiya  kart'am  uta  tyami- 

23.  ya  pithra  Dar\awahus  narphaliy- 

24.  a  kart'am  awasaciya  Aur'am'az- 

25.  da  pa9uwa  hada  bagibis. 

(^Translation.^ 

"  I  am  the  noble  Xerxes,  a  great  king  according  to  the  will  of  Auramazdes, 
King  Darius  built  this  pillared  hall,  who  was  my  father.  Aiuramazdes  defend 
me  with  gods,  both  this  palace  and  also  the  palace  of  my  father  King  Darius.  O 
Auramazdes !  worthy  to  be  propitiated,  defend  me  with  gods." 

Again  on  the  same  mteresting  subject  of  the  great  palace  and  its  portals^  — 

1 1 .  pativ'a  Khsvarsa  khsavapiya  w'asna 

1 2.  Aur'am'azdaha  im'am  thuw'arpim  vis'ad'ali)-um 

'  Me'moires  de  la  Societe  Royale  des  Antiquaires  du  Nord,  p.  408. 
« Ibid.  p.  349.  3  n,id,  351. 


670  APPENDIX. 

13.  adam  aqunwam,  wasiya  aniyasaciya  nibam 

14.  kartam  una  Parsa  tya  adam  aqunw'ani 

15.  iitanaiya  tya  pita  aqunus  tyapatiya  k'a- 

16.  rtam  winatiya  nibam  awa  visam  wasna  A— 

17.  uramazdaha  aquma.  patiya  Khsyai'sa 

18.  khsayapiya  mam  Auramazda  pa3uwa  ufami- 

19.  ya  khsathram  uta  tya  mana  kartam  uta  tyami— 

20.  ya  pithra  k'artam  awasaciya  Auramazda  pa3uwa. 

Which  may  thus  be  rendered : — 

"  I  am  the  noble  King  Xerxes.  According  to  the  will  of  Auramazdes,  I  have 
built  this  portal  to  be  entered  by  the  people,  also  the  greater  propylaea,  and  the 
palace — mv  father  built  the  former  palace  and  its  portals.  According  to  the  will 
of  Auramazdes  we  built  them,  and  also  the  palace  of  my  father.  O  Auramazdes, 
worthy  to  be  propitiated,  defend  me  !  " 

Finally,  the  dependent  viceroyalties  of  the  great  king  are  enumerated,  as  in 
the  case  of  his  predecessors,  but  with  the  addition  of  the  Squdra  or  Scythians.* 

The  inscriptions  of  Xerxes  are  found  at  Hamadan,  Persepolis,  and  Van.  The 
preceding  are  from  Persepolis — the  following,  from  the  former  plan,  is  of  some 
interest.  The  translation  is  that  of  Lassen,  given  by  Major  Rawlinson,  in  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Journal,  vol.  X.,  part  ii.,  page  319. 

1.  Baga  wazarka  Auramazda, 

2.  hya  mathishta  Baganam, 

3.  hya  imam  bumim  ad 

4.  a  hya  awam  asmanam 

5.  ada,  hya  martiyam  ad 

6.  a,  hya  shiyatim  ada 

7.  martiyahya,  hya  Khsha 

8.  yarsham  khsluiyathiyam 

9.  akanaush,  awam  parun 

10.  am  khshayathiyam,  aivam 

11.  parunam  framataram. 

12.  (2)  Adam  Khshayarsha  khsha 

13.  yathiya,  wagarka  khshayathi 

14.  ya,  khshayathiyanam  khsh 

15.  ayathiya,  dabyaunam  par 

16.  uzarianam  khshayathiya 

17.  ahiyaha  bumiya  wa 

18.  Zarkaya  duriga  apiya, 

19.  Dar  (a)  yava  (h)  ush  khshayathiya 

20.  hya  putra,  Hakhamanishiya. 

(1)  "The  great  god  Ormazd,  the  chief  of  the  gods  (he  it  is),  who  has  given 
this  world,  who  has  given  that  heaven,  wlio  has  given  mankind,  who  has  given 

'  Me'nioires  do  la  Soriete  Royalo  <lc's  Antiiiuaiios  dii  Noid,  ji.  408. 


APPENDIX.  671 

life  (?)  to  mankind,  who  has  made  Xerxes  king,  both  the  king  of  the  people  and 
the  lawgiver  of  the  people. 

(2)  "  I  am  Xerxes  the  king,  the  great  king,  the  king  of  kings,  the  king  of  the 
many-peopled  countries,  the  supporter  also  of  this  great  world,  the  son  of  king 
Darius  the  Achajmenian." 

See  also  M.  Bumouf' s  examination  and  translation  of  this,  and  a  similar  inscrip- 
tion relating  to  Darius  at  Hamadan,  in  his  Memoires  sur  deux  Inscriptions  cunei- 
formes  trouvees  pres  d'Haraadan,  p.  121.     Paris,  1836. 

His  interpretation  differs  very  slightly  from  that  given  above. 


(D.) 

An  inscription  foiuid  on  the  western  staircase  of  Persepolis  is  so  important  in 
connexion  wath  this  period  of  history,  that  it  is  but  right  to  give  it  at  length.  It 
is  in  the  Persian  or  Achfemenian  writing,  and  is  found  thrice  repeated  on  the 
northern  wall  of  the  smaller  platform. 

1.  Bag'a  wazark'a  Amamazd— 

2.  a,  hya  imam  bumam 

3.  ada,  hya  awam  asman- 

4.  am  ada,  hya  m'artiyam 

5.  ada,  hya  sayatam  a- 

6.  da  martihya,  hya  ma- 

7.  m  Artakhsathra  khsayapi- 

8.  y'a  aqunus,  aiwam  p'afuw- 

9.  nam  khsayapiyam,  aiwa— 

10.  m  paruwnam  phr'amataram. 

11.  patiya  Artakhsathra  khs— 

12.  ayapiy'a  w'azai-ka  khsava— 

13.  piya  khsayapiy'anam, 

14.  khsavapiya  dahyunam, 

15.  khsayapiya  ahvaya 

16.  buiiiiya  .  Adam  Artakhsathra  kh— 

17.  sayapiya  puthra  .  Artakhsathra 

18.  Daryawus  khsayapiya 

19.  putlira  .  Daryawus  Artakhsa- 

20.  thra  khsavapiya  puthra  .  Arta- 

21.  kJisathra  Khsyarsa  khsaya- 

22.  piya  puthra.  Khsyarsa  Dar- 

23.  yawns  khsayapiya  puthra. 

24.  Daiyawus  Vastispahy 

25.  a  nama  puthr'd  .  Vastaspahy. 

26.  a  Arsania  nama  puthra ;   Ha— 

27.  khamanisiya  .  patiya  Ar— 


672  APPENDIX. 

28.  takhsathra  khsayapiya. 

29.  iman  ustasnam  apag'a- 

30.  nam  mam  upa  mam 

31.  karta  .  patiy'a  Artakhsathr- 

32.  a  khsayapiya.  mam  Aura- 

33.  m'azda  uta  m'athra  baga  pa- 

34.  3uwa  uta  imam  dahnmi 

35.  uta  tya  mam  karta. 

The  first  lines  contain  merely  the  too-oft  repeated  passages,  the  introductory  and' 
that  of  the  titles,  which  are  explained  above.  The  only  thing  remarkable  is  the 
omission  of  the  titles  "  thm-iya  apiya,"  which  are  invariably  found  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  ^Darius  and  Xerxes,  but  which  the  state  of  the  empire  in  his  time  no 
doubt  taught  Artaxerxes  prudently  to  omit.  The  new  and  original  matter  begins 
in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  hne,  and  is  here  subjoined :  Ego  Artaxerxis  regis 
'^filius  .  Artaxerxes  "Darii  regis  ''filius  .  Darius  Artaxerxis  ^"regis  filius  .  Arta- 
xei-xes  ^'Xerxis  regis  ^^filius  .  Xerxes  Darii  ^^regis  filius  .  ^^Darius  Hystaspis 
*^nomine  filius  .  Hystaspes  **Arsamis  nomine  filius ;  Achaemenius  .  *"Generosus 
(simi)  Ai'taxerxes  *^rex  .  ^'Htec  alta  arx  ^''mea  (est)  in  meo  ^'palatio  .  Generosus 
Artaxerxes  ^*rex  .  me  o  Auramazdes  ^^et  IMitlira  deus  tuere,  *'tum  hanc  regionem, 
**tum  hoc  meum  palatium.' 

The  inscription,  besides  being  most  remarkable  in  a  philological  point  of  view, 
since  it  shows  how  early  the  ancient  Persian  language  began  to  decay,  is  not  less 
important  on  accomit  of  the  historical  dates  which  it  supplies.  We  have  here 
the  genealogy  of  Artaxerxes  the  Third,  fi-om  Arsama,  the  Greek  Arsames,  the 
father  of  Hystaspes,  quite  agreeing  with  that  given  by  Greek  authors,  viz. — 

Arsama.  Ajsames. 

Vistaspa,  Hystaspes. 

Daryawus.  Darius. 

Khsyarsa.  Xerxes. 

Artakhsathra.  Artaxerxes  I. 

Daryawus.  Darius. 

Artakhsathra.  Artaxerxes  II. 

Artakhsathra.  Artaxerxes  III, 

With  the  exception  of  Xerxes  the  Second  and  Sogdianus,  who  are  omitted, 
not  being  the  lineal  ancestors  of  Artaxerxes  the  Third,  but  only  brothers  of  his 
grandfather  Darius  the  Second,  we  have  here  the  complete  genealogy  of  Artaxerxes 
the  Third,  from  Arsames,  the  father  of  Hystaspes,  and  it  quite  agrees  with  that 
given  by  Greek  authors.'' 

'  Me'moires  de  la  Societe  Royale  des  Anliquaires  du  Nord,  18-i4,  jip.  423-426. 
*  Ibid. 


APPENDIX. 


673 


(E.) 

A  List  of  Exactions  and  Monopolies  farmed  out  by  the  Pdshd  of  Mosul, 


Piastres. 

General  Stamp  on  u'oods    .      .  275,000 

Dyeing  blue  with  indigo  .      .  224,000 
, ,       with  madder  roots  and 

printing      .      .      .  23,000 

Bleaching 5,000 

Building  rafts  on  river      .      .  50,000 

Sale  of  horses  and  yarns   .      .  24,000 

Ferry 10,000 

PubHc -weighing     ....  30,000 

Duty  on  auctioneers    .      .      .  9,000 

, ,      corn 100,000 

Precious  metals  ....  20, COO 
Duty  on  copper  ....  6,000 
,,  butchers' meat  .  .  120,000 
, ,  oils  and  sale  of  sweet- 
meats ....  40,000 
,,  sale  of  candles  .  .  40,000 
,,  roasting  kal)obs  .  .  3,000 
,,      dried  fruits     .      .      .  20,000 


I    Tax  on   every  load   entering 
I  the  town     . 

, ,       water-melon  gardens 
, ,       other  gardens 
, ,       sale  or  keeping  cows 
, ,       counting  flocks  . 
Isnaf,  or  corporation  tax  .      .   1 
Monopoly  on  sale  of  tobacco  . 
, ,  , ,  soap .      . 

, ,  , ,  coftee      . 

, ,  , ,  salt  . 

, ,  ,  ,  charcoal 

Exactions  from  Miihammedans 
at  the  new  year    .      .     , 

Total      .      .      .   3,195,500 


1841. 
Piastres. 

300,000 
13,000 
15,000 
10,000 

300,000 

,050,000 

24.500 

350,000 
27,000 
20,000 
27,000 

60,000 


Equal  to  about  £32,000. 


Previous  to  the  present  Pasha  (1841)  there  was  only  one  small  tax  levied  of 
the  above  exactions,  on  the  Isnafs  or  corporations  of  trades,  under  the  name  of 
"  Saliaii ;"  this  is  an  exaction  on  ]\Iuhammedans  only.  The  Kharaj,  which  extends 
only  to  Christians  and  Jews,  is  said  to  be  fixed  by  the  Porte  at  110,000  piastres, 
but  the  Pasha  levies  200,000.  He  also  exacts  40  piastres  on  every  loaded  camel 
leaving  the  town,  which  is  levied  on  the  person  hiring  the  animal. 

Comparison  of  Imports  to  Mosul  in  1835  and  1841. 


British  yarns  of  all  descriptions     .      .      .   Bales 
Handkerchiefs,  muslin,  lappets,  &c.    .      .      , , 

Indigo •    .      .   Chests 

Chintz  of  all  kinds Bales 

Broad  cloth,  French , , 

Coffee,  Mocha    ....      Cantars  of  500  lbs. 
Tin  Banco     .      .      .      ■      .  , , 

Sugar,  Bengal  refined   .      .  , , 

Red  caps  from  France  and  Genoa  .      .      .  Chests 

Domestics,  English Bales 

MaddapoUam Pieces 


1835 

1841 

500 

20 

80 

8 

75 

1     19 

250 

50 

56 

16 

100 

40 

0 

•  4 

70 

25 

50 

30 

80 

None. 

4,000 

1,500 

The  enormous  monopolies  given  above,  which  are  in  addition  to  the  regular 
revenues  of  the  country,  depopulate  the  territory  and  impoverish  the  people. 
The  tax  on  indigo-dyeing,  for  instance,  is  two-thirds  more  than  the  value  of  indigo 
itself.  Europeans,  however,  are  exempt  fiom  these  exactions,  pa}-ing  only  a 
fixed  and  moderate  rate  of  duty. 

The  principal  inhabitants  of  the  pashalik  of  IMosul  are  Turks,  Arabs,  Kurds, 
Bedawins,  Yezidis,  Nestorians,  and  Jews.  The  Turks  and  Arabs,  with  a  few 
Kurds  and  Yezidis,  inhabit  the  plains ;  but  the  greater  number  of  the  two  latter 


674 


APPENDIX. 


live  in  the  mountains ;  the  Bedamns  in  the  desert :  the  Christians  are  scattered 
amongst  the  two  former.  The  population  of  the  city  alone  is  estimated  at  38,500 ; 
1,600  of  whom  are  Jews,  8,000  Christians,  and  29,000  Muhammedans. 


(F.) 

Statement  of  Imports  and  Exports  at  Constantinople,  from  and  to  England. 

49  vessels  arriyed  from  Liverpool  in  1839-40,  from  September  to  September, 

cargoes  valued  at         .......  . 

33  vessels  arrived  from  London  in  1839-40,  from  September  to  September 

cargoes  valued  at         ...  .  .... 

18  vessels  from  England  with  iron,  4,079  tons,  in  1839-40,  from  Septembe 

to  September,  cargoes  valued  at     .  .  .  .  .  . 

57  vessels  from  England  with  coals,  17,329  tons,  in  1839^0,  from  September 

to  September,  cargoes  valued  at      .....  . 


Total 


And  in  1840-41  (September  to  September): — 

51  vessels  from  Livei-pool    .....  value  £877,000 

23  vessels  from  London „       223,000 

13  vessels  with  iron,  3,150  tons     ....  „          28,300 

58  vessels  with  coals,  21,744  tons           ...  „         10,700 


£842,000 

322,300 

36,700 

8,800 
£1,210,000 


£1,139,000 


The  exports  during  the  above  periods  to  England  amounted  to — 

Piastres.  Packages.  Bales. 

In  1839-40,  55,733,344,  or  £525,786,  i.e.  106  =  silk  3,842,  goats'  wool  4,132 
In  1840-41,  56,923,660,  or  £522,235,  i.e.  109  =  silk  3,518,  goats'  wool  5,830 

The  principal  exports  from  Constantinople  to  Persia  consist  almost  exclusively 
of  British  articles.  The  estimated  value  of  these  were,  for  1839-40,  1840-41, 
860,000L  per  anniun,  two-thirds  of  which  were  for  the  Persian  market.  The 
Persians  bring  to  Constantinople,  in  exchange,  large  quantities  of  Persian  silk. 
Cashmere  shawls,  galls,  tambiki,  &c.,  and  money:  thus  our  imports  into,  and 
exports  from  Turkey,  are  nearly  equalized. 

During  these  two  years  there  was,  as  has  been  shown,  a  decrease  of  about 
1,000  tons  of  iron,  and  330  packages"  of  silk,  with  an  increase  of  about  4,400 
tons  of  coals,  and  1,700  bales  of  goats'  wool. 


(G.) 

In  order  to  convert  the  friendly  assurances  which,  at  different  times,  had  been 
given  by  the  Court  of  Teheran  into  positive  and  formal  stipulations,  Count  de  Sar- 
tiges  was  despatched  by  tlie  French  government,  in  1847,  to  propose  to  the  Persian 
cabinet  to  sign  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  which  should  secure  for  us 


APPENDIX.  675 

in  Persia  the  treatment  of  the  most  favoured  nation,  and  whicli  would,  moreover, 
give  to  the  French  government  the  power  of  appointing  consular  agents  at  those 
points  where  the  commercial  interests  of  the  two  countries  might  require  it. 
After  a  negotiation,  in  the  course  of  which  our  envoy  at  Teheran  received  the 
most  positive  testimonies  of  the  desire  which  animated  the  Persian  government, 
and  particularly  from  the  &st  minister  of  the  Shah  Hadji-Mizza-Agassi,  to  pre- 
serve the  most  friendly  relations  with  France,  the  treaty  in  question  was  signed 
by  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries  on  the  2-ith  July,  1846.  It  is  composed  of  six 
articles,  which  are  the  development  of  the  principle  founded  on  the  treaties  of  the 
most  favoured  nations,  and  the  tenor  of  which  completely  responds  to  the  dignity 
of  the  king's  government,  to  the  interests  of  French  commerce  in  Persia,  and 
to  the  protection  of  French  subjects.  Art.  1  secures  to  the  French  the  right  of 
travelling,  carrying  on  business,  residing  and  establishing  manufactories  of  any 
kind  on  the  Persian  temtory,  and  to  be  there  treated  in  every  respect  as  subjects 
of  the  most  favoured  nation — that  is  to  sav,  as  Russian  subjects,  whose  privileges 
were  stipulated  for  in  the  treaty  of  commerce  signed  at  Turkman  Tchac, 
February  10,  1828.  According  to  the  treaties  concluded  with  Persia  by  Russia 
and  Great  Britain,  merchandise  imported  into  Persia  by  the  subjects  of  these 
Powers  pay  5  per  cent,  entrance  duty  into  the  kingdom,  and  goods  exported  the 
same  duty  of  5  per  cent.  Such  will  be,  in  this  respect,  our  treatment  in  Persia, 
according  to  the  terms  of  Art.  2,  which  is  drawn  up  in  such  a  way,  that  if  any 
reduction  of  the  above  duty  should  be  made  in  favour  of  another  Power,  we  shall 
be  allowed  to  participate  m  that  advantage.  Articles  3,  4,  and  5,  have  for  object 
to  invest  the  agents  of  the  king's  government  with  an  entire  jurisdiction  over 
French  residents ;  to  guarantee  the  rights  of  heirs  of  Frenchmen  who  might  die 
in  Persia ;  and  to  grant  reciprocally  the  power  of  establishment  of  consuls  on 
points  where  their  presence  might  be  of  respective  utility,  viz.,  for  France,  at 
Teheran,  the  seat  of  the  Persian  government  and  the  centre  of  the  political  inte- 
rests ;  at  Tauris,  the  grand  entrepot  of  the  trade  of  the  provinces  of  Azerbaijan, 
'Irak,  Hamadan,  and  Kurdistan ;  and  at  Bender  Bouchin,  the  port  for  imports 
from  India  and  Europe,  and  with  wliich  our  colony  of  Bourbon  is  prepared  to 
enter  into  advantageous  relations.  On  her  side,  France  will  receive  Persian 
agents  at  Paris,  Marseilles,  and  Bourbon,  if  the  Shah  should  think  proper  to 
accredit  them.  In  giving,  by  royal  ratification,  a  definitive  sanction  to  this  treatv, 
the  king's  government  hopes  that  the  stipulations  it  contains,  at  the  same  time 
that  they  attest  the  friendly  dispositions  with  which  the  Persian  government  is 
animated,  are  of  a  nature  to  secure  to  France  a  useful  and  suitable  position  in 
those  distant  countries,  and  to  extend  there  our  commercial  relations.  The  per- 
severing skill  which  Count  de  Sartiges  has  evinced  during  his  residence  at  Teheran 
has  tended  to  produce  this  advantageous  result,  confirmed  by  the  sending  of  an 
ambassador  to  Paris,  the  importance  of  which  has  escaped  no  one  in  the  east. 
The  chief  of  this  mission,  ilohammed  Ali  Khan,  was  moreover,  by  the  elevation 
of  his  mind  and  his  knowledge  of  European  affairs,  the  personage  best  calculated 
to  attain  the  objects  proposed  by  the  Persian  government. 


67Q 


APPENDIX. 


(H.) 

BENGAL. 

No.  I. — Comparative  Statement  of  Imports  to  Calcutta  from  Arabian  and  Persian 
Gulfs  in  tlie  Year  1836-7. 


Apparel 

Co.s  Rs. 
Books    . 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Cotton  goods 

Co.'s  lis. 
China  goods 

Co.'s  I's. 


Drugs    . 

Co.'s  Rs.  2,00,109 


Jewellery    . 
Co.'s  Rs. 

Liquors 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Manufactured 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Metals    . 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Naval  stores 

Co.'s  Rs- 


Oilman's  stores 
Co.'s  Rs.  1 


( Haberdashery 
.*_,*1  Rose-water  and  otter 
'*''^-|Books       .      . 

'        1  Cotton  piece  goods 
^-^^Q-t  Cotton      .      . 

.   Tortoiseshell 
3,  798  r  Aloes        .      . 
Assafcetida     . 
Arsenic    . 
Brimstone 
B'dellium 
Cotfee 
Gall-nuts 
<  Gall  in  gall  . 
Gums 
Medicine 
Safl'ron 
Senna  leaf 
Drugs 

Sappan-wood 
Sandal-wood 
Beads 
Corals 
Laniitta    . 

Pearls,  diamonds,  and  emer 
Shiraz  wine  . 


26,262 


28.5, 


'oods 


Paint  and  Oil 

Co.'s  Rs 
Spices 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Wares    . 

Co.'s  Rs. 
Salt  .     .      . 

Co.'s  Rs.  1 , 

Sundries 
Co.'s  Hs. 


Looking-glasses 

..'iMother-o' pearl 

'*'*"^  (Copper,  Foreign 

q*      *\lrou,  Kentledge 

-'^^^|Coir    .      .      . 

*„'(. Timbers  .      . 

^0^  ^Almonds        . 

Confectionery 

Cocoa-nut  oil 

Cocoa-nut  kern 

Dates 

Grocery   . 

,11,939    Oilman's  stores 

Raisins     . 

Seeds,  of  sort 

Wax   .      .      . 

I  Grain 

.    Earth,  red  and  y 

2  ''IS 
'"      (Cardamnms  . 

"I  Cloves 

'fllardware 

.(Silver  ware    . 


551 


329 


•12, 69 4 [Elephants'  teeth 

I  Chanks    , 
,,■.,,  J  Cowries    .      . 
'^"^■^■*(  Petty  articles 


el  low 


Mds. 
Mds. 


Mds. 
Mds. 


aids 


B. 


B. 


Mds. 


Mds. 


Mds. 


Mds. 


Mds. 


Mds. 


Quantity. 


211 
157 


6,589 
428 

6,450 
156 

2.443 


583 


78 
48 


915 

46 

228 


.').T 


.') ,  596 


379 
29,879 


15 


B.  Mils. 


33,575 
13 

6,771 


Treasure 


Value. 


Rupees. 

3,001 

1,711 

380 

1,318 

735 

771 

3,798 
2,390 
2,513 
2,208 
21,677 
1,302 
1,13,188 
4,091 

37.071 

7,847 

936 

2,798 

3,612 

234 

242 

13.569 

1,096 

1,597 

10,000 

285 

4,879 

1,669 

456 

158 

248 

40.454 

2,685 

1,136 

57,481 

4,538 

298 
4,687 

377 

283 
2,213 

551 
209 
120 

1,42,694 
1,173 

7,727 
2,434 


5,14,840 
3,97,973 

9.12,813 


APPENDIX. 


^11 


BENGAL. 

No   I. — Comparative  Statement  of  Exports  from  Calcutta  to  Arabian  and  Persian 
Gulfs  in  the  Year  1836-7. 


Borax  and  Tiiical 

Bengal  paper 

Brass  ware    . 

Bengal  rum  . 

Beads 

Cotton      .     .     . 

Cocoa-nut  oil 

Canvas     . 

Drugs 

Grain 

Gunnies  and  eunuv 


ba; 


Ghee        .      .     . 

Ginger     . 

Hemp,  flax,  and  twi 

Indigo 

Long  pepper  ami  ro 

Mats   .... 

Piece  goods,  cotton 
, ,  silk 

, ,  embroide 

Provisions,  fresh 
, ,  salted 

Shawls,  Cashmere 

Sugar 

Silk    .     . 

Saltpetre 

Shell-lac  . 

Seed-lac  . 

Stick-lac  . 

Skins  and  hides 

Seed,  of  sorts 

Sugar-candy 

Sal-ammoniac 

Soap  . 

Segars 

Sundries  . 

Tobacco  . 

Wax  and  candles 


red 


B.  Mds. 


B.  Mds. 
Pieces 
B.  Mds. 


Pieces 


Pieces 
P,.  Mds. 


Gallons 
B.  Mds. 
Bolts 


B.  Mds. 


B.  Mds. 


28 
105 

275,558 

4,500 

80 

28 

19 

2,616 


109,724 

167,096 

483 


70 

25,517 

2 

25 

176 

12 


411 

54 

910 

2 


358 
27 


Imports  re-exported 


Rupees. 
43 

120 

117 

3,585 

21 

133 

771 
130 

3,48,767 

472 

1,216 

299 

128 

5,17,109 

85 

2,22,948 

2,69,548 

16,149 

2,590 

101 

5,798 

2,35,725 

1,214 

151 

5,636 

120 

2,727 

2,357 

866 

16,238 

17 

148 

7,167 

1,614 

1,307 


16,65,417 
1,21,165 

17,86,582 


678 


APPENDIX. 


MADRAS. 

No.  II. — Account  of  Imports  by  Sea  in  1836- 


Beads    

Brimstone  .... 
China  and  earthenware 

Coffee 

Confectionery 
Drugs  of  sorts 
Gall-nuts   .... 
Medicines  .... 

Dyes 


Fruits 


(■Madder 
\Manjesty     . 
[Albaker 

Almonds 

Dates     . 
, ,      dry  . 

Fruits  of  sorts 

Kisnusses     . 

Raisins  . 


Glass  ware 
Goodauck  . 


[Grain  of  sorts 


Metals 


|( 

;  Grain  .      .  I  Sanegaloo 
(wheat    . 
Gum,  Hing 

Mats 

/  Brass 
Copper  . 
Iron 
l^Kussaud 
Oilman's  stores     . 
I  Perfumery 
Rose-water 
'  Piece  goods,  cotton    . 
I  , ,  silk 

j  Fish,  dry    .... 
, ,    salt    .... 
j  Onions       .... 
j  Provisions 
I  Saltpetre    .... 

I  Sugar   

!  Sundries     .... 


Treasure 


Co.'s  Rupees. 
6 


5 

22 

15 

763 


339 


4,256 


5 
426 
120 

9 


151 

69 

416 

80 

4 

1C8 
20 

1,668 

6 
83 

17 
1,577 


10,165 

60,427 

70,592 


Gulf  of  Persia. 

Co.'s  Rupees. 
16,005 

654 

79 

40,560 

6,801 

242 

40 

2,582 
213 

4,534 

5,836 

34 

178 

128 

2,827 


213 

387 
57 

4,208 

81 

1,335 
106 
12 
364 
287 
449 


28 

229 
344 


913 

500 


1,27,413 


APPENDIX. 


679 


MADRAS. 

No.  II. — Account  of  Export x  hy  Sen  in  1836-7. 


ArroM'-root  .... 
Betel-uuts        .     .     .      . 

Cotton 

Cotton  twist  and  yarn 
Drugs  of  sorts 
Ginger,  dry    .... 
Sappan-wood  .... 
Cocoa-nats      .... 
,,     dry        .     .     .     . 

Tamarind 

Furniture 

Grain  of  sorts 

Rice 

Jaggary 

Iron 

Coir,  Laccadive    . 

, ,  rope  .... 
Poon  spars  .... 
Oil.  cocoa-nut 

,,    fish 

,,    sanda]      .     .     .     . 
Piece  goods  of  sorts   . 
Salampores      .... 
Piece  goods,  silk,  of  sorts 

Ghee 

Vegetables  .... 
Sandal-wood  .... 
Cardamums     .... 

Cassia 

Pepper       

Timber  and  planks    . 
Turmeric         .... 
Wax  and  wax  caudles 
Wooden  ware 
Sundries 


Arabia. 


Gulf  of  Persia, 


Co.'s  Rupees. 

335 
3,069 

1,792 
103 

661 

2,577  ' 

86 

726 

5 

204 

7,06,592 

89 

400 

770 

3,672 

2,781 

274 

2,159 

2,03,125 

77,599 

369 

257 

2 

25 

3,623 

3 

17,024 

2,908 

7,003 

497 

16 

1,758 


Co.'s  Rupees. 
3 


150 
244 
1,417 
469 
47 
598 

116 

18,399 
441 

1,648 
3,517 

105 

177 

570 

32,348 

42 

3 

522 

1,483 
8,595 
2,2G7 

21 
313 


11,00,504 


73,570 


680 


APPENDIX. 


BOMBAY. 
No.  III. — Imports  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  1836-7. 


Weight. 


Metals 


Coffee I 

Dates,  dry  and  wet 179,129 

Eatables , 

Glass j  .  . 

{Arabic 
Olibanum 
Other  sorts  ..... 

Hardware 

Indigo 

Ivory,  elephants'  teeth 

Medicines  and  drugs 

j  Brass,  old 

Copper,  old      .... 

I  Iron,  British  bar   • 
Tin 

Mother-o'pearl,  shells 

Oil,  naphtha 

Pearls  and  coral 

Perfumery 

Piece  goods,  of  sorts,  209      .... 

Saffron 

Shark-fins  and  fish-maws      .... 

Silk,  raw 

Stationery 

Sundries 

Spices,  cardamons,  cloves,  &c.    . 

Tortoiseshell 

Tobacco     ...     

Wine,  Shiraz,  306^  gallons  .... 
Wool 


376 

2,716 

026 


31 

14,859 

6 

360 

35 

7 

463 

172 


1,849 


20,039 


lbs. 
170,643 
4 


37 

77 
11 

5,924 

82 

3 

46 

40 

48 

8 

46 


661 
25,218 

96 
279 
526 

68,540 


Value. 


Merchandise 

Treasure 

Horses 


Total 


In  1837-8  the  imports  from  the  Persian  Gulf  amounted  to    . 
Showing  an  increase  of 


Rupees. 

33,466 

3,89,903 

29,008 

615 

4,766 

17,849 

11,541 

106 

4,985 

4,940 

2,59,094 

210 

16,613 

150 

205 

2,539 

5,410 

16,370 

5,564 

1,686 

4,559 

69,086 

1,01,199 

131 

26^347 

86,287 

2,369 

287 

832 

6,730 

11,02,897 

20,10,892 

4,45,800 

35,59,589 

36,02,274 

42,685 


APPENDIX. 


681 


BOMBAY. 

No.  III.— Exports  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  1836-7. 


Weight. 

Value. 

Cwt. 

lbs. 

Rupees. 

5,864 
190 

Beer,  IJ  hhds 

192 

28 
144,761 

l',829 
70,716 

'  '84 

J  ,203 

21,591 

Coals 

52 

630 

8,215 

Coffee ... 

15, -.J  12 

Cocoa-nuts,  88,0 
China-ware 
Copra  or  dry  co< 

00 

1,269 

41,018 

oa-nats 

1.668 

7,951 

Coir 

1,052 

5') 
136,200 

3,612 

18,816 
330 

Earthenware 
Eatables  and  cor 

300 

10,074 

240 

\,b'6o 

9,085 

Glass 

6,253 

Grain,  of  sorts 

1,28,492 

( Olibanum 

1*1 

1,105 

2o.S 

26 

6,052 

Gunnies,  1,500 

•   • 

230 

itlen-                   

7,707 

60 

365 

Indigo 

3,763 

8,129 

Marine  stores 
Medicines  and  d 

78 

rugs 

8,249 

36,842 

Copper,  old 

7 

56 

300 

, ,       sheet     

57 

84 

2,9-'5 

, ,       tiles  and  plates 

20 

111 

1,030 

Iron,  Swedish  bar 

4,322 

37 

11,648 

, ,     British  bars 

2,485 

69 

11,148 

, ,          , ,      nails 

12 

56 

150 

Metals  .       .      '' 

, ,          , ,      of  sorts 

87 

56 

735 

Spelter .       . 

122 

910 

Steel 

409 

4.715 

Tin 

28 

0 

995 

Lead,  pig  and  sheet 

1,538 
16 

13,5J£ 

m 

^    . .     w  hite 

15 

220 

Molasses  or  jagree 

S4o 

800 

Oil,  of  sorts 
Plate,  plated  wa 

15,608 

ire,  jewellery,  and  watches 

.    , 

110 

i?8 
28 

225 

2,636 

29,959 

, ,      long 

13 

636 

British  printed  cottons,  fic,  1, 602  pieces  . 

.    . 

16,r40 

,,     white  ditto,  28,989  pieces 

.   . 

l,89,ij06 

,,     cottons,  of  sorts,  197,191  pieces 

.   . 

7,82,378 

Piece  goods  .     < 

varn 

2''",  580 

2,03,495 

Country',  of  sorts,  318,047  pieces    .        .        .        . 

9,87,880 

, ,        shawls,  Cashmere,  735  pieces 

1,04,600 

34,622 

4o',4'50 
103 

13,259 

Salt      . 

1,600 

250 

Silk,  raw 

65,391 

Spices,  viz.,  cloves  and  cardamons 

342 

31,005 

244 

63 
105 

1,560 

22,460 
16,400 

2,71,5-29 

, ,     candy 

2,54,995 

SummerheaJs  or  umbrellas,  Cliina,  1  case 

280 

Sundries 

,   , 

31,717 

Tea 

6,928 
2,660 

2,3i2 

195 

2,014 

Wood,  of  sorts 
W  oollens,  Briti 

28.645 

22,300 

Merchandise 

34,47,341 

Treasure 
Total     .       . 
ian  Gulf  amo 
ncrease  of     . 

untcd  to 

42,900 

34,90,241 

In  1837-8  the  Exports  to  the  Per 

37,33,125 

Making  an 

2,42,884 

VOL.  11. 


•2  Y 


682 


APPENDIX. 


BOMBAY. 

No.  IV. — Imports  from  the  Arabian  Gnlf,  1836-7. 


Coflfee 

Copra  or  dry  cocoa-uuts 

Dates,  dry  and  wet 

Eatables 

Ginger      

Glass 

I  Arabic 
Olibanum 
Other  sorts       .... 

Hardware  and  cutlery 

Hides,  No.  3,260 

Horns,  Gynda 

Ivory,  elephants'  teeth 

Medicines  and  drugs 

Metals,  old  copper 

Mother-o'pearl-shells       ... 

Pearls 

Piece  goods,  country,  of  sorts,  441  pieces 

Senna *     .     . 

Silic,  raw 

Shark-fins  and  fish- maws     .... 

Spices,  almonds 

Sundries 

Tortoiseshell   ........ 

Vermilion 

Wax 

Wood,  lava 

Wool 


Weight. 


29 
5,496 

22 

7,947 
9,422 
1,646 


6 

638 

8,238 

13 

3,149 


915 
2,155 


690 


lbs. 
977,752 

56 

13 

56 

63 
92 

89 


5 
80 
30 
32 
36 


571,559 
94 
72 
16 

2,418 

74 

84 

100 

12,195 


Value. 


Rupees. 
1,96,954 

142 

12,131 

1,734 

128 

3,594 

99,964 

61,941 

36,734 

196 
2,844 

287 
98,566 
73,225 

611 
17,366 
22,700 

739 
39,773 

378 
32,775 
27,197 
27,896 
19,997 

632 

126 
1,579 
1,195 


Merchandise 
Treasure 


7,81,404 
11,02,290 


Total  rupees     18,83,694 

In  1837-38.  the  imports  were      .      .      17,76,980 


Being  a  decrease  of 


1,06,714 


APPENDIX. 


683 


BOMBAY. 

No.  \V. —Exports  to  the  Arabian  Chilf,  1836-7 


Apparel 
Betel-nut 
Cassia  . 


Metals  .  < 


China-ware 

Cocoa-uuts,  No.  450,880 

Coir 

Copra  or  dry  cocoa-nuts  .     .     . 

Cornelians 

Cotton 

Dates,  wet 

Earthenware 

Eatables  and  confectionery  . 
Fireworks  (China  crackers) 

Glass    . , 

Ginger 

Grain  of  sorts 

Gum,  b'dellium    .... 
Hardware  and  cutlery     . 
Indigo        .      .      ... 

Leather 

Medicines  and  drugs. 

Copper  of  sorts  . 
Iron,  Swedish  bar 
, ,     British  bar 
, ,     nails    .     . 
, ,     of  sorts 
Spelter     .      . 
Steel  .... 
Tin     ...     . 
Lead,  pig  and  sheet 
, ,     black  . 
Molasses  or  jagree     . 

Oil,  of  sorts 

Pepper     • 

,,      long    

Perfumery  and  toys 

British,  of  sorts,  40,566  pieces 
yam 
Piece  goods  ^Country,  of  sorts,  123,380 

shawls,  Cashmere,  5  packages 
yam 
Silk,  raw 

Spices 

Spirits,  brandy,  624  gallons 

Stationery 

Sugar  

, ,     candy 

Sundries 

Tea 

Tobacco 

Wood,  of  sorts 

Woollens,  British,  1  bale 

Merchandise 
Treasure 


Weight. 


Cwts. 
110 


130 
61 


585 


518 
109 


3,282 

2 

136 

243 

6 

233 

290 

129 

10 

G73 

36 

1,880 

1,455 

1,337 

7 


61 


1,258 
1,120 


lbs. 

84 
4,725 


28 
1,430,192 


84 

107 

3,368 

62 

66 
29 
84 
25 


85 
56 
74 

105 
56 
37 


19,520 


12,026 

7,126 

41 


75 
27 

4,145 
825,342 


Value. 


Rupees. 

8,125 

781 

6,623 

23,037 

5,414 

546 

324 

1,422 

2,03.694 

ly090 

525 

5,040 

813 

270 

3,073 

1,74,151 

4,170 

3,743 

5.705 

200 

18,295 

100 

970 

1,175 

118 

1,430 

1,778 

1,528 

400 

5,739 

250 

8,129 

33,787 

14,924 

250 

4,210 

1,77,989 

17,317 

3,58,051 

8,900 

3,927 

11,947 

8,378 

250 

1,305 

14,835 

15,797 

18,168 

1,110 

49,689 

17,088 

160 


Total  rupees 

In  1837-38,  the  exports  were 


12,47,340 
17,790 

12,65,130 
15,21.580 


An  increase  of 2,56,450 


2  Y  2 


684 


APPENDIX. 


BOMBAY. 

No.  V. — Imports  from  the  Const  of  Africa,  1836-7. 


Betel-nut  .      .     .      • 
Cocoa-uuts 
Gums,  of  soi'ts 
Grain,  ditto    . 
Horns,  Gynda      .      . 
Ivory,  elephants'  teeth 
Metals,  spelter      .      . 
Shark -fins       .     .     • 
Spices,  cloves  . 
Sundries    .... 
Tortoiseshell   . 

Wax 

Wood 


Merchandise 
Treasure 


Weight. 


Cwts. 
171 


1,5?1 


111 

1,805 

46 

38 

162 


19 


lbs. 
105 


48 
50 
98 

23 

288 
66 


Total  rupees 

In  1837-38,  the  imports  were 


Value. 


Rupees. 
1,149 

536 

49,601 

3,700 

5,172 

2,70,407 

323 
1,309 
9,5'7 

642 
2,439 

900 
3,733 


3, 49,  .538 
911 


3,50,449 
6,35,106 


Being  an  increase  of 2,84,657 


APPENDIX. 


685 


BOMBAY. 

No,  \.—Ejpoits  to  the  Const  of  Africa,  1 836-7. 


Apparel 

Cassia 

Chiua-waie 

Copra  or  dry  cocoa-nuts. 

Cotton 

Coir 

Dates 

Eatables . 

Glass 

Ginger 

Grain,  of  sorts 

Gums,  of  sorts 

Hardware  and  cutlery     .... 
f  Copper,  tiles,  and  plates 
Iron,  Swedish  bars  . 
, ,     British  bars    . 
nails     .... 


MeUls  .  < 


Spelter 

Steel 

Tin  plates,  19  boxes 

Medicine  and  drugs 

Oils,  Cassia '   . 

British  white  or  plain  cotton  muslin," 
11,391  pieces , 

British  yarn 

Country,  of  sorts,  240,640  pieces    . 


Piece  goods 


Pepper       

Silk,  raw 

Spices 

Sugar    

, ,     candy   .... 

Stationery 

Sundries 

Wood 

Woollens,  British,  20  bales 


Merchandise 
Treasure 


WeiL'ht. 


Cwts. 


30 

77 

30 

210 


68 


28 
266 
146 
25 
29 
49 

163 


360 


2 

716 
180 


lbs. 
933 


14 

14 

84 
61 
65 


105 
20 


1,500 


154 
20 
14 
93 


Total  rupees 

In   1837-38  the  exports  were 


Rupees. 
8,507 

139 

13,770 

i;-;8 

1.210 
125 
404 

1,221 

542 

722 

10,1.30 

345 

81,080 

1,028 

2,000 
770 
2.50 
192 
504 
650 

1,858 
100 

49,626 

1,500 

330,065 

4,426 

953 

260 

8,552 

2,961 

125 

60,698 

1,255 

5,905 


5,93,331 
25,000 

6,18,331 
6,45,289 


Being  an  increase  of 


26,958 


686 


APPENDIX. 


No.  VT. — Statement  of  Ships  and  Tonnage  arrived  at,  and  departed  from,  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay,  from  and  to  the  tindermentioned  places,  in  the  Years 
1S36-7. 

ARRIVED. 


I'residency 

Countries. 

Under 
British 
Colours. 

Under 
American 
Colours. 

Under 

Portuguese 

Colours. 

Under 

Arab 

Colours. 

Under  . 
Native 
Colours. 

Ships     Tons     Ships     Tons 

Ships 

Tons 

Ships 

Tons 

Ships 

Tons 

Bengal 
Madras 

Bombay 

(Arabian    andl 
\  Persian  Gulf. 

Arabia     . 
Gulf  of  Persia 

Persian  Gulf. 
Arabian  Gulf 
Coast  of  Africa 

5 
9 

9 

13 

2 

1,947 
1,536 

2,275 

4,171 

477 

2 
2 

398 
426 

•• 

•• 

12 

20 

7 

2 

1 

5,295 

3,358 

770 

631 
567 

1 

100 

DEPARTED. 

Bengal 
Madras 

Bombay 

1  Arabian    and ) 
t  Persian  Gulf/ 

Arabia     . 
Gulf  of  Persia 

Persian  Gulf. 
Arabian  Gulf 
Coast  of  Africa 

9 

43 
4 

5 
6 

3,890 

6,935 
692 

1,290 
1,311 

•• 

3 

645 

13 

140 
14 

1 
3 

5,755 

19,990 
1,626 

542 
899 

•• 

•• 

(!•) 


Bushire,  July  17,  1836. 


Sir, 

The  noble  and  interesting  river  Euphrates  is  far  too  celebrated  to  require 
more  from  me  than  a  fair  view  of  the  faciUties  aflbrded  by  it  for  steam  navigation, 
and  of  the  prospect  it  offers  for  estabhshing  an  economical  and  more  rapid  com- 
munication between  Great  Britain  and  her  Indian  possessions,  than  has  hitherto 
been  obtained : — the  brilliant  prospects  of  a  new  channel  being  opened  to  our 
enterprising  mercantile  world,  through  a  steam  establishment  on  the  Euplirates, 
ought  to  awaken  our  best  energies. 

My  personal  knowledge  of  the  river  Euphrates  is  limited  to  the  descent  made 
by  the  Euphrates  Expedition,  from  Bireh-jik  to  its  estuaiy,  a  distance  of  1117 
miles,  performed  during  the  months  of  March,  April,  May,  and  June;  but  from 
the  information  of  other  officers  of  the  Expedition,  not  a  single  impediment  exists 
to  steam  navigation,  upwards  from  Bireh-jik  to  Sume'isat,  that  portion  of  the  river 
appearing  far  more  favourable  than  wo  found  the  first  88  miles,  from  Bireh-jik  to 
Beles,  which  was  much  intersected  with  shingle  islands  and  shoals,  making  the 
navigation  intricate,  but  always  affording  us  a  deep  channel  from  1  to  3,  5,  and 
occasionally  7  to  9  fiithoras,  as  the  river  varied  its  width  from  200  yards  to  1  and 
1^  miles,  and  sometimes  even  more.    The  avei-age  current  in  this  part  of  the  river 


APPENDIX.  687 

was  about  4  knots,  and  it  takes  in  tlie  very  commanding  position  of  Kal'at  en 
Nejni,  about  40  miles  below  Bireh-jik. 

So  fur  the  tribes  on  the  banks  were  evidently  so  much  awed  by  the  appearance 
of  our  steamers,  that  instead  of  the  usual  hostility  shown  to  individual  travellers, 
we  experienced  the  greatest  hospitality  and  good  will ;  and  there  was  excited  in 
them  an  avidity  to  traffic  for  our  woollen  goods,  cottons,  shawls,  cutlery,  guns,  &c., 
hitherto  quite  unknown  amongst  these  wild  people. 

Next  to  Bireh-jik,  Beles  appeared  to  me  the  most  impoilant  station,  offering 
great  facilities  for  docks  and  other  an-angements,  necessary  in  an  efficient  halting- 
place  for  the  steamers  which  might  here  end  the  voyage  upwards.  It  is  less  than 
60  miles  from  Aleppo,  over  a  perfectly  level  country,  well  adapted  for  either  a 
rail  or  post  road,  malting  a  journey  easily  performed  in  five  or  six  hours  by  ordi- 
nary means. 

From  Beles  the  river  improves  considerably,  exchanging  the  shingle  islands  and 
shoals  for  sandy  islands  with  bluff  terminations  and  bold  shores,  thickly  covered 
with  tamarisk  and  poplar,  as  are  also  tlie  banks,  offering  an  inexhaustible  supply 
of  fuel,  with  little  exception,  as  far  down  as  'A'nah,  a  distance  of  406  miles. 

At  'A'nah,  and  below  to  Basrah,  the  scenery  is  extremely  beautiful,  the  date- 
tree  prevailing,  but  frequently  other  wood  in  great  abundance. 

The  town  of  Hit  is  103  miles  below  'A'nah,  and  produces  salt  and  bitumen  to 
any  extent,  fi-om  springs  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  inland. 

The  bunds  and  irrigating  walls  commence  some  distance  above  'A'nah,  and  end 
about  1 0  miles  below  Hit :  theu-  simple  and  elegant  structures  make  them  beau- 
tifiil  features  on  the  river,  and  they  did  not  cause  our  vessel  the  slightest  impedi- 
ment in  her  descent.  One  lumdred  and  ninety  miles  below  Hit  is  Hillah,  a  very 
considerable  town,  having  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  river,  which  being  under 
the  control  of  tlie  Musellim  of  the  place,  can  be  always  opened  by  liis  orders  on 
the  approach  of  steamers. 

Seventy-six  miles  below  Hillah  is  Lamliim,  but  for  some  miles  above,  the  river 
becomes  so  narrow,  and  winds  so  much,  that  our  vessel  could  be  only  got  round 
the  turnings  with  great  difficulty  and  risk  to  the  paddles ;  and  after  entering  the 
Lamliim  Marshes  the  channel  became  so  extremely  intricate  and  narrow  (some- 
times barely  exceeding  the  breadth  across  the  paddle-boxes),  that  with  the  three- 
knot  current  running  in  it,  and  sharp  turnings,  I  consider  tliis  part  of  the  river  quite 
unsafe  and  impracticable  for  a  steamer  of  our  size,  but  easy  work  for  a  much 
smaller  one. 

The  people  about  Lamliim  are  certainly  a  wild  bad  set,  and  easily  excited  to 
hostility ;  but,  with  proper  caution,  a  steamer  may  be  always  made  secure  against 
them. 

The  windings  of  the  channel  through  the  Lamliim  Marshes  make  a  distance  of 
about  42  miles;  but  from  Karayem  Inlet  the  river  again  recovers  its  former 
dignity,  indeed  improves  at  every  step  for  135  miles  to  Kiirnah,  becoming  navi- 
gable for  steamers  of  a  considerable  size,  and  from  thence  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of 
101:^  miles,  for  steamers  of  the  largest  description. 

Basrah  is  about  40  miles  below  Kiirnah,  and  I  consider  it  admirably  suited  for 
the  magazines,  dockyards,  &c.,  of  a  large  force. 


688  APPENDIX. 

I  consider  that  a  rapid  steam  voyage  may  be  performed,  both  up  and  down  the 
Euphrates,  at  any  season  of  the  year. 

For  the  lower  part  of  the  river  from  Basrah  to  Karayem  Inlet,  a  distance  of  174 
miles,  I  should  propose  an  iron  steamer  of  80  or  90  horse  power,  about  120  feet 
long,  20  feet  beam,  and  draught  of  w'ater  in  ti'im  5  feet  6  inches.  These  dimen- 
sions would  admit  of  a  fine  sea  bottom,  would  give  a  speed  of  upwards  of  12 
knots,  and  enable  her  to  go  to  sea  in  safety,  should  her  services  be  required  in  any 
of  the  ports,  inlets,  or  rivers  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  wind,  called  Samiel  or 
Samm,  which  prevails  for  some  months,  also  makes  it  necessary  to  have  a  powerful 
vessel  for  the  lower  part  of  the  river. 

The  average  current  from  Basrah  to  El  Karayem  Inlet  I  should  set  at  two  knots, 
therefore  this  vessel  would  perform  the  passage  up  in  nineteen  hours,  and  down  in 
less  than  fourteen. 

The  channel  of  the  Lamliim  Marshes,  and  for  some  distance  above,  is  so  ex- 
tremely tortuous  and  intricate,  that  at  Karayem  Inlet  I  should  propose  a  transfer 
fi'om  the  large,  to  two  small  steamers:  two  would  be  required  to  carry  the  con- 
tents of  the  large  one,  also  to  give  power  in  case  of  any  attack  from  the  Arabs. 

These  vessels  might  be  60  feet  long,  10  feet  beam,  and  have  power  enough  to 
steam  upwards  of  12  knots,  and  should  not  draw  more  than  2  feet  water;  as  in  the 
low  season  the  Kai"ablah  passage  at  'A'nah,  and  the  channel  generally  for  some 
distance  above,  and  for  110  miles  below,  would  not  at  certain  places  have  more 
than  30  inches  water.  But  vessels  of  tliis  description  would  of  course  get  over 
this,  and  steaming  12  knots  an  hour,  with  an  average  current  of  4  knots  from  El 
Karayem  Inlet  to  Beles,  a  distance  of  794  miles,  would  perform  the  distance  in 
eight  days  upwards,  and  foiu:  days  downwards;  and  allowing  for  the  transfer 
between  the  vessels  and  other  delays,  the  passage  might  be  considered  as  ten  days 
up  and  five  down,  adding  a  day  in  each  case  between  Karayem  and  Basrah. 

From  Karayem  Inlet  to  Beles  I  allow  only  twelve  hours  steaming  each  day, 
and  the  remainder  for  taking  in  fuel,  cleaning  the  engines,  &c. 

The  wheels  of  these  vessels  should  be  protected  by  extending  the  outer  casing 
of  the  paddle-boxes  dow'n  to  the  water  edge,  or  even  a  little  below  in  the  centre, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  river  boats  in  England. 

The  passage  of  ten  days  up  would  in  practice,  I  consider,  certainly  be  reduced 
to  eight,  as  the  small  steamers  with  their  light  draught  of  water  would  for  some 
hundred  miles  be  enabled  to  creep  up  in  the  eddies  and  slack  water.  However, 
viewing  everything  at  its  lowest  average,  I  should  consider  (supposing  the  arrange- 
ment in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Mediterranean  comple),  that  the  communication 
from  Bombay  home  would  be  accomplished  in  thirty-eight  days,  and  out  in 
thirt)--three. 

I  have  the  honoiur  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  Servant, 
(Signed)         R.  F.  Cleaveland, 

Lieutenant  Royal  Navy. 
To  Colonel  Cliesney,  &c.,  &c.. 
Commanding  Euphrates  Expedition. 


APPENDIX.  689 

(J.) 

Euphrates  Steamer,  Bushire,  July  17,  1836. 

Sir, 

Having  been  requested  by  you  to  state  my  opinion  as  to  the  practicability 
of  navigating  the  river  Euphrates,  and  also  what  I  consider  to  be  the  best  method 
of  permanently  establishing  a  line  of  communication  on  that  noble  river,  I  now 
ofier  these  few  remarks,  founded  on  my  observations  dui-ing  the  descent  of  the 
expedition  fi-om  Port  William  to  Ba.srah  in  the  months  of  March,  April,  May, 
and  June. 

From  Bireh-jik  to  Beles,  a  distance  of  88  miles,  we  met  with  considerable 
difficulty,  the  river  being  extremely  intricate  for  navigation  in  consequence  of  the 
innumerable  deceitful  shoals  and  banks,  both  under  and  above  the  sui-face  of  the 
water.  We  had  no  pilot,  however,  in  this  part  of  the  river,  consequently  the 
vessels  touched  on  several  shoals  which  would  in  future  be  avoided. 

But  this  part  of  the  river  (in  establishing  a  route  between  Great  Britain  and 
India)  is  not  required  to  be  navigated,  as  we  have  Beles,  and  Ja'ber  35  miles 
below  Beles,  both  places  well  adapted  for  depots,  and  much  nearer  to  Aleppo 
than  Bireh-jik,  with  good  roads. 

It  remains,  therefore,  to  be  decided  whether  Beles  or  Ja'ber  should  be  the 
upper  station  on  the  river.  I  prefer  the  latter,  as  it  saves  35  miles  of  i-ather 
difficult  navig-ation,  and  is  but  8  miles  further  from  Aleppo.  It  also  has  greater 
facilities  in  forming  a  depot,  and  is  considered  more  healthy  than  Beles. 

Considering,  therefore,  Ja'ber  as  the  upper  station  on  the  river,  there  remain 
938  miles  of  navigation  from  that  place  to  Basrah.  In  tliis  distance  I  consider 
we  have  but  two  impediments  wliich  are  worth  noticing.  The  first  is  the 
Kai-ablah  rocks,  2  miles  above  'A'nah,  and  the  second  the  Lamlum  Marshes. 

The  Karablah  rocks  have  10  feet  water  over  them  in  the  high  season,  and  3 
feet  at  the  lowest,  the  stream  running  over  them  at  the  rate  of  7  miles  per  hour. 

We  have  already  a  diving-bell  at  this  place,  which  at  a  small  expense  might 
clear  away  the  rocks  so  as  to  give  a  passage  of  4^  or  5  feet  water  in  the  low 
season.  But  even  as  this  place  is  at  present  in  the  low  season,  a  steamer  drawing 
2^  feet  water,  if  she  could  not  steam,  might  be  warped  up  by  means  of  a  hawser 
secured  in  the  centre  of  the  stream  above  the  rocks,  with  not  more  than  two  hours 
loss  of  time. 

In  the  high  season  I  think  a  steamer  could  get  up  without  having  recourse  to 
the  warp. 

The  bed  of  the  river  from  Karablah,  30  miles  downwards,  is  very  rocky,  many 
showing  above  water;  these,  however,  may  be  avoided  with  a  little  caution. 
The  rocks  of  El'  Uzz,  9  miles  below  Hadisah,  are  the  next  worse  to  Karablah,  but 
they  do  not  offer  any  serious  impediment. 

From  El'  Uzz  to  Lamlum,  or  rather  to  4  miles  above  the  latter  town,  we  have 
288  miles  of  a  beautiful  river,  the  average  depth  in  this  distance  being  three 
fathoms,  with  the  exception  of  some  places,  a  little  below  the  town  of  Hit, 
where  10  and  12  feet  would  be  the  average. 


690  APPENDIX, 

The  marshes  commence  4  miles  above  the  town  of  Lamliim ;  they  extend 
about  28  miles  in  a  straight  course,  and  50  by  the  main  channel. 

In  these  marshes  the  river  divides  itself  into  innumerable  small  canals,  leaving 
the  main  channel  averaging  about  120  feet  in  breadth,  but  in  some  places  not 
above  35  feet :  the  banks  dm'ing  the  high  season  are  in  many  places  covered  with 
v^'^ater,  they  should  therefore  be  shown  by  pickets.  All  through  the  marshes  the 
bank  is  not  raised  above  6  inches  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  renders  it 
unsafe  for  a  steamer's  paddles,  particularly  as  there  is  a  current  running  in  the 
narrow  parts  at  the  rate  of  3  knots  per  horn-,  with  very  sharp  turnings  every  200 
yards. 

All  this  may  be  avoided  by  cutting  a  canal  of  about  23  miles  in  length  through 
a  soft  loamy  soil,  and  which  might  be  done  with  great  facility  by  the  Arabs  who 
inhabit  these  marshes,  and  are  constantly  employed  digging  canals  for  irrigating 
their  rice  fields. 

These  marshes  end  5  miles  above  a  creek  called  Karayem  Inlet,  which  place  is 
well  adapted  for  a  depot.  And  here  ends  every  shadow  of  a  difficulty,  as  from 
this  place  downwards  there  is  a  fine  broad  stream  with  an  average  depth  of  3^ 
fathoms,  and  a  current  varying  between  2  and  3  miles  per  hour. 

In  forming  a  steam  communication  by  this  river,  I  should  consider  Basrah  to 
be  the  best  place  for  the  lower  depot,  having  greater  facilities  for  that  object  than 
Kiirnah  or  any  place  between,  although  a  sea  steamer  might  with  ease  go  up  the 
river  much  further  than  Kuruah. 

From  the  latter  place  to  Karayem  Inlet,  a  distance  of  184  miles,  I  should 
propose  to  be  na\igated  by  a  low-pressure  iron  steamer,  her  dimensions  being 
about  110  feet  in  length  with  21  feet  beam,  and  drawing  not  more  than  5  feet 
water.  A  vessel  of  these  dimensions  would  not  only  be  fit  to  navigate  the  river 
to  Karayem  Inlet,  but  could  make  sea  voyages  if  required. 

From  Karayem  Inlet  two  small  iron  steamers  should  navigate  the  Lamlum 
Marshes  to  the  first  town  above  them  called  Diwaniyah  in  the  high  season,  and 
in  the  low  season  they  should  go  on  to  a  depot,  formed  just  above  the  Karablah 
Rocks,  where,  I  think,  a  fourth  steamer  should  be  ready  to  take  the  contents  of 
the  two  small  ones  up  to  Ja'ber.  This  steamer  might  in  the  high  season  meet 
the  smaller  ones  at  Diwaniyah,  and  by  this  means  expedite  the  voyage ;  for  the 
fourth  steamer  being  a  much  larger  vessel  would  be  faster  than  the  smaller  ves- 
sels. Diwaniyah  is  very  well  adapted  for  a  depot ;  it  is  about  68  miles  above 
Karayem  Inlet. 

The  dimensions  of  the  two  small  steamers  should  be  about  65  feet  in  length 
and  22  feet  beam  across  the  paddle-boxes,  drawing  not  more  than  2^  feet  water : 
they  should  have  high-pressure  engines ;  so  that,  with  the  above  dimensions,  I  think 
they  might  have  a  speed  of  1 0  knots  per  hour. 

The  fourth  or  upper  steamer  should  also  have  high  pressure,  her  dimensions 
being  100  feet  in  length  with  26  feet  beam  across  the  paddle-boxes,  drawing  not 
more  than  3^  feet  water.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  having  all  the 
steamers'  paddles  well  guarded. 

I  do  not  consider  it  would  be  practicable  to  navigate  any  part  of  the  river  above 


APPENDIX.  69 1 

Karayem  Inlet  during  the  night,  but,  with  the  vessels  above  mentioned,  I  think 
80  miles  could  be  made  each  day  against  the  current,  which  would  enable  the 
voyage  from  Basrali  to  Ja'ber  to  be  accomplished  in  thirteen  or  fourteen  days ; 
and  down  the  river,  at  the  rate  of  120  miles  per  day,  would  give  nine  days. 

Depots  for  wood  and  bitumen  should  be  formed  every  20  miles  between  Ja'ber 
and  Hit,  both  of  wliich  can  be  obtained  with  great  facility  from  the  Arabs  on 
that  part  of  the  river,  and  at  a  very  low  price.  From  Hit  downwards  coal  should 
be  placed  at  convenient  distances,  according  to  the  quantity  each  steamer  can 
carry. 

During  the  descent,  we  found  the  Arabs  not  only  peaceable,  but  even  in  many 
instances  anxious  to  secure  our  protection :  this  conduct  towards  us,  however,  v/as 
caused  by  our  formidable  appearance.  It  would,  therefore,  be  advisable  to  have 
the  steamers  well  armed,  having  each  one  great  gun,  with  as  many  swivels,  small 
arms,  &c.,  as  convenient. 

They  always  evinced  great  eagerness  to  barter  their  provisions,  and  in  fact 
everything  they  possessed,  for  our  Glasgow  merchandise,  which  consisted  of  hand- 
kerchiefs and  shawls  principally ;  so  that  I  am  convinced  considerable  commerce 
would  be  carried  on  with  great  success  on  the  river. 

Taking  all  these  tilings  into  consideration,  I  should  say  it  would  be  highly 
advisable  to  navigate  tliis  river,  as  being  the  speediest  and  most  secure  route 
between  Great  Britain  and  her  Indian  possessions. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  &c., 

(Signed)  E.  P.  ChARLEWOOD, 

Mate,  Royal  Navy. 
To  Colonel  Chesney,  R.  A., 
Commanding  the  Euphrates  Expedition. 


(K.) 

Euphrates  Expedition,  Bushire,  July  15,  1836. 

Sir, 

Having  received  a  request  that  I  should  give  you  my  opinion  as  to  the 
best  means  of  establishing  a  steam  communication  on  the  river  Euphrates,  I  ofiir 
these  few^  remarks  founded  on  my  own  observations  during  our  descent  of  that 
splendid  river,  and  I  do  this  with  some  diffidence  as,  imtil  my  connexion  with 
the  Euphrates  Expedition,  I  never  had  much  turned  my  attention  to  steam 
affairs. 

I  assume  as  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  Euphrates  is  navigable  at  the  high  season 
for  steam-boats  of  build  and  dimensions  suited  to  the  difierent  parts.  This,  the 
descent  of  the  Euphrates  steamer  on  the  falling  waters  between  March  and  July 
has  sufficiently  proved,  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  little  doubt  in  my  mind  that  at 
the  lowest  season  the  river  could  be  navigated,  or  at  all  events  be  easily  made 
navigable. 

The  distance  from  Bir  to  Basrah  by  the  windings  of  the  stream  is  about  1056 


692  APPENDIX. 

miles  (the  river  being  still  navigable  much  above  Bir),  but  for  the  shortest  com- 
munication with  the  Mediterranean,  it  never  would  be  advisable  to  ascend  higher 
than  about  5  miles  below  where  the  steamers  lay  at  Beles,  963  miles  from  Basrah ; 
and  it  might  eventually  be  found  more  advantageous  to  ascend  no  higher  than 
Ja'ber  Castle,  about  35  miles  below  Beles,  which  would  reduce  the  steaming 
distance  from  Basrah  to  935  miles. 

But  I  should  consider  the  most  eligible  starting  point  for  the  river  steamers  would 
be  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  Euplii'ates  at  Kiirnah,  39  miles  above 
Basrah ;  and  if  Ja'ber  were  the  place  fixed  on,  the  whole  river  navigation  would 
then  be  reduced  to  896  miles  the  sea  steamers  might  then  come  up  to  Kiimah 
with  ease. 

The  reasons  for  preferring  Kiimah  to  Basrah  are — 1st.  There  is  no  bank  at 
Basrah  alongside  which  a  steamer  might  he  to  take  in  fuel,  &c. ;  she  would  be 
obliged  to  anchor  in  the  open  river ;  whereas  Kiirnah,  besides  being  more  shel- 
tered, has  good  steep  banks,  both  in  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  on  which  splendid 
wharfs  might  be  built.  2ndly.  I  should  imagine  Kui'nah  to  be  a  much  more 
healthy  place  than  Basrah.  3rdly.  Kiimah,  from  its  situation,  commands  the 
mouths  both  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris :  this  in  case  of  a  hostile  power 
coming  down  either  river  would  be  an  immense  advantage ;  it  would  also  be  a 
much  more  convenient  depot  for  the  steamers  which  would  navigate  both  rivers  ; 
for  it  is  presumed  that  the  navigation  of  the  Euphrates  would  soon  cause  a  line 
of  steamers  to  run  also  up  to  Baghdad. 

To  navigate  the  Euphrates  properly  at  the  high  season,'  it  would  be  requisite, 
in  my  opinion,  to  have  four  steamers,  to  be  thus  disposed: — 

A  good-sized  powerful  steamer  to  start  from  Kiimah,  and  proceed  135  miles  to 
Karayem  Inlet,  just  below  the  Lamliim  Marshes,  where  she  would  meet  two  small 
ones  expressly  made  for  navigating  the  marshes,  the  difficulties  of  which  extend 
about  50  miles  by  the  windings  of  the  main  chaimel,  or  about  25  ui  a  straight 
line. 

From  Lamliim  a  large  powerfril  steamer,  going  11  or  12  knots,  would  proceed 
at  once  and  with  speed  to  the  station  at  Beles.  It  would  be  perhaps  advisable  to 
have  two  such  vessels,  always  keepuig  one  at  each  end  of  the  line,  and  one  could 
reheve  the  other  in  case  of  her  being  disabled,  &c. 

From  what  I  have  heard  of  the  state  of  the  river  at  the  low  season,  I  should 
say  that  the  large  steamer  might  navigate  from  the  Lamliim  Marshes  to  Hillali  at 
all  times,  and  from  thence  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  two  small  ones  of  great 
power  for  the  rest  of  the  ascent,  or  the  two  Lamliim  steamers  might  continue 
their  progress  the  whole  way  up  instead  of  keeping  tliem  in  the  marshes. 

In  the  passage  from  Kiirnah  to  the  Lamliim  Marshes,  the  steamer  might 
draw  5  feet  water,  or  even  more,  and  should  go  at  least  10  knots ;  it  should  be 
built  of  iron. 

The  steamers  for  the  Lamliim  Marshes  ought  not  to  exceed  65  or  70  feet  in 
length  and  20  feet  beam  over  the  jiaddles,  and  they  ought  not  to  draw  more  than 

'  I  consider  the  navigable  high  season  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the  beginning  of  July. 


APPENDIX.  693 

3  feet  water :  if  intended  to  go  up  the  river  at  the  low  season  they  should  only 
draw  1^  foot. 

The  large  steamer  for  the  high  season  above  Lamliim  might  draw  3  to  3^  feet 
water,  and  should  possess  great  power,  going  11  or  12  knots.  I  mention  3^  feet 
because  I  am  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  making  a  vessel  of  gi-eat  power  draw  little 
water  without  her  being  too  large  ;  the  groat  weight  of  the  boilers  and  engines  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  vessels,  being  much  against  their  being  sufficiently 
buoyant. 

The  tw^o  steamers  intended  for  the  upper  portion  of  the  river  at  the  low  season 
should  certainly  not  draw  more  than  1^  foot  water,  should  go  at  least  10  knots, 
on  account  of  passing  the  falls  which  occur  at  this  period,  such  as  Karablah,  'A'nah, 
and  between  the  bunds  or  irrigating  parapet-walls  above  Hit.  , 

They  might  be  90  feet  long  and  15  broad,  or  23  feet  over  the  paddles.  As, 
however,  it  would  probably  not  be  thought  worth  the  expense  to  have  these  two 
vessels  at  all,  the  size  of  those  intended  for  the  Lamliim  Marshes  would  answer, 
provided  they  had  sufficient  power. 

The  vessels  should  answer  helm  quickly,  and  their  paddles  ought  to  be  pro- 
tected by  being  either  built  into  the  sides,  or  by  having  guards  below  the  water 
edge,  hke  the  small  steamers  on  the  Thames. 

As  to  their  armament,  we  found  the  Arabs  so  different  from  what  w^e  had 
expected,  and  so  anxious  to  secure  our  protection,  that  it  might  be  lightly  passed 
over,  did  we  not  know  that  they  would  certainly  take  advantage  of  the  vessels  and 
attack  them  if  they  imagined  they  were  in  a  defenceless  state. 

They  should  therefore  each  have  at  least  one  swivel  gun  forward  or  aft,  as  con- 
venient, to  fire  grape  and  canister,  with  four  one-pounder  swivels,  and  two  wall- 
pieces  ;  a  good  portion  of  muskets  or  carbines,  pistols,  swords,  &c.,  for  the  crew, 
and  if  Congreve  rockets  could  be  kept  from  spoiUng  by  the  carriage  or  heat,  a 
supply  of  them  w^ould  be  invaluable. 

The  smallest  boat  might  then  defy  all  that  the  Arabs  could  bring  against  her. 

The  engine-room  should  of  course  be  amply  provided  with  engineers,  stokers, 
and  coal-trimmers,  these  last  probably  from  Lascars ;  but  there  should  always  be  a 
.sufficiency  of  European  seamen  to  insure  confidence  in  the  event  of  a  skirmish. 
There  should  be  three  officers  on  board  each  vessel,  as  a  constant  look-out  is 
required,  although,  after  a  time,  steady  quarter-masters  might  be  brought  to  take 
care  of  the  vessels  all  the  way,  particularly  as  good  pilots  are  to  be  got  all  down 
the  river  below  Deir. 

But  the  opening  of  the  Euphi-ates,  if  once  commenced  in  earnest,  should  be  on 
a  liberal  scale. 

An  agent  should  be  placed  at  Beles,  another  at  Kumah,  and  a  third  at  'A'nah, 
to  secure  the  necessary  depots  of  wood,  bitumen,  &c.  I  should  also  recommend 
a  large  store  of  coal  to  be  placed  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  river  in  case  of 
need,  othenvise  wood  must  be  rafted  down  from  the  upper  part  of  the  stream. 

The  impediments,  such  as  the  rocks  of  Karablah,  those  of  Is  Geria,  and  others, 
should  be  cleared  away,  and  a  canal  cut  through  the  Lamliim  Marshes. 


694  APPENDIX. 

This  might  be  be  done  easier  than  may  be  iraagined,  as  the  inhabitants  are 
quite  accustomed  to  canal  cutting  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  the  land. 

A  straight  one  of  25  or  30  miles,  having  its  banks  well  dammed  up,  would 
ensure  a  deep  and  safe  passage,  from  which  urrigating  cuts  might  be  made  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  adjoining  grounds. 

The  advantacres  which  would  ensue  from  the  establishment  of  a  rejmlar  steam 
communication  on  the  Euphrates  would,  I  am  convinced,  amply  repay  any  outlay 
and  trouble  which  might  attend  the  commencement. 

The  avidity  with  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  towns  on  the  river 
bought  our  Manchester  woollen  goods,  &c.,  sufficiently  proves  that  a  great  opening 
is  presented  to  our  commerce.  Aleppo,  Baghdad,  Basrah,  and,  should  the 
Kanin  be  navigated,  Ispahan,  would  soon  become  marts  for  British  produce,  and 
the  influence  of  the  Enghsh  name  be  thus  increased  and  extended. 

Taking  these  things  into  consideration,  it  appears  to  me  that  England  would  not 
have  cause  to  regret  ha%ing  made  the  Euphrates  the  high  road  to  her  Indian  pos- 
sessions, even  should  it  afterwards  be  found  that  letters  and  passengers  might  be 
conveyed  with  more  speed  by  the  line  of  the  Red  Sea. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  go  into  the  question  of  the  sea  steamers,  which  will  best 
be  decided  by  experience ;  but  I  should  say  at  least  two  powerful  steamers  ought 
to  navigate  between  Bombay  and  Kiimah  ;  and  the  Mediten-anean  line  should  be 
extended  to  Scanderoon  or  the  Bay  of  Antioch. 

The  transport  of  letters  and  passengers  could  be  easily  managed  by  an  agent  at 
Beles  under  the  consul  at  Aleppo,  and  perhaps  an  agent  or  vice-consul  at  Antioch. 

A  splendid  road  might  be  made  over  the  100  miles  which  separate  the  Euphrates 
from  the  Mediterranean  :  I  should  consider  a  railroad  impracticable,  but  I  think  a 
canal  might  be  cut,  incurring,  however,  a  great  outlay.  This  would  complete  the 
communication  by  water  of  England  with  India  by  the  shortest  possible  line. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  &c., 

(Signed)  Jas.  Fitzjames, 

Royal  Navy. 
Colonel  Chesney,  R.A., 
Commanding  the  Euphrates  Expedition. 


(L.) 

Basrah,  August  31,  1836. 
Sir, 

According  to  your  desire  I  proceed  to  give  you  my  obsen'ations  upon  the 
capability  of  navigating  the  river  Euphrates.  These  observations  have  reference 
only  to  the  season  of  high  water,  and  may  be  comprised  within  very  narrow  limits  ; 
since,  I  believe,  that  no  difficulties  present  themselves  in  carrying  out  this  important 
object. 

The  whole  line  from  Ja'ber  to  a  Uttle  below  Diwaniyah  is  a  long  course  free  from 
impediments.     There  are  some  few  places,  where,  to  conduct  a  vessel  safely  and 


APPENDIX.  695 

surely  it  is  necessary  to  be  acquainted  with  the  line  of  the  deep  channel,  such  as 
at  Kaniblah,  'A'nah,  and  two  places  above  both,  where  reefs  of  rocks  stretch  across 
the  river ;  but  where,  I  believe,  a  channel  does  exist  sufficiently  deep  to  float  such 
a  vessel  as  the  "  Euphrates."  There  are,  along  the  line  I  have  mentioned,  many 
projecting  ranges  of  arches,  formerly  used  in  irrigating  the  neighbouring  lands,  and 
there  are  some  insulated  rocks,  but  in  no  case  offering  impediments  of  a  serious 
nature  when  their  positions  are  well  understood. 

Below  the  Une  I  have  mentioned,  until  an-iving  at  the  temiination  of  the 
Lamliim  Marshes,  the  river  is  more  difficult,  owing  to  the  very  shaq:)  windings  and 
the  greater  narro^vness,  so  that  in  this  part  I  do  not  consider  that  the  "  Euplurates  " 
steamer  is  suited  for  the  navigation.  Yet  there  would  be  no  difficulty  for  a  shorter 
vessel.  From  below  the  Lamlum  Marshes  to  Basrah  the  river  presents  a  fine, 
wide,  deep,  and  easy  course ;  and  a  still  larger  vessel  than  the  "  Euphrates " 
might  easily  perform  the  voyage. 

The  current  never  exceeds  4^  or  5  knots,  except  in  the  most  rapid  places,  and 
the  "  Euphrates"  has  fomid  no  difficulty,  not  only  in  stemming  it,  but  in  making 
5  knots  against  it  by  the  land. 

Probably  at  the  low  season  it  would  be  found  that  the  "  Euphrates'*  drew  too 
much  water ;  and  I  think  that  the  vessel  employed  in  making  the  voyages  up  and 
down  should  not  draw  more  than  22  or  24  inches;  but  of  this  I  cannot  so 
well  form  an  opinion,  as  I  am  not  aware  what  depth  there  will  be  at  the  low 
season. 

With  regard  to  fuel. — All  the  way  from  Ja'ber  to  a  little  above  'A'nah  there  is 
abundance  of  jungle-wood  at  intervals.  It  is  chiefly  tamarisk,  and  was  reported 
by  the  engineer,  upon  our  descent,  to  be  well  suited  for  the  engines.  The  dif- 
ferent Sheiks  engaged  to  collect  suppUes  for  us,  and  to  cut  it  into  lengths,  so  that 
we  might,  in  ascending,  experience  no  delay.  Probably  we  shall  find,  that  they 
will  have  failed  in  their  engagements  the  first  time ;  but  ceitainly,  when  they  see 
that  the  vessels  return  punctually  and  take  their  wood,  paying  a  good  remunerating 
price,  these  Sheiks  will  be  carefiil  to  have  the  depots  regularly  prepared.  As  far 
as  'A'nah  coal  may  always  be  carried  up  from  Basrah,  but  it  will  be  found  cheaper 
to  float  down  rafts  from  the  jungle  country  to  the  places  found  convenient  for 
depots.  The  practice  of  floating  down  rafts  is  asual  amongst  the  people  of  the 
country  as  far  as  Hit 

The  last  point  which  requires  to  be  mentioned  is  the  disposition  of  the  Arabs, 
and  I  see  no  reason  to  form  a  less  satisfactory  opinion  than  upon  the  other  points 
1  have  already  reported. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  supposed  that  douljts  regarding  the  intention  of  the  steamer 
in  her  descent,  added  to  the  alarm  which  ceitainly  possessed  the  people  to  a  great 
extent,  may  have  rendered  our  voyage  more  prosperous  than  would  be  the  case  in 
future ;  but  I  am  not  of  this  opinion.  The  doubt  and  alarm  which  now  exist 
would  no  doubt  subside,  and  finding  that  they  experienced  no  evil  from  the  peaceful 
passage  of  the  vessels,  but  on  the  contrary,  that  provisions  were  bought  from  them, 
and  services  required  for  which  they  regularly  received  a  proper  hire,  they  would 
be  induced  to  look  for  the  return  of  vessels  with  friendly  feelings,  and  desire  to 


696  APPENDIX. 

cultivate  a  good  understanding,  in  order  to  enjoy  as  much  as  possible  the  profits 
which  the  steamers  would  brhig  in  their  train. 

There  are  questions  of  a  professional  nature,  such  as  the  dimensions  required 
for  a  vessel  suited  to  the  navigation  of  the  river,  which  I  have  not  the  means  of 
answering  except  in  a  general  way.  Thus,  for  instance,  a  power  equal  to  that  of 
the  "  Euphrates  "  would  be  ample,  but  the  draught  of  water  should  be  confined 
to  22  or  24  inches ;  the  length  of  the  vessel  must  be  less  than  that  of  the 
"  Euphrates,"  and  she-  must  answer  her  helm  readily,  and  be  capable  of  tiurning 
quickly. 

I  have  now,  I  think,  mentioned  all  the  points  to  which  it  occurs  to  me  to  refer  ; 
and  I  think  it  will  be  seen,  perhaps,  that  the  navigation  of  no  river  was  ever  com- 
menced under  such  favourable  circmustances. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  Servant, 
(Signed)        J.  B.  Bucknall  Estcourt, 

Captain  43rd  Light  Infantry. 
Colonel  Chesney,  R.A., 
Commanding  the  Euphrates  Expedition. 


(M.) 

Bushire,  July  17,  1836. 
SlE, 

The  general  question  of  the  navigation  of  the  river  Euphrates,  and  of  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  that  navigation,  is  of  such  a  nature  that,  in  acceding 
to  your  request  to  give  an  opinion  upon  a  subject  rather  foreign  to  my  usual  pur- 
suits, my  diffidence  is  to  a  certain  degi-ee  overcome  by  the  well-defined  view  which 
the  nature  of  the  circumstances  have  allowed  me  to  take,  even  after  a  short 
acquaintance  with  the  river  and  the  inhabitants  of  its  banks. 

The  river  Euphrates  is  evidently  a  navigable  stream.  I  am  acquainted  with  it 
from  Sume'isat,  in  the  Taurus,  to  its  embouchure  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  a  distance 
of  upwards  of  1,200  miles ;  and  in  that  extent  there  are  only  two  real  difficulties, 
both  of  which  are  superabie,  b}-  undergoing  an  expense  quite  disproportionod  to 
the  importance  of  rendering  efficient  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  throughout  so 
lengthened  a  covuse,  the  navigation  of  this  noble  river. 

The  first  obstacle  is  the  Karablah  Rocks  at  'A'nah,  where  there  is  already  a 
diving-bell  at  hand,  and  through  which,  I  believe,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  naval 
officers  that  a  steamer  might,  even  at  low^  water,  be  warped,  Avith  a  loss  of  not 
more  than  two  hours,  in  case  of  her  not  being  able  to  steam  tlirough  them. 

The  second  is  the  narrowness  of  the  bed,  and  the  numerous  windings  which  it 
forms  in  going  through  the  Lamlum  Marshes ;  but  these  difficulties,  which  will 
not  bear  comparison  with  what  has  already  been  overcome  in  our  own  country — 
for  example,  in  the  Forth  below  Stirling,  or  the  Clyde,  at  low  water,  above 
Dumbarton — only  proved  themselves  so  to  the  "  Euphrates"  steamer,  which  is  of 
large  dimctUiions,  and  had  her  paddles  uii]:)rotccted. 


APPENDIX.  C97 

In  the  details  connected  with  the  rendering  the  navigation  of  the  river  availal)le 
to  its  full  extent,  the  difficulties  of  the  Lamliim  Marehes  may  be  overcome  by  three 
modes : — 

1st.  The  navigation  by  a  steamer  of  proper  dimensions  and  make,  as  will  no 
doubt  bo  laid  before  you  by  those  competent  to  judge  on  a  question  entirely  of  a 
professional  character. 

2ndlv.  By  digging  a  canal  across  tlie  ten-itory  of  Lamliini ;  and  3rdly,  b\"  taking 
advantage  of  the  otYer  made  by  the  pasha  of  Baghdad  to  dig  a  canal  across  the 
alluvial  flat  which  in  the  parallel  of  that  city  extends  from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Euphrates. 

The  latter  mode  of  navigating  the  united  rivers  ai?pears  to  me  fraught  vv'ith 
many  advantages,  the  Lamliim  IMarshes  are  avoided,  and  the  city  of  Baghdad  is 
brought  into  closer  relations  with  Basrah  and  with  Hindustan,  both  in  point  ov" 
intercommunication  and  commerce. 

For  the  efficient  navigation  of  the  Euphrates,  three  river  steamers  besides  the 
sea  steamers  will  be  rpquisite — one  at  a  station  below  the  marshes,  another  to  go 
through  the  marshes  themselves,  and  one  of  greater  power  for  the  upper  part  of 
the  river. 

Bv  taking  the  road  of  the  Hai  or  the  Tigris,  and  crossing  from  thence  by  canal 
to  Felujah,  one  steamer  succeeding  the  sea  steamer  at  the  junction  of  the  former 
with  the  Euphrates  would  reach  the  second  station,  and  be  succeeded  by  one  more 
to  the  upper  station. 

In  a  commercial  point  of  view,  the  close  communication  thus  established  with 
so  great  an  emporium  of  trade  as  Baghdad  is  of  the  very  fii'st  importance,  nor  is 
t!ie  connexion  that  would  be  established  between  Basrah  and  Baghdad  of  a  trifling 
character ;  but  there  are  also  on  the  river  l>etween  Kiirnah  and  Felujah  large  towns, 
as  Sheikh-el-Shu\-ukh  and  Hillah,  and  powerful  tribes,  as  the  Montefik  Arabs,  who 
have  long  bc-en  actuated  bv  the  spirit  of  commercial  enterprise,  and  whom  it 
would  perhaps  not  be  judicious  to  overlook. 

There  is,  indeed,  amongst  almost  all  the  tribes  a  cupidity  that  is  easily  aroused, 
and  which  would  stir  the  people  up  to  new  exertion  in  order  to  obtain  comforts 
arid  luxuries  with  which  they  would  then  first  become  acquainted,  and  could  not 
be  slow  in  appreciating.  The  boasted  fragality  and  indifi'erence  of  the  Arab  arfi 
not  proof  against  the  inventions  of  an  improved  mechanism  in  cutlery  or  fire- 
arms ;  and  nowhere  is  there  displayed  a  greater  anxiety  for  gay  dresses  and 
ornaments  :  this  taste  is  indeed  almost  a  passion  with  both  sexes.  With  abundant 
instances  of  the  operation  of  these  incentives  we  have  also  seen  examples  of 
feelings  common  to  human  nature  (a  nature  which  is  less  barbarous  here  than  is 
commonlv  supposed)  of  the  love  of  decorating  their  children,  and  of  a  desire  to 
improve  their  condition ;  nor  is  there  here  any  of  the  Bedawln  apprehension  of 
doing  what  may  be  considered  derogatory  to  tlie  discipline  handed  down  by  their 
ancestors,  or  capable  of  affecting  their  warlike  independence. 

Three  localities  have  been  pointed  out  as  the  northerly  station  of  the  navigation, 
Ja'ber,  Beles,  and  Bir.  They  are  all  feasible  :  I  should  give  the  preference  to 
Beles :  the  station  is  not  imhealthy ;  the  alluvial  soil  would  allow  of  docks  being 

VOL.  II.  2  Z 


698  APPENDIX. 

dug  with  facility.  The  ti'ibes  are  pastoral,  but  only  partially  nomadic,  and  might 
be  easily  rendered  agricultm-al.  The  distance  from  Aleppo  and  the  Mediterranean 
is  at  a  minimum,  and  the  country  is  adapted  for  post-roads,  railroads,  or  a  canal. 
The  whole  character  of  the  descent  of  the  river  made  by  the  "  Euphrates " 
steamer,  demonstrated  in  the  most  decisive  manner  that  the  great  moral  difficulties 
which  it  was  supposed  would  have  to  be  overcome,  only  exist  in  the  exaggei^ated 
alai-ms  created  by  the  predatory  habits  of  the  Bedawin  of  the  Desert,  or  degenerated 
tribes  like  those  of  Sinjar.  The  Arabs,  I  iii-mly  believe,  never  dreamt,  and  are 
incapable,  except  when  guided  to  it  b\-  supei'ior  wisdom.,  of  a  combined  plan  of 
operations.  But  it  was  an  imexpected  spectacle  which  was  offered  at  the  opening 
of  the  navigation,  in  the  coming  forward  of  the  shejks  and  elders  of  the  most 
reputable  and  powerful  tribes  to  cultivate  the  acquaintance  and  seek  the  protec- 
tion of  the  commander  of  the  Expedition, 

When  a  melancholy  accident  deprived  the  Expedition  of  half  of  its  physical 
power,  the  same  impression  continued  in  operation ;  and  instead  of  a  demand  of 
tribute  or  customs,  as  was  so  confidently  anticipated  by  some,  the  tribes  wei'e 
ready  even  w'ith  pecuniary  sacrifices  to  seek  the  protection  of  the  British  flag. 

That  little  dependence  can  be  ]:>laced  upon  the  Arabs,  is,  with  regard  to  many 
of  the  most  affluent  tribes  only,  the  calumny  of  an  irritated  or  an  ignorant  tra- 
veller. At  all  events  it  must , be  kept  in  mind,  that  the  first  who  may  bring  those 
uninformed  nations  in  contact  with  a  civilization  which  excites  their  love  and 
admiration,  is  at  least  the  most  likely  to  establish  lasting  associations  in  their 
bosoms  in  connexion  with  the  eai'ly  dawn  of  a  new  order  of  things. 

The  advantages  which  are  presented  by  the  opening  of  the  navigation  of 
the  river  Euphrates,  belong  to  universal  civilization,  as  well  as  to  an  increase  of 
national  power.  The  waters  of  this  great  river  flow  past  the  habitations  of 
upwards  of  four  millions  of  humian  beings,  amongst  whom  their  own  ti-aditions 
have  transmitted  the  sense  of  a  revolution  to  be  effected  by  the  introduction  of  „a 
religion  of  humility,  of  charity,  and  of  forbearance. 

The  intellectual  powei^  of  the  descendants  from  the  most  noble  stocks  of  tlie 
human  race  are  not  extinct  in  their  present  fall(-n  representatives,  and  it  woukl,l.>e 
difficult  to  say  to  what  extent  civilization  might  flourish  when  revived  in  its  ijiost 
antique  home.  Tlie  mental  privileges  of  the  Arab,  overwhelmed  by  moral 
despotism  and  political  insecurity,  are  not  loss  than  those  of  their  Assyrian,  their 
Baliylonian,  or  tiijir  Palmyrean  ancestors. 

The  national  importance  of  this  navigation  is  of  the  most  comprehensive^  cha- 
racter. EveiT  one  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  communication  of  nations, 
which  as  Montesquieu  has  ably  pointed  out,  is  the  history  of  commerce,  must  be 
aware  that  those  circumstances  which  led  to  the  annihilation  of  the  commerce  of 
the  east,  would  be  revolutionized  by  the  opening  now  proposed  to  bo  effected  ;  and 
that  while  civilization  might  be  confidently  expected  to  return  to  its  almost  pri- 
meval seat,  it  would  do  so  under  a  very  different  aspect,  and  with  vastly  improved 
means  over  the  days  of  Opis  and  Ophir,  or  of  Caucasium  and  Callinicum. 

All  these  advantages  are  to  be  obtained  by  the  navigation  which  you  have 
entered  upon,  and  of  which  you  have  ])rovcd  the  practicability.     The  establish- 


APPENDIX.  699 

ment  of  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  natives  would  also  be  effected,  to  secure 
which  and  to  kei-p  uj)  supplies  of  ftiel  and  provisions,  two  or  three  resident 
agento  niiglit  lie  stationed  at  disfcxnt  points  on  the  river,  besides  one  station  at  the 
junction  of  tlie  Hai  and  the  Euphrates.     . 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  &c., 
(Signed)        William  Ainsworth, 

Surgeon  and  Geologist  to  the 
Colonel  Chesney,  R.A.,  Euphrates  Expedition. 

Coininanding  the  Euphrates  Expedition. 


(N.) 

COMMERCIAL  OPENINGS  IN  WESTERN  ASIA. 

The  exploratory  voyages  in  descending  and  ascending  the  rivers  Kanin,  Tigi'is,  Navigability  of 

and  Eui)hrates,  have  sutliciently  proved  the  practicabilitv  of  their  navigation  with  ^^^  rivers  of 
1        r  -11  •  IT-.  1  1  ,'     1  r.  Mesopotamia. 

vessels  ol  a  suitable  construction.      Vv  ith  regard  to  tiie  latter.  Lieutenant  now  j.    . 

o  '  ^         Lieutenant 

Commander  C.  D.  Campbell,  of  the  Indian  Na\T,  having  ascended  the  river  from  Campbell's 

the  bar  to  Beles,  in  the  spring  of  1841,  a  distiince  of  1030  miles,  using  chieflv  f"^?^  ''!'^\'' 
'  '       °  '  '  &  .    Euphrates  to 

wood  and  bitumen  as  fuel,  stated  in  a  letter  to  the  author  :  "  I  quite  agree  with  Beles. 
■vour  officers  regarding  the  description  of  vessels,  and  have  proposed  a  small  one 
for  the  rapids.     Even  without  this  I  will  bring  the  packets  in  sixteen  days  from 
Basrah  to  Beles,  after  a  little  more  experience  of  the  river." 

The  steamer  now  proposed  by  Mr.  Laird  of  Birkenhead  as  most  suitable  fur 
the  river,  and  which  would  combine  all  the  advantages  of  the  larger  vessel  recom- 
mended l)y  the  officers  of  the  Expedition,  particularly  by  Commanders  Cleaveland 
and  Charlewood,  should  be  of  the  following  dimensions  : — 

Feet. 

Length  on  deck 130 

Length  on  water-line,  about        .      .    HO 

Beam 20 

Depth  at  sides  and  ends  ....       5 

With  a  raised  deck  amidships  over  cabins  and  engines.  Engines,  a  pair  of  25- 
horse  power,  with  tubular  boilers. 

The  vessel  to  \>e  divided  into  thirteen  compartments  by  water-tight  bulkheads, 
longitudinal  and  athwartship,  and  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  Hon.  East 
India  Company's  steam-vessel  Napier,  now  doing  good  service  on  the  Indus. 

The  principal  of  construction  is  to  round  the  vessel  up  at  each  extremity  by  an 
easv  curve,  leaving  only  a  small  portion  amidships  flat,  by  which  means  she  is 
enabled  to  glide  over  the  water  and  turn  in  so  small  a  space  that  she  is  more 
manageable  than  a  vessel  of  90  to  100  feet  long  built  on  the  ordinary  construc- 
tion. 

The  rudder  is  hung  on  a  bar  loose,  so  as  to  drop  to  a  level  with  the  keel,  and 
in  case  of  striking  the  ground  it  is  merely  raised  up,  and  again  falls  into  its  place 
without  receiving  any  injur)'. 

The  vessel  being  of  a  light  construction,  the  draft  of  water  would  not  exceed 

2  z2 


700 


APPENDIX. 


Suitability  of 
the  line  for 
mail  communi- 
cation, 

and  for 
commercial 

enterprise. 


Ormfiz,  its 
former  and 
present  tiade. 


Its  commeree 
transferred  to 
Bander  'Abbas 


Articles  of 
export  and 
import. 


Kishin.     It* 
harbour,  and 
state  of  its 
commerce. 


2  feet  when  loaded,  and  the  cabins  would  aflbrd  good  and  airy  accommodation 
for  officers  and  crew.  A  speed  of  12  knots  may  be  obtained  when  loaded,  draft 
of  2  feet,  and  the  boilers  would  be  so  constructed  as  to  work  regularly  at  a 
pressure  of  10  to  12  lbs.  per  square  inch;  but  being  proved  to  stand  at  least 
40  lbs.  pressure,  they  may  be  worked  as  high  as  20  lbs.  when  rapids  or  an 
increased  strength  of  current  are  to  be  encountered.  The  cost  of  such  a  vessel  in 
England  complete,  will  be  4,0  >GZ. ;  and  when  launched  on  the  river  Euphrates, 
about  6,000?. 

The  reports  of  the  officers  of  the  Expedition,  given  in  the  preceding  part  of  the 
Appendix,  have  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  this  line  for  mail  comiuunication 
with  India,  either  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  Red  Sea,  or,  in  case  of  any  interru})tion 
occm-ring  in  that  line,  and  they  have  indicated  at  the  same  time  an  important 
opening  to  our  conmierce  by  the  steam  navigation  of  these  rivers.  It  now  remains 
to  show  the  scope  for  British  enterprise  aftbrded  by  the  great  rivers  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. / 

The  existing  trade  between  India  and  the  Persian  Gulf  has  been  already 
noticed ;'  and  in  the  impetus  which  it  is  hoped  this  commerce  would  receive  fi-om 
the  opening  of  the  rivers,  Ornniz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf,  would  in  some 
degree  participate.  This  place,  once  so  celebrated  for  its  opulence  and  extensive 
trade,  is  now  a  miserable  fishing  island,  farmed  by  the  imam  of  ]\Iuskat  from  the 
king  of  Persia.  He  derives,  however,  a  considerable  revenue  from  the  exportation 
of  salt  in  large  quantities  to  different  parts  of  the  Gulf.  It  abounds  in  iron  and 
copper  ore.  The  harbour  is  good,  and  there  is  excellent  anchorage  on  the  north 
side  of  the  town.  The  Portuguese  had  possession  of  the  island  from  1507  to 
1622,  when  they  were  expelled  by  Shah  'Abbas  and  the  English,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  trade  was  transferred  to  Gamriin  or  Bander  'Abbas.  The  English, 
French,  and  Dutch  had  factories  there,  of  which  the  Dutch  factory  alone  remains 
in  a  state  of  preservation,  being  used  as  a  residence  by  the  Imam.  Yet  the  trade 
is  still  considerable:  in  1827  the  Imam  ofMuskat,  to  whom  the  port  belongs, 
collected  a  revenue  of  8,000  or  10,000  dollars.  Its  exports  ai'e  Persian  carpets, 
tobacco,  and  drieii  fruits ;  its  imports,  Indian  cloths,  piece  goods,  and  China 
ware ;  the  anniml  value  of  these  articles  was,  at  the  same  ])eriod,  estimated 
at  about  three  lakhs  of  rupees.  Although  the  rise  of  Bushire  has  diverted  com- 
merce from  Bander  'Abbas,  it  is  still  one  of  the  routes  to  the  centre  of  Persia ; 
and  when,  a  few  years  since,  Bushire  continued  for  some  time  in  a  disturbed 
state,  the  former  recovered  some  of  its  earlier  importance.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  little  village  of  Khamir,  higher  up  the  Gulf,  are  sulphur  mines,  extensively 
wiirked,  the  sulphur  being  exported  in  large  quantities  to  Muskat.  Beyond  this 
again  is  the  large  island  of  Kishm,  its  principal  towns  being  Kishm,  Laft,'and 
Bassadore ;  the  latter  with  a  good  port  and  station  for  the  Indian  navy.  The 
harbour  of  Kishm  .is  also  good,  and  its  site  well  chosen.  It  was  formerly  of 
greater  connnercial  importance  than  at  present,  but  its  bazar  is  still  well  sup- 
plied with  fruits  from  the  interior  of  Persia;  while  good  wines,  all  kinds  of  dried 


'  Appendix  (H.) 


APPENDIX.  70 1 

fruits,  silk  and  cotton  stuiYs,  with  very  fine  soft  caiptts  of  the  richest  patterns 

and  dye,  are  to  be  had  there  in  abundance :  the  latter  measuring  6  or  7  feet  long 

bv  3  feet  broad,  were  sold  for  twenty  dollars  each.'    A  considerable  part  of  tiie  Trade  of 

trade  of  the  Gulf  is  centred  in    Bushire,   which  supplies   Shiraz    and   a    large  B»shire  with 

'  ^  *^  °    rersia,  Ike. 

portion   of  Persia  with   European  and  Indian  goods,  receiving  silk  and  bullion  in 

return.      It  is  frequented  by  ships  from  all  parts  of  India.  ,  Lieutenant  Kemp- 

thorne  mentions  having  seen  fourteen  native  merchant  vessels  in  its  port  at  once^ 

and  the  author  at  a  later  period  has  seen  almost  as  many. 

The  following  is  a  statement  from  the  house  of  Constantine  and  Co.,  Bushire, 

March,  1841  :— 

(Xumber  of  S/i  ips  not  stated.)  Exports  from 

^  J       ^  >  Bushire  to 

Bushire  and  Bombay. — 15  to  20  bagalas  employed,  caiTying  Persian  horses,  800  to  India,  &c. 

1,000  yearly,  from  25  to  35  Company's  rupees'  freight 
each  ;  ships  charging  40  to  45  rupees  each. 
, ,  1,500  bales  Persian  silk  of  75  lbs.  each ;  some  years  2,000 

bales  or  more. 
, ,  Almonds,  quince  seed,  gall-nuts. 

,  ,  Bullion,  coins    of  all  kinds,  quantity  uncertain,   probably 

20,000/.  to  30,000/. 
, ,  Dried  fruits,  rajsins,  nuts,  &c.,  rose-water,   wine,   aniseed- 

water,  gums,  drugs,  &c. 
Bushire  and  Calcutta. — Two  or  three  ships  yearly  ;  returns  are   bills  on  Bombay, 

and  the  same  articles  as  mentioned  above  to  Bombay. 
Bushire  and  Batavia. — A  ship  yearly ;   takes  back  dates,  wheat,  ghee,  with  some 
other  iuticles,  and  bullion. 
The  imports  into  Bushire  are  European  and  Indian  manufactures,  and  produce  of 
all  kinds. 
The  next  port  is  Mohammerah,  -H  miles  up  the  Euphrates,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Port  of 
Kardn,  a  place  already  possessing  considerat^lo  trade,  which  is  capable  of  gi-eat  ^u^^^the'^h-er 
increase.    This  river  has  been  found  to  be  navigable  for  steamers  as  far  as  Shuster,  Karun. 

which  would  form  an  admirable  centre  for  trade,  and  where  the  appointment  of  Its  suitability 

tor  navigation. 
an  English  resident  would  be  attended  with  great  advantages  to  commerce. 

In  1830  the  author  descended  the  Karun  in  a  large  Arab  vessel  carrying  cargo, 
and  it  has  since  been  navigated  on  three  occasions  by  steamers. 

Dr.  Lavard,  wa-iting  to  an  eminent  English  merchant  in  1843,  thus  describes     - 
the  capabilities  of  the  country  : — 

"  I  believe  Susiana  to  be  a  jirovince  highly  capable  of  the  most  varied  cultiva-  Dr.  Layard's 
tion,  the  soil  is  rich,  labour  cheap,  the  inhabitants  well  disposed,  and  the  country  g^'jana'^'^  ** 
traversed  by  several  noble  navigable  rivers;  but  some  protection  is  needed,  and 
the  Persian  government  should  be  induced  to  require  the  appointment  of  a  consul 
at  Shuster.  The  land  is  highly  favourable  lor  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  wliich  is 
now  much  neglected,  but  which  might  be  much  improved.  I  made  many  inquiries 
as   to  the  growth  of  hemp,   guided  by  yom-  notes,  which  jNIr.    Hector  kindly 

'  Sketch  of  Islands,  &c.,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  by  Lieutenant  WTiitelock,  I.  N., 
Royal  Geographical  Jom-nal,  vol.  VIII.,  pp.  170-177,  compai-ed  with  Survey  along  the  Eastern 
Shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  by  Lieutenant  G.  B.  Kempthorne,  East  India  Company's  Marine, 
ibid.,  vol.  v..  p.  275,  &c. 


702 


APPENDIX. 


Decline  of  the 
trade  of 
Basrah. 


Superior 
position  of 
Kfirnah  for 
commerce. 
Baghdad,  its 
imports,  &c. 


Opening  for 
British 
commerce  at 
SIo'suI. 


Existing 
impediments  ti 
trade. 


Russian  goods 
ia  Kurdistan. 


allowed  me  to  copy,  and  I  found  the  country  well  adapted  for  its  cultivation. 
Indigo  of  a  good  quality  is  also  produced  about  Dizfiil,  and  many  articles  might 
be  raised  in  the  coiuitiy  if  the  inhabitants  were  encouraged." 

Twenty-one  miles  bevond  Mohammerah  is  the  port  of  Basrah,  once  an  empo- 
rium of  trade  in  the  time  of  the  East  India  Company's  factory,  but  which  has 
gradually  declined  since  its  removal.  It  would,  however,  probably  regain  some 
of  its  former  impoitance  with  the  establishment  of  steam,  especially  as  it  is 
remarkable  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil ;  although  from  the  superior  position  of 
Kiirnah  (39  miles  above  Basrah),  and  commanding  both  the  rivers  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  will  be  found  more  advantageous,  particularly 
as  vessels  can  there  lie  alongside  the  houses  for  loading  and  unloading  in  deeji 
water.  From  Kiirnah,  steamers  would  ascend  the  Tigris  in  four  days  to  Baghdad, 
where  trade  is  already  carried  on  to  some  extent,  but  which  possesses  commercial 
resoiurces  capable  of  great  development.  Its  imports  and  exports,  with  the  revenue 
derived  from  them,  have  been  detailed  in  vol.  I.,  pp.  109,  110.  In  addition  to 
the  articles  there  mentioned,  sugar,  coflfee,  and  indigo  are  impoited  from  Bengal. 
In  one  year,  about  3,000  bags  of  Bengal  sugar  of  10  maunds  (19  lbs.)  each,  2,000 
tubs  of  sugar-candy  of  5  mamids  each,  300  bags  of  indigo,  2  cwt.  each,  amounting 
in  value  to  about  47,000?.,  were  imported  into  Baghdad,  besides  coffee,  tea,  loaf- 
sugar,  &c.  :  indigo  and  cotton  might  be  cultivated  with  less  expense,  and  as  advan- 
tageously a&  in  Egypt. 

The  next  place  of  importance  on  the  Tigris  is  Mosul;  and  here  a  considerable 
opening  for  British  commerce  exists.  The  present  consumption  of  English  goods 
in  Mosul  and  the  adjacent  country  is  more  than  sufficient  to  support  a  mercantile 
establishment,  although  these  goods  are  at  present  carried  thither  from  Aleppo, 
Damascus,  or  Baghdad,  by  native  traders  of  small  capital,  who  pay  a  very  heavy 
duty  of  14  per  cent.,  and  are  purchased  from  third  or  fourth  hands,  by  which  tfie 
prices  to  the  consumers  are  so  enormously  enhanced,  as  to  place  the  articles 
almost  beyond  their  reach.  A  piece  of  print  worth  thirteen  shillings  in  Manches- 
ter, is  sold  in  Mosul  for  thirty-two  shillings.  The  English  merchants,  however, 
only  pay  3  per  cent.  The  houses  at  present  receiving  British  goods  in  Syria 
are  nearly  all  conmiission  houses,  and  consequently  unable  to  sell  so  cheaply  by 
10  per  cent,  as  the  regular  merchant;  which  is  a  serious  disadvantage  to  Arab 
trade.  If  mercantile  houses  were  estabhshed  at  SIosul  and  Diyar-Bekr,  goods 
amving  from  England,  even  without  the  proposed  facilities  of  steam,  could  be 
transported  at  a  comparatively  small  cost  from  Alexandretta  to  Dyar-Bokr,  and 
thence  down  the  river  to  Mosul ;  or  the  caravans  would  go  direct  from  Alex- 
andretta to  Mosul,  and  the  consumers  would  thus  obtain  British  manufactures  at 
little  more  than  one-half  of  what  they  pay  at  present,  and  the  consumption  would 
naturally  increase.  The  trade  of  such  an  establishment  would  probably  soon 
extend  into  Persia,  where  Russian  trade  is  now  increasing.  Calicoes  printed  near 
Moscow  were  in  1839  sold  in  Kurdistan  and  Mesopotamia.  The  products  of 
these  countries  would  aftbrd  advantageous  returns  to  England  in  gall-nuts,  sheep's 
wool,  and  madder-roots.  Of  the  former  1,500  can  tars,  about  350  tons,  are 
brought  annually  from  Mosul  alone  to  Aleppo  for  shipment  to  Europe,  and  an 


APPENDIX.  703 

exchange  with  high-priced  foreign  goods  is  effected  advantageously  to  both  par-  Articles  of 
tias.     Prime  black  galls  can  be  purchased  in  Mosul  at  950  piastres  per  cantar  of  P''°<^"*=« 
187^  okes  (an  oke  of  i\I6sul  is  480   drachms);    and  including  all  expenses  of  Mosul  &c. 
cai-riage  to  Alexandretta,  they  would,  when  ready  for  shipment,  amount  to  1,300 
piastres  per  canfau-,  or  fifty-two  shillings  per  cwt.      Sheep's  wool  is  abundant  and 
of  very  fine  qualit}-,  and  gives  a  handsome  profit,  even  under  tlie  present  disad- 
vantageous circumstances.  Madder  roots,  fine  goats'  wool,  yellow  wax,  and  arsenic 
are  also  articles  of  profitable  export  from  Mosul  and  Diyar-Bekr.     The  articles  Articles  of 
most   in   demand    among  the   natives  are    printed   and   dyed   calicoes,   muslins  ^'■'*^'^|? 
(laj^pets),  printed  handkerchiefs,  bleached  maddapolams,  forty  yards,  fine,  cotton  demand, 
velvets,  grey  domestics  (calicoes),  and  light  cloths,  such  as  are  called  ladies'  cloth 
in  England ;  there  is  also  a  considerable  dernand  for  zebras,  a  cotton  stuff  made  in 
Glasgow  and   Paisley.      In-  ]\I6sul  they  use  a  good    deal  of  water-twist  yam 
No.  20/' 30  for  making  a  light  jaconet  which  tliey  print  for  head-dresses ;  there  is 
also  a  consideralile  consumption  of  cochineal  by  the  printers  and  dyers  in  that 
town.     In  any  mercantile  establishment  in  Mosul,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have 
a  person  at  home  acquainted  with  the  taste  of  the  natives,  to  select  the  goods.  Causes  of  the 

The  great  attention  i^aid  by  the  Russians  to  the  taste  of  these  countries,  has  l)een  ^"s^'^"  success 

.  in  trade, 

one  great  cause  of  tiieir  success  in  trade. 

.   The  commerce  of  jNIosuI  would  necessarily  extend  to  and  be  connected  with  Existino-  trade 

JVIardin.and  Diyar-Bekr.     The  existing  trade  of  the  former  place  is  considerable,  of  ^^lardin  and 

and  miglit  be  increased..    It  is  accessible  from  Mosul  in  54  hours  by  Chilloaga 

and  Nisibiu,  and  18  hom:s  fi-om  Mardiu  brings  the  traveller  to  Diyar-Bekr.     The 

poy)ulatiou  of  this  town  is  about  28,000  and  an  idea  of  its  present  trade  may  be 

foi-med  from  the  following  custom-house  retiirn  of  imports : — 

Ilastres. 
Kuropean  manufactures,  Constantinople      .      .      2,500,000 

ColFee  and  Sugar 200,000 

Indigo  and  Indian  piece  goods         ....       2,900,000 


2,900,000  or  £29,000 


It  has  l)eeii  stated  by  .residents  at  Diyar-Bekr  that  this  trade  is  capable  of  being  Probable 
increased  to  double  the  above  amomit.     At  Betlis  also  British  calicoes  ai"e  sold  to' i^^I^^f «  "f  ^''ade 
a  moderate  extent,  and  there  is  some  demand  for  shawls,  woollen  cloths,  printed  ^^.j^j^jj  article's 
calicoes,  gav-coloured  silks  and  satins,  and  refined  sugar.     At  Kara  Hisar,  Sivas,  in  demand  at 
and  Tokat,  British  manufactm'es  are  also  in  request.     The  yellow  berry  is  culti-  Hjg^r'  &c  "^  &c 
vated  here,  and  at  the  latter  place  an  extensive  dyeing  establishment  exists.     The 
articles  most  in  demand  here  are  British  calicoes  and  musUn,  printed  cottons  and 
indigo.     The  copper  fi-om  Arghana  is  refined  here  and  transported  to  Samsiin  for  Commerce 
shipment.     Here  there  is  but  a  small  consumption  of  foreign  goods,  although  o^twe^n 
much  commercial  activity  exists  fi-om  the  transit  of  merchandise  fi-om  and  to  Con-  Constantinople, 
stantinople.    In  four  months  the  steamer  brought  2,480  packages  for  the  interior, 
and  carried  back  4,85<)  to  Constantinople,  the  latter  being  wholly  the  produce  of 
the  country.    Another  opening  exists  here  for  British  trade,  all  the  iron  at  present 


704  APPENDIX. 

used  being  Russian.     In  the  interior,  Zileh  is  a  place  of  some  commerce.     An 
Fair  of  Zileh.     annual  fair  is  held  there  in  the  middle  of  November,  which  lasts  fifteen  days ; 
fi'om  40,000  to  50,000  persons  visit  it  firom  all  the  commercial  cities  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor.     The  trade  is  carried  on  by  barter.     Grain  is  produced  in  abundance 
Silk  manufatoiT  i"  ^^^^  plains  near  Zileh.     Silk  is  manufactm-ed  largely  at  Amasiyeh,  but  chiefly 
of  Amasiyeh,      (qj.  barter  at  Zileh  and  other  towns,  a  small  quantity  only  being  exported  to  Con- 
stantinople.' 
and  opening  for      An  increasing  but  an  exclusively  private  trade  is  can-ied  on  from  Liver])ool  to 

commerce  at      Iskenderun,  and  thence  to  Aleppo,  also  to  Be'init  and  Damascus  :  while  Angora 
Angora.  ^^  ;  & 

offers  a  promising  position  for  commercial  enteqirise.     Its  trade  was  formerly 

considerable,   and  British   merchants  were   established    there,  but  it   has  been 

neglected,   and  its  only  traffic   at  present  is  with  Russia  :    Russian  goods  are 

descriljed  as  verv  expensive.     The  staple  produce  of  the  countrv  consists  of — 

Twisted  Jlerino,  Nos.  1  and  2  .      .      .40  piastres  per  hukka,  or  480  drachms. 

Merino  wool 12       , ,  , , 

Yellow  berry 25       , ,  , , 

Wool 5       , ,  , , 

Wax 5       , ,  , , 

There  is  a  good  market  for  refined  sugar,  West  India  eoftee,  handkerchiefs,  cliintz, 
calico,  cotton  velvets,  silk  dresses,  cloth  for  the  armv,  and  cutleries  of  all  sorts,  pro- 
ducing, it  is  said,  a  profit  of  200  per  cent.  The  European  imports  were  stated  by 
respectable  merchants,  in  many  towns  in  Asia  Minor,  to  be  very  much  larger  than 
the  value  of  native  products  exported,  in  the  ratio  of  1,000  to  10,000  in  value. 
Advantages  of    It  is  therefore  evident  that  gi-eat  advantages  to  commerce  would  arise  from  the 

an    ng  is  establisliment  of  an  English  consul  or  vice-consul  at  Ano-ora,  and  the  encourage- 

consul  or  vice-  ^  o       >  C3 

consul  at  ment  and  protection  which  would  thus  be  gi\'en  to  trade.     At  present  a  thousand 

°°"^^'  native  merchants  are  employed,  all  making  large  profits,  where  one  English  mer- 

chant would  suffice.    This  part  of  Asia  Minor  is  well  peopled,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  industrious.     The  people,  also,  are  anxious  for  European  goods,  but  from 
passing  through  so  manv  hands  tliey  are  at  present  too  dear  for  their  means. 
Russian  cutlery  is  much  in  demand,  thei-e  being  no  supply  of  British  manufacture. 
An  English  merchant,  who  has  occasionally  sujiplied  goods   for  Asia  Minor 
recommends  loaf  sugar,  coflee,  white   Manchester  cloths,   as  tungils,  jaconets, 
sheetings,  &c.,  and  printed  cahcoes,  such  as  those  purchased  b\-  the  Greek  mer- 
chants (the  patterns  of  which  should  be  selected  by  some  one  acquainted  with 
the  taste  of  the  country),  as  being  most  suitable  at  present  for  the  markets  of 
The  sale  of        Mosul  and  the  neighbouring  towns.     The  same  gentleman  has  given  it  as  his 
pay  the  opinion,  that  the  sale  of  100,000?.  worth  of  goods,  which  otherwise  would  not  be 

expenses  of  the  manufactured,  would  more  than  repay  the  country  the  whole  expenses  of  the 

Euphrates  ■r'      i  i    •  ■  i  i  •  i  »  /^  mi 

Expedition.  r-uphrates  expedition,  without  takmg  into  account  the  merchants  profits,  i  his 
calculation  was  made  with  reference  to  the  present  trade,  which,  however,  ulti- 
matel}',  would  be  largely  increased. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  existing  disadvantages,  boats  with  merchandize  are  con- 

'  Journey  from  Erz-Riim  to  Trebizond,   &c.,  by  Heurj-  Slater,   Esq. ;  Royal  Geographical 
Journal,  vol.  X.,  p.  442,  &c. 


APPENDIX.  705 

titiually  tracked  up  tlio  rivers  in  Mesopotamia ;  but  the  fleets  going  up  the  Tigris 

ivjaitist  the  stream  from  Basrah  to  Baghdad  consume  from  thirty  to  forty  days, 

while  a  steamer  would  perform  this  distance  in  four  days  and  a  half.     Good 

freights  are  therefore  secured  for  steamers,  and  a  valuable  opening  presented  for 

trade,  since  an  Amb  poimlation  of  about  twelve  millions  is  to  be  supphed.'    The 

actual  trac'e  to  Baghdad  was,  in  1838,  12,000  bales  or  packages,  brought  up 

the  Tigris  at  a  freight  of  1  /.  per  bale. 

Untler  such  promising  circumstances,  it  seems  that  a  company  might  advanta-  Suggestions  for 

geouslv  be  formed,  with  a  small  capital  (sav  of  25,000?.  in  50Z.  shares),  for  com-  ^^  *"'"™^"°"  , 
°  '  '  I  \    ^  »  /'  ot  a  commercial 

mercial  purjioses.    One  steamer  might  be  employed  on  the  Euphrates,  commencing  company. 

at  Beles,  the  port  of  Aleppo,  for  the  descent.     One  between  jMohammerah  and 

Baghdad,  and  a  third  on  the  Kai-iin :  a  fourth  steamer  being  kept  as  a  reserve, 

to  give  occasional  rest  to  the  officers,  men,  and  machinery  of  the  others.     The 

general  voyage  of  the  steamer  on  the  Euphrates  might  be  between  Beles  and 

Hillah,  a  town  of  considerable  trade,  60  miles  below  Feliijah,  descending  to  the 

ports  of  Mohammerah  and  Basrah  as  occasion  might  require.     Felujah  is  the 

place  of  transit  to  Baghdad,  which  is  nearly"  opposite  to  it,  at  a  distance  of  23:^ 

miles.     An  eligible  communication  would  thus  be  opened  with  the  other  steamer  Communication 

navigating  the  Tigris.     From  Iskenderiiu  or  Suweidiyeh  on  the  Syrian  coast  to  Euphrates  and 

Beles,  a  distance  of  100  miles,  every  facility  exists  for  conveyance.     The  transit  Tigris. 

may  occupy  six  da\s  from  the  sea  to  the  Euphrates,  and  five  or  six  more  to 

Baghdad :  forty  davs  is  an  average  passage  for  merchant  vessels  from  England  to 

Syria,  making  in  all  fifty-two  days  to  that  internal  market.     Supplies  would  also 

reach  Baghdad  direct  from  England  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulph.    This  channel 

also  embraces  the  whole  intercourse  with  India  and  the  Arabian  coast,  both  as  to 

goods  and  passengers  :  the  traffic  and  employment  for  steamers  might  possibly  be 

greater  here  than  on  the  Euphrates  above.     The  products  of  Arabia  and  the 

inland  countries  have  been  already  given  in  the  custom-house  returns.* 

The  steamers  in  the  Black  Sea,  mnning  between  Taiibuzun  and  Constantinople,  Traffic  between 
and  between  the  latter  city  and  Smyrna,  are  always  crowded  with  Turks  and  other  c^tamtinople 
Ottoman  subjects,  often  taking  with  them  their  harems  or  families ;  the  Arabs 
also  appreciated  the  superior  convenience  of  steam  travellmg  in  the  time  of  the 
Expedition,  and  availed  themselves  of  it  as  often  as  allowed.    They  may,  therefore, 
be  expected  to  afibrd  a  regular  and  considerable  item  of  passage-money. 

Another  item  will  arise  from  the  per  centage  on  specie,  pearls,  sliawls,  and 
other  valuables,  in  which  there  is  a  constant  traffic  or  transit  in  those  countries. 

The  establishment  of  the  navigation  would  probably  lead  to  that  of  English 
mercantile  houses  at  all  the  chief  places  of  trade  on  the  Euphrates,  and  other 
rivers  and  branches  at  the  interior  stations ;  so  that  agents  would  be  found  to  take 
charge  of  the  depots  and  the  transaction  of  the  general  business  of  the  Company 
at  moderate  remuneration,  either  by  commissions  or  salary — two  exist  already. 

Independently  of  the  natural  facilities  for  the  navigation,  still  greater  advantages  Proposed 
mav  attend  the  opening  of  a  canal  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Felujah  to  Baghdad,  improvements 

'  *  ^  °  to  facilitate  the 

1  Vol.  r..  Appendix  VIII.,  p.  724.  "  Appendix  (G.)  navigation  of 

^^  '  •  the  Euphrates. 

VOL.  II.  3    A 


706 


APPENDIX. 


As  the  commerce  increases,  some  improvements  might  be  desirable,  such  as  a  cut 
through  the  Lamliim  Marshes,  and  the  removal  of  some  rocks  in  the  river.  Four 
iron  steamers  for  commercial  purposes,  75  feet  long,  13  feet  beam,  with  engines 
of  2o-hor3e  power,  and  not  to  di'aw  more  than  tvv'o  feet  water,  may  be  placed  on 
the  river  at  a  cost  of  about  9,500Z. ;  and  foxir  iron  tug  or  accommodation  boats 
for  occasional  use,  of  60  tons,  for  about  2,000?. 

£. 
Freight  of  materials  and  workmen  to  Mohammerah  by  a  vessel  of  500 

tons 2,000 

Expenses  during  the  voyage 200 

Expense  of  putting  up  the  vessels  and  return  of  the  workmen,  &c.    .      .       2,500 

Four  steam  vessels 9,500 

Four  tug  or  accommodation  boats 2,200 

Total     .     .      .  £16,400 

Outfit  of  one  steamer  and  one  tug £4,100 

The  erpense  of  each  steamer  is  estimated  at  about  2,6001.  annually;  or, 
adding  one-third  for  the  vessel  supposed  to  be  in  reserve,  3,466?. 

These  calculations  have  been  formed  solely  on  the  existing  native  trade  along 
the  rivers,  without  taking  into  account  its  probable  increase  from  direct  and  rapid 
intercourse. 

The  calculation  of  the  annual  expenditure  is  founded  upon  that  of  the 
Euphrates  Expedition ;  and  the  returns  are  from  different  data  collected  during 
that  enterprise. 


INDEX 


TO    THE    SECOND    VOLUME,    f-s 


Note.— The  Jota  vslucli,  in  tlie  text,  are  placed  under  certain  letters,  and  indicate  their  powers,  are,  in  this 

Index,  omitted. 


Abbot  of  St.  Gallen,  and  encouragement  of 

Arabic  literature,  a.')! 
'Abdcl-l-mesi'li's  Philosopbia,  549 
Abii,  the,  or  Scythians  of  Asia,  Sl.'i 
,  the,  send  an  embassy  to  Alexander, 

313 
•,  the,  were  called  the  most  just  nation 

upon  earth,  303 
,  revolt  of  the,  and  subjection  by  Alex- 
ander, 313,  314 
Abissares  brings  presents  to  Alexander,  330, 

334 
A  boo  Junta,  and  the  temples,  &c.,  61 1 
Aboras  river  and  Circesiuui,  424 
Abrahah,  son  and  successor  of  Hareth-al- 

Kaish,  80 
,  or  Abramus,  leader  of  the  expedition 

against  Mekkah,  450 

,  conquests  of,  in  Africa,  80 

,  also  called  Dhulmenar,  80 

,  his  intention  of  building  the  towers  of 

Pharos,  80 

was  succeeded  by  Afrikus,  80 

Abraham  and  Lot,  48 

,  a  Sheinitic  Chaldean,  55 

,  departure  from  U'r,  Gl 

,  Berossus'  account  of,  G2 

a  seller  of  images,  62 

his  couversiou,  according  to  Epipha- 

rius,  63 

period  of  his  departure  from  U'r,  63 

reigned  at  Damascus,  64 

imparted  knowledge  to  other  nations, 

64 
journeys  from  Damascus  to  Syria  and 

Egypt,  64,  65 

wars  with  the  kings  of  Assyria,  65 

his  separation  from  Lot,  66 

meets  with  Melchisedek,  66 

his  followers  and  allies,  66 

his  name  changed,  69 

Ishmael  born  to,  70 

■  expels  Ishmai-1,  70 
,   his   descendants   by   marriage   with 

Keturah,  70 
,  his  descendants  numerous  on  going 

down  to  Egypt,  71 


Abraham,  advanced  state  of  civilisation  in 

Egypt  when  visited  by,  71 
,  the  Horitcs  when  visited  by,  76 

changed  his  language  after  quitting 

Haran,  85 

and  Lot's  descendants  with  the  Kahta- 

nites  civilize  Arabia,  85 
. emir  of  Barbary,  sends  an  embassy 

to  Charlemagne,  459 
Abrocamas,  Cyrus  proceeds  against,  210 
abandons  the  Syrian  pass  jjefore  Cyrus, 

212 

retreats  across  the  Euphrates,  213 

Abulites  delivers  up  Susa  to  Alexander,  298 
restored  to  the  satrapy  of  Susiana  by 

Alexafiider,  298 
and   his  son  executed  by  Alexander, 

358 
Abu-1-' Abbas  commenced  the   line  of  the 

Abbasides,  458 

encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences  in 

Arabia,  458 

Abu-1  feda's  work  on  geography,  S.'sS 
Abii  Ya'kub  and  the  Fihrist,  547 
Abydos  the  rendezvous  of  Xerxes'  fleet,  192 
Abyssinia,  Egypt  peopled  from,  47 

and  Arabians,  the  same  people,  47 

• first  colony  of  Cushites  settled  in,  7S 

,  second  colony,  called  Shepherds  or 

Berbers,  settled  in,  73 
,  Africus,  king  of  the  Himyarites,  in- 
vades, 80 

,  the  language  of,  Shemitic,  84,  85 

claim  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  123 

,  early  intercourse  with  the  Hebrews, 

124 

• ,  as  governed  by  Solomons  son,   123, 

124 

subdue  and  govern  Yemen,  450 

Acampis  (see  Tchdru'k  su) 
Accad,  now  'Akar  Kiif,  24 

,  Babel  Erech.  &c.,  616 

Acccta  and  Julian's  army,  439 

Acha-us  defeated  by  Antiochus  the  Great, 

403 
Achaichala,  Julian  passes,  436 
Acre,  revolt  of  the  pasha  of,  204 

3  a2 


708 


INDEX. 


Actium,  battle  of,  414 

Ada,  queen  of  Caria,  declares  in  favour  of 

Alexander,  2G5 
gives  up  the  fortress  of  Alindse  (Moola) 

to  Alexander,  2lJ6 
Adaggi,  Jebel,  or  Mount  of  Deliverance,  99 
,  the  name  of,  helps  to  determine  the 

route  taken  by  the  Israelites,  99 
Adam's  knowledge,  8 
Adiinah  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475 
'A'd  Bern',   language   spoken    at   Khuryiin 

JNIuryan,  50 

,  traditions  of,  51 

&c.,   probably   absorbed  in  the  Kah- 

tanites,  51 
Adelard  of  Bath,  and  his  works,  559,  560 
'Aden,  Himyari  inscription  at,  83 

,  Abyssinian  forces  landed  at,  450 

Adhi'm,  bund  of,  612 
Ad'hiyari  river,  373 
Adiabene  conquered  by  Trajan,  419 

,  situation  of,  419 

,  called  Attur  for  Assur  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, 419 
Adites,  branch  of  Ham's  descendants,  44 
Adrammelech   murders    Sennacherib,   142, 

143 
Adrian  circumscribes  his  empire,  421 
Adrianople  taken  by  Murad,  498 

,  gigantic  piece  of  ordnance  cast  at,  500 

occupied  by  the  Russians,  504 

^galeos.  Mount,  Xerxes  witnesses  the  battle 

of  Salamis  fi'om,  195 
^gyptusor  Mezraim,  son  of  Cham,  45 

■ was  the  first  to  settle  in  Egypt.  45 

Aelath  blockaded  by  the  Crusaders,  478 

iElius  Gallus, 

Afghans,  origin  of  the,  469 

conquests  under  Mahmiid  Ghizni,  469 

conquered  by  Nadir  Shah,  497 

Africa,  occupied  by  the  Hamites,  45 

,  at  first  considered  part  of  Arabia,  46 

,  spread  of  the  Hamites  in,  46 

,  connected  with  Arabia,  46,  47 

,  expedition  of  Jasasin  Ibn  Amrii  into, 

84 
■ ,  Himyarites .  of  Arabia,  or  Saboeans, 

123 

distance  of  the  voyage  to,  125 

,  products  of  the  eastern  coast,  125 

,  its  Phoenician  colonies,  128 

circumnavigated  by  the   Phoenicians 

under  Pharaoh  Necho,  154 
,  colonies  sent   from  Carthage  to  the 

western  coast  of,  1 90 

,  the  projected  circumnavigation  of,  366 

invaded  by  the  Arabs,  455 

,  settlement  of  the  Berbers  and  Moors 

in,  455,  456 

' its  trade  from  India,  576 

circumnavigated,  579 

Afrikus,  successor  of  Abrahah,  king  of  the 

Himyarites,  80 

,  his  expedition  against  the  Berbers,  80 

,  town  built  by,  81) 

,  extent  of  conquests  of,  80 

succeeded  by  his  son  Alfeidar,  80 


"Afrm  crossed  by  Cyras'  army,  213 
Agaazi,  the,  founded  Axum,  47 
Agathocles  put  to  death  by  the  Parthians, 

400 
Agema,  a  corps  in  Alexander's  army,  360 
Agesilaus  sent  against  Ephesus,  245 
,  preparations  of  Tissaphernes  against, 

245 
plunders  Pharnabazus'  territory,  and 

defeats  Tissaphernes,  245 
,  his  truce  with  Tissaphernes'  successor, 

245 
,  his    campaign    in    Bithyuia    against 

Pharnabazus,  246 

his  army  recalled  to  Laceda^mon,  246 

,   his   fleet  defeated  by  Pharnabazus, 

near  Cnidus,  246 

defeats  the  Persians  near  Coronea,  246 

takes  service  tmder  Tachos,  king  of 

Egypt,  248,  249 
enables  Nectanabis  to  usurp  the  throne 

of  Egypt,  249 

,  death  of,  249 

Aghatch,  Kara,  on  the  Harpesus,  crossing- 
place  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  231 
Agines,  a  village  of  the  Susiaus,  passed  by 

Nearchus,  356 
,  supposed  site  of  Ahwaz,  position  of, 

356 
Agobardus'  mission  to  Baghdad,  547 
Agriculture  much  encouraged  by  the  Magi, 

185 
Ahasuerus  also  called  Cambyses,  173 

,  or  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  148,  198 

Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  besieged  ia  Jerusalem, 

139 

,  and  the  kings  of  Assyria,  139 

■ presents  to  Tiglath  Pileser  the  vessels 

of  the  Temple,  &c.,  139 
Ahmed,  the  khaliph  of  Baghdad,  defeated 

by  Ta'imu'r,  493 
,  diminution  of  the  Turkish  power  under 

502 
Ahrimiin's  mythology  probably  that  of  the 

Celts,  513 
Ahwiiz  or  Agines  passed  by  Nearchus'  fleet, 

356 
A'idi'n,  district  of  Anadoli,  497 
Ainsworth's  report  on  the  navigation  of  the 

Euphrates,  (Appemlij-  M.) 
'A'iu-t;ib,  district  of,  12 

• surrenders  to  Taimiir,  495 

Aizanas,    Abyssinian    invasion    of  Yemen 

under,  450 
'Akar  Kiif,  .lulian's  army  at,  438 

and  its  construction,  604,  605 

Akesiues,  Alexander's  passage  of  the,  330 

,  reached  by  Alexander's  fleet,  335 

,  the  fleet  descends  the,  335 

,  Alexander  reviews  his  army  on  the, 

338 

,  confluence  of  the,  with  the  Indus.  338 

,  source,  course,  and  tributaries  of  the, 

370,  371 
'Akhar  Tell,   or  Firuz  Sapor,  and  Peris- 

aboras,  438 
,  its  situation,  438 


INDEX. 


'09 


Akhoora,  callcil  after  Noah,  8 
Akhthaniar,  sea  of,  or  lake  Van,  116 
'Akkii,  stormed  by  the  Crusaders,  475 

retaken  t>y  the  Muslims,  47'J 

,  siege  of,  by  the  Cnisaders,  480-482 

fifth  armament  of  Crusaders  land  at, 

484 

,  sixth  army  of  Crusaders,  under  Louis 

IX.,  disembark  at,  485 

,  Prince  Edward  lands  at,  486 

taken  from  the  Crusaders,  486 

besieged  by  Napoleon,  503,  5.'55 

Akko,  now  Ptolemais,  Pharaoh  Necho  ad- 
vances to,  155 
Akora,  near  Attock,  probably  the  site  of  the 

fort  of  Aornos.  323 
Akran,  king  of  Yemen,  449 
Al  'Adhed,  the  last  of  the  Fatimites,  476 
'Ala-ed-di'n  defeated  by  Munid,  498 
Alban  mountain,  tunnel  of.  613 
Albania,  ancient,  once  called  Kusdi,  35 
Albertus  Magnus,  548 
Alemanni   and    Franks    repulsed    by   the 

Romans,  425 
Aleppo  ceded  to  Salah-ed-dih  by  the  Cru- 
saders, 479 

plundered  by  Taimiir,  495 

,  trade  with  India,  589 

,  port  of  and  its  trade,  594 

,  trade,  decline  of,  594 

and  Damascus  stuflFs,  630 

Alexander,  his  birth,  255 

•  at  the  battle  of  Chseronea,  255,  256 

succeeds  his  father  Philip,  257 

is  elected  chief  of  the  Greek  confede- 
racy, 257 

,  his  first  campaign  against  the  Illy- 

rians  and  Thraciuns,  258 

■  defeats  the  Bulgarians  or  Triballians, 

2.58 

crosses  the  Ister  or  Danube,  259 

■ defeats  the  Goths,  lUyrians,  and  Tau- 

lantians,  259 

takes  Thebes  by  storm,  259 

celebrates  the  Olympic  games  at  Dia, 

259 

,  his  invasion  of  Asia  desired  by  the 

Greeks,  259 

■ ,  his  advantages  over  Darius,  262 

relies  on  his  victories  for  funds,  262, 

263 
,  his  avowed  object  of  invading  Asia, 

262,  263 

sacrifices  at  Troy,  263 

,  advances  to  Zelia,  in  Bithynia,  263 

defeats  Darius'  army  at  the  Granicus, 

263,  264 

advances  to  Sardis,  265 

erects  a  temple  to  Jupiter  at  Sardis,  265 

causes  the  temple  at  Ephesus  to  be  re- 
built and  endowed,  265 

takes  Miletus  and  advances  to  Halicar- 

nassus,  265 

assisted  by  Queen  Ada  of  Caria,  266 

visits  her  in  at  the  fortress  of  AlindoG, 

206 

,  his  army  winters  at  Caria,  266 


Alexander  permits  the  married  soldiers  to 
visit  Greece,  266 

,  Parmenio  keeps  up  the  communication 

with  Greece,  2(;6 

,  his  success  in  Lycia  and  Caria,  266, 

267 

marches   round   Mount  Climax,   and 

subjects  Pisidia,  267 

takes  CelcEnae  and  marches  to  Gor- 

dium,  267 

,  his  army  recruited  from  Macedonia, 

267 

takes  Paphlagonia  and  Cappadocia,  268 

forces  the  Cicilian  gates,  268 

is  seized  with  fever,  268 

takes  the  castle  of  Halicamassus,  269 

sul)jects  Cicilia,  Campestris,  and  Rug- 
ged Cicilia,  269 

advances  through  the  Syrian  gates,  270 

,  his    energetic    march    towards    the 

Issus,  273 

defeats  Darius,  274 

.  his  honourable  treatment  of  the  royal 

captives.  275,  276 

wounded  in  battle,  274 

sends  to  take  Damascus,  276 

receives  the  allegiance  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 276 

refuses  peace  to  Darius,  276,  277 

causes  the  Sidouians  to  submit,  277 

opposed  by  the  Tyrians,  277 

attempts  to  restore  the  dyke  at  Tyre, 

278 

takes  Tyre  after  a  long  siege,  279 

,  his  treatment  of  the  Tyrians,  279 

,  his  reply  to  Darius'  second  proposal  of 

peace,  260 

offers  sacrifices  at  Jerusalem,  280 

grants  privileges  to  the  Jews,  281 

besieges  and  takes  Gaza  by  storm,  281 

sends  spices  to  his  tutor  Leonidas,  282, 

283 

,  his  cruelty  to  Batis  the  brave  defender 

of  Gaza,  283 
receives  the  submission  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, 283 

,  his  policy  towards  the  Egyptians,  283 

founds  the  city  of  Alexandria,  283 

visits  the  temple  of  Ammon,  283,  284 

consolidates  the  Egyptian  government, 

284 

crosses   the   desert  from   Ammon   to 

Memphis,  284 

marches  to  Tyre,  284 

.  his  probable  route  from  thence  towards 

Thapsacus,  284,  285 

crosses  the  Euphrates  at  Thapsacus,  285 

builds  Nicephorium  or  Rakkah,  285 

crosses  the  Tigris,  286 

,  his  tact  in  quieting  the  alarm  caused 

by  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  287 

refuses  Darius,  liberal  proposals,  287 

,  number  of  his  army,  288 

reconnoitres  Darius'  position,  288 

encourages  his  army,  288 

becomes  acquainted  with  Darius'  order 

of  battle,  &c.,  289 


710 


INDEX. 


Alexander,  his  anxiety,  289 

,  his  order  of  battle,  291 

gains  the  battle  of  Arbela,  292-294 

seizes  Darius'  treasure,  &c.,  296 

marches  towards  Babylon,  296 

,  his  triumphal   entry   into   Babylon, 

296 

restores  the  temple  of  Belus,  296 

regulates  the  government  of  Babylonia, 

297 

takes  Susa  and  its  treasure,  298 

receives  reinforcements,  298 

marches  against  the  Uxii,  298 

advances  into  Persis,  299 

,  situation  of  the  Uxian  city,  290 

forces  the  Persian  gates,  and  crosses 

the  Araxes,  300,  301 

,  Persepolis  taken  and  sacked,  301 

subdues  the  Mardi,  Cossaei,  &c.,  302 

sets  fire  to  Xerxes'  palace  at  Persepolis, 

302 

takes  possession  of  Ecbatana,  302 

,  his  army  reinforced  at  Ecbatana,  302 

releases  the  civic  Greeks  from  their 

engagement,  302,  303 

pursues  Darius,  303 

,  his  pursuit  of  the  conspirators,    and 

death  of  Darius,  304 

invades  Hyrcania,  the  Mardi,  &c.,  305 

,  his  generous  treatment  of  the  faithful 

adherents  of  Darius,  305 

,  Bessus  claims  the  sovereignty  of  Asia, 

305 

marches  against  Bessus,  306 

makes  a  flank  movement  against  Sati- 

barzanes,  306 

marches  against  Barzsentcs,  306 

causes  Barzscntes  to  be  executed,  306 

,  his  route  against  the  DrangiB,  306 

marches  to  the  Ariaspse,  307 

declares  the  Ariaspa?  free,  307 

causes  the  Gedrosi  and  Arachosi  to 

submit,  307 

,  his  march  from  Pesha-warun,  308 

,  his   generals  disperse  the  Bactrians, 

and  slay  Satibarzanes,  308 

advances  to  the  Paropamisus,  308 

,  his  knowledge  of  India,  &c.,  309 

had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  east, 

310 

constructs  Alexandria  ad  Caucasum, 

311 

advances,  captures  Aorni  and  Bactra, 

and  crosses  the  Oxus,  311 

halts  at  Samarkand,  312 

advances  towards  the  Jaxartes,  and  is 

wounded,  312 

receives  embassies  from  the  Scythians 

of  Europe  and  Asia,  312,  313 

blockades  Cyropolis  and  other  Sogdian 

towns,  313 

crosses  the  Jaxartes  and  defeats  the 

Scythians,  314 

anticipates  the  plans  of  Spitamenes,  315 

devastates  the  country  near  the  Polyti- 

mctus  river,  315 
^his  cruelty  to  Bessus,  315,  316 


Alexander,  his  operatioiis  against  the  Sog- 
dians,  315 

marches  to  Maracanda,  and  winters  at 

Nautaka,  316 
I   • repels  the  inroad  of  Spitamenes,  316 

captures  the  hill  fort  of  Oxyarta,  and 

marries  Roxana,  316,  317 

advances  into  Margiana,  and  builds  the 

city  of  Seleucia.  317 

advances  and  the  rock  fort  of  Cho- 

rienes  capitulates,  318 

murders  Clitus,  318 

,  his  route  towards  the  Indus,  319 

reaches  the  Kophen  and  receives  pre- 
sents from  the  Indian  princes,  319 

,  his  generals  take  the  capital  of  the 

Peukelaotis,  319 

is  wounded  when  advancing  against 

the  Aspii,  319 

the  Aspii  burn  their  towns,  320 

orders  Craterus  to  rebuild  the  town 

of  Arigaeum,  320 

pursues  the  Aspii  to  the  mountains, 

320 

defeats  the  Indians  in  a  pitched  battle, 

320 

sends  cattle  to  Macedonia,  320 

crosses  the  Enaspla  against  the  Asa- 

kenes.  320 

defeats  the  people  of  Mazaga,  321 

wounded  before  Mazaga,  321 

,  his  cruelty  and  treachery,  321 

,  his  generals  capture  Bazira  and  Ora, 

321 
besieges  and  takes  the  rock  of  Aomas, 

322,  323 

makes    a    retrograde   movement  to 

punish  the  Assakeni,  323 

marches  to  the  banks  of  the  Indus, 

323 

,  his  visits  to  Nysa  and  Merus,  323 

crosses  the  Indus  by   the  bridge  of 

boats  near  Attock,  323,  324 

receives  an  embassy  and  presents  from 

Taxiles,  323 
marches,  and    leaves  the   Hydaspes, 

324,  325 
in  a  well-contested  battle  defeats  Poms, 

325-329 

,  his  generosity  to  Porus,  329,  330 

orders  Craterus  to  build  Nika;a  and 

Bucephala,  330 

crosses  the  Akesines  and  Hydraotes, 

330 

advances  against  the  Malli,  Catbsei, 

OxydracEC,  &c.,  330,  331 

advances  to  the  Hyphasis,  331 

,  his  army  refuses  to  cross  the  Hyphasis, 

332,  333 

,  his  speech  to  his  generals,  332,  333 

determines  to  retire,  333 

presents  the    territory  to   Porus  aud 

returns,  334 

prc-parts  a  flotilla  on  the  Hydaspes,  334 

■ descends  the  Hydaspes,  334 

makes  an  excursion  against  the  Siba, 

335 


INDEX. 


711 


Alexander  recrosses  the  Akesines,  and  pro- 
ceeds against  the  Malli,  335,  336 

,  his  perilous  situation,  337 

,  his  anjiy  and  fleet  rendezvous  at  the 

coufluence  of  the  Hydraotes  and  Akesines, 
338 

borne  on  a  couch  and  reviews  his  army, 

338 

receives  the  submission  of  the  Oxy- 

dracie  and  Malli,  338 

builds  a  town  and  docks  on  the  Indus, 

338 

descends  the  Indus  to  the  Delta,  338 

,  his  marches  from  Tyre  to  the  river 

Ilyphasis  calculated,  339 

,  his  project    for  connecting    Europe 

and  Asia,  338,  339 

,  his  sources  of  knowledge,  340,  341 

sails  down  the  Indus  to  the  island  of 

Cillutas,  341,  342 

despatches  Craterus  towards  Kirman, 

342 
■ orders    a    haven  and   docks   to   be 

built  at  Pattala,  342 
entrusts  the  naval  expedition  to  Ne- 

archus,  342,  344 
despatches  Hephaestion  vrith  the  bulk 

of  the  army,  342 
advances  towards  the  river  Arabius, 

and  pursues  the  Orita;,  342,  343 
,  his  force  join  the  main  body  under 

Hephaestion  and  advances  to  Rambacia, 

343 

orders    Leonatus  to  build  a  city  at 

Rambacia,  343 

■ ,  his  march  through  the  Urhez  district, 

and  privations  experienced,  343,  344 
,  his  army  reackes  Kirman  and  is  joined 

by  the  division  under  Craterus,  344 

•,  his  reception  of  Nearchus.  352 

directs    Nearchus    to    proceed    from 

Dirldotis  to  Susa,  355 
proceeds  from  Kirman  to  Pasagarda^ 

357,  358 
despatches  Hepha;stion  along  the  coast 

to  Liiristin,  357 
visits  the   tomb  of  Cyrus,   and  pro- 
ceeds to  Pasagarda,  358 
executes  Arsiues   and   appoints  Peu- 

cestas  in  his  place,  358 

proceeds  to  Susa,  358 

is  joined  by  Nearchus  and  Onesicritus 

at  Susa,  358 

executes  Abulites  and  his  son,  358 

,  his  sacrifices  and  games  at  Susa,  358 

consolidates  his  government  and  adopts 

Asiatic  customs,  358,  359 

marries  T5aisiue  or  Statira,  359 

distributes  honorary  rewards,  359 

,  his  plan  for  reorganising  his  army, 

359,  3G0 

had  long  contemplated  a  trade  with 

India,  3H0 

with  his  army  and  fleet  examines  the 

Euphrates  and  Tigris,  360 
sails  down  the  Eulajus  into  the  ocean, 

360 


Alexander  is  joined  by  Hephcestion  on  enter- 
ing the  Tigris,  360,  361 

passage   by   which    he   reached  the 

Tigris,  361 

ascends  the  Tigris  to  Opis,  362 

,  his  march  from  Opis  into  Media,  362 

quells  a  mutiny  by  his  boldness,  362 

forms  an  Asiatic  army,  363 

,  his  banquet  to  the  Greeks  and  Asiatics, 

363 
sends  10,000  Greeks  home  under  Cra- 
terus, 363,  364 

passes  into  the  Choaspes,  thence   to 

Susa,  364 

marches  towards  Media,  364 

visits  Bisutiin  on  his  march,  365 

undertakes  an  expedition  against  the 

Cossffians,  365 

subdues  the  Cossaans  and  proceeds  to 

Babylon,  365 

enters  Babylon  against  the  warnings 

of  the  Chaldeans,  365 

receives  envoys  from  all  quarters,  365 

,  his  vast  projects  at  Babylon,  366 

selects  Babylon   as    the   seat  of  his 

empire,  366 

causes  the  Arabian  coast  to  be  sur- 
veyed, 366,  367 

sails  down  the  Euphrates  and  Palla- 

copas,  367 

constructs  a  city  in  Arabia  and  im- 
proves the  Pallacopas,  367 

,  his  fleet  assembled  in  the  Euphrates, 

368 

returns  to  Babylon  and  receives  an 

embassy  from  Greece,  368 

dies  of  a  fever  caught  in  the  Lamliim 

marshes,  3ti8 

,  his  marches  calculated,  376 

acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  East  by 

his  campaigns,  379 

,  his  empire  at  his  death,  379,  380 

,  his  remains  carried  to  Egypt,  380 

,  his  successor  settled  by  Eumenes,  380 

,  his  projects  neglected,  380 

,  his  successors  throw  off  the  mask,  396 

,  and  subdivision  of  his  empire,  398 

and  Molo  rebel  against  Antiochus,  402 

(Port),  a  haven  named  by  Nearchus, 

345 

,  probable  position  of,  346 

,  emperor  of  Rome,  restores  the  ancient 

discipline,  423 

defeats  Artaxerxes,  423 

,  succeeded  by  Gordian  III.,  423 

Alexandria  ad  Caucasum,  built  by  Alex- 
ander, 311 
,  in  Margiana,  built  by  Alexander, 

317 
,  afterwards  named  Seleucia  and  An- 

tiocha  Margiana,  317 
,  now  Mered-el-Rud,  on  the  Murgh'-db, 

317,  318 

,  in  Kgypt,  built  by  Alexander,  360 

,  ^Elius  Gallus  returns  to,  415 

,  early  use  of  artillery  at,  499,  500 

,  and  astronomy  as  a  system,  529 


712 


INDEX. 


Alexandria,  Omar  extends  his  conquests  to, 

455 

,  destroys  the  library  of,  455 

,  Napoleon's  intention  -with  regard  to, 

535 
Alexandropolis,  or  Kandahar,  307 
Aleyat  inscriptions,  628 
Alfarabi's  translation  of  Aristotle,  558 
Alfeidar,  or  Dhalghanatir,'son  and  successor 

of  Africus  over  the  Himyarites,  80 

,  or  man  of  many  fingers,  80 

,  conquests  and  death  of,  80 

succeeded  by  Scharbabil,  80 

Alfred  of  Weissenburg,  551 

Algazeli,  logic  of,  557 

Algebra  introduced  into  Europe  by  Rudolph, 

550 
'Ali-abad,  the  vessel  named  the  Fateh  Jang 

found  near,  a  proof  of  the  changes  in  the 

estuary  of  the  Indus,  373 
'All  Ben  Abi  Taleb,  successor  of  'Othman, 

and  husband  of  Fatima,  456 

is  deposed  and  assassinated,  456 

laid  the  foundation  of  the  Shi'ah  section 

of  Miihamraedauism,  456 

,  Beni,  nomad  tribe  of  Arabia,  448 

Alindte  (Moola),  fortress  of,  given  up  by 

Queen  Ada  to  Alexander,  266 

,  Alexander  visits  Queen  Ada  at,  266 

Alishtar  and  Khawah,  the  plains  of,  visited 

by  Alexander  on  his  march  to  Media,  365 
Almagest,  the,  translated,  556 
Al  Miilik  Al  'Adel  takes  Egypt,  484 
Alp  Arslan,  successor  of  Togrul  Bei',  470 

,  conquests  of,  473 

,  death,  &c.,  successor,  470 

Alphonso  X.  encourages  Arabic  literature, 

563 
Alsaloo,  station  of,  Nearchus  fleet  near,  353 
Altai  mountains,  Taimiir  advances  to  the, 

493 
Altar  of  the  Arkites  crescent-shaped,  1 4 
Aluans,  people,  42 
Alvarez  of  Cordova,  553 
Alybian  mines,  616 
'Amah-Shatt-el,  611 

succeeded  by  his  son  Gelam,  42 

Amalek,  remains  of  this  people,  22 
,  part  merged  into  the  Himyarite  dy- 
nasty, the  remainder  passed  into  Africa, 

22 
Amalekites  occupied  the  tract  near  Wddi 

El  Ghor,  21 

,  Amalek,  a  son  of  Ham,  2 1 ,  44 

,   some    remains    of,    in    'Oman    and 

Bahrein,  51 
,  probably  absorbed  in  the  Kahtanites, 

51 

and  other  lost  tribes,  22 

Amalgamation  of  the  east  and  west  com- 
menced liy  Alexander,  541 
Amalika,  or  Imlik,  a  branch  of  Ham's  de- 
scendants, 22 
Amasis,   expedition    of  Cambyscs   against, 

17.i,  174 

succeeded  by  Psanmielicus.  174 

Amassiu  succeeds  liis  father  Aramai's,  41 


Amazons,  Strabo"s  account  of  the,  133 
Ambassadors    to     Hariinel-Rashi'd,    from 

Charlemagne.  585 
Amenophis    IX.   erected  the  Memnouia  at 

Thebes,  107 
,  king  of  Egypt,  the  Bala  of  the  Arabs, 

132 

,  supposed  to  have  been  Shishak,  1 32 

,  deified  as  Ba'al  or  Belus,  132 

America,  probably  first  peopled  by  Mizraim"s 

descendants,  30 

,  spread  of  the  Asiatics  to.  508 

American   language   and   people    resemble 

those  of  Scythia  and  Mongolia,  509 

• pyramids  and  temples,  606 

Amestris,  daughter  and  wife  of  Artaxerxes 

Arsaces,  250 
Amharic  or  Axumitic  character,  47 
Amia  retaken  from  the  Crusaders,  479 
Amida  taken  by  Sapor  II.,  433 
Amin,  son  and  successor  of  Hariin  el  Rashi'd, 

459,  460 
Aminda,  now  Diyar  Bekr,  Alexander  pro- 
ceeded to,  286 
Amindas,    king    of   Assyria,    defeated  by 

Heykab,  106^ 

succeeded  by  Belock,  107 

Amir  Mar,  niins  on  the  plain  of,  299 

Ammon,  temple  of,  174 

,  Alexander  visits  the  temple  of  Ham, 

or,  283,  284 
Ammonites,   explanation   of   their    origin, 

68,  69 

,  from  Ben  Ammi,  69 

,  chiefly  Cushite,  69 

,  territory,    and   capital   town   of  the, 

69 
expelled  the  Zamzummims  from  Kab- 
bah. 69 

defeated  by  the  Israelites,  104 

Amorites  (Ait  Amor),  the  Berbers  descended 

from  the,  456 
Amorium,  the   Romans    defeated    by    the 

Arabs  at,  463 
Amosis,  the  Pharaoh  who  oppressed  the  Is- 
raelites, 97 
Ampelse,  promontory,  now  Cape  Drepano, 

252 
Amphictyons,  Philip  elected  general  of  the, 

255 
Amrii,  Jasasin  Ibn,  a  Himyarite,  84 
,  monument  with  Himyarite  inscription 

erected  in  Africa  by,  84 
Amrii  Ben  As,  'Omar's  lieutenant,  destroys 

the  library  of  Alexandria,  455 
Anabasis  and  its  influence,  546 
Anadiili  and  its  trade,  594 
'A'nah,  proposed  place  of  trade,  601 
Anamis,  Nearchus'  fleet  reach  the  mouth  of 

the  river,  350 

on  the  banks  of  the,  351 

leaves,  352 

Anasarlia,  &c.,  12 

'Anatell>iis,  formerly  Thelutha,  island  fort 

on  the  Euphrates,  436  and  nute 
Anatho  (the  Phatluisie  of  Zosimus)  taken  by 

Julian,  4o5 


INDEX. 


13 


Aiiatlio  (tlie  Pliatusrc  of  Zosimus),  Julian 
encounters  u  luirricaue  near  435 

,  site  of.  4;]()  (note) 

Anaxibius  takes  the  invalids  of  the  army  of 
the  10,uno  to  Greece  by  sea,  235 

deceives  the  Greeks  at  Byzantium,  241 

Anbar,  or  Firuz  Sapor,  and  Tell  'Akhar, 
438 

Anchialus,  town  founded  by  Sardanapalus, 
2  CO 

,  taken  by  Alexander,  2G9 

Ancient  remains  with  mounds  and  exca- 
vations, (jl(i 

inscriptions  of  Sesostris.  &c.,  627 

Ancyra  submits  to  Aurelian,  427 

taken  from  the  Komaus  by  Al  Mu'ta- 

sem,  4(J2 

Audaka  surrenders  to  Alexander,  320 

Andalusia,  learned  men  of,  552 

Angar,  or  Angam  island,  visited  by  Near- 
chus,  352 

Anglo-Saxon  boats,  640 

Angora,  Taimiir  captures  Bajazet  near,  495 

,  capabilities  and  commerce  of  {Ap- 
pendix N) 

,  proposed  depot  of  trade,  and  its  advan- 
tages, 601 

Auizeh,  tribe  of  nomad  Arabs,  448 

Aiijou.  Charles  of,  encourages  learning,  563 

Ausiir,  or  Jomid,  the  stations  of  the  Muslim 
troops,  464 

Antediluvian  knowledge,  8-11,  19 

idolatry  renewed  by  Ham,  15,  16 

Anthemusia,  supposed  site  of,  611 

Antigonus  retains  the  government  of  Su- 
siana,  380,  381 

receives  the  command  of  the  house- 
hold troops  from  Antipater,  382 

defeats  Eumenes,  382 

follows  Eumenes  into  Phoenicia,  382 

advances  into   Babylonia  and  crosses 

the  Tigris,  383 
crosses  the  Coprates,  and  is  defeated  by 

Eumenes,  384 
retreats  into  Media  through  the  Cos- 

sa;an  Mountiiins,  384 
outmarched  and  defeated  by  Eumenes, 

and  winters  in  Media,  386 
fails  in  taking  Eumenes  by    surprise, 

387. 

arranges  the  difiFerent  governments, 

388 

proceeds  to  Snsa,  and  obtains  the  trea- 
sure, 388 

puts  Eumenes  to  death,  388 

marches  towards  Babylon,  389 

prepares  to  meet  Seleucus,  389 

,  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor,  Greece, 

&c.,  389-391 

forces   Ptolemy   to  retire    to   Egj  pt, 

leaving  Ccelo-Syria  in  his  possession,  390 

sends  two  expeditions  against  the  Na- 

batheans,  390,  391 

recalls  Demetrius  from  Babylon,  391 

puts  Cleopatra  to  death,  392 

,  his  successes  in  Greece  and  Cyprus, 

392 


Antigonus   and    Denietrins    assume    regal 

titles,  392 
,  his  expedition  by  sea  and  land  against 

Egypt,  302,  303 

is  repulsed  by  Ptolemy,  393 

sends  Demetrius  against  the  lihodians, 

but  fails,  393-395 

loses  Phrygia,  Lydia,  &C.,  397 

,  his  army  is  defeated  by  Seleucus  at 

Ipsus,  and  himself  slain,  397 
Antioch  built  by  Seleucus.  399 
captured  by  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 

423 
recovered  by  Gordian  and  retaken  by 

Sapor,  423,  424 

again  taken  by  Sapor,  425 

Julian's  preparations  at,  433 

besieged  and  taken  l)y  Chosroes  I.,  443 

defeat  of  the  Komans  by  Chosroes  II. 

at,  445 

burnt  by  Al  Mu'tasem,  462 

taken  by  the  Greeks,  466 

taken  from  the  Christians  by  Tatash, 

473 
taken  by  the  crusaders    under  Bohe- 

mnnd,  474 
Antiochia  Margiana  built  by  Alexander,  and 

named  Alexandria,  317 
— ■ — ,  called  also  Selucia,  and  now  Merw- 

el-Rud,  318 
of  Mygdonia  (Nisi'bm),  Antiochus  the 

Great  winters  at,  403 
Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  397 

present  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  397 

——  Seleucus  resigns  his  queen  to  his  son, 

399 
extent  of  his  dominions,  399 

loses  a  portion    of  his  territories   to 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  400. 

Antiochus  the  Great  succeeds  Seleucus  Ce- 
raunus,  4(i2 

crosses  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  403 

defeated  at  Kaphia  by  Ptolemy,  403 

subdues  Bactria,  Parthia,  &c.,  403, 404 

his  treaty  with  Arsaces,  404 

,  his  annual  tribute  to  the  Romans,  404 

,  death  of,  404 

succeeded  by  Seleucus  Philopater,  404 

Antipater  chosen  protector  after  the  murder 

of  Perdiccas,  381 

distributes  the  provinces  of  the  new 

empire,  381 

Antony  invades  Parthia,  413 

,  his  circuitous  route  towards  Praaspa, 

413 

,  his  retreat,  414 

Aomi,  a  city  of  Bactria,  taken  by  Alexander, 

311 
Aornos,  the  rock  of,  invested  by  Alexander, 

321 

,  taken  by  Alexander,  322,  323 

,  supposed  position  of,  323 

Apamea  Cibotis,  position  of,  205 

,  on  the  Arontes,  built  by  Seleucus,  399 

Apamea  plundered  by  the  Persians,  443 

captured  by  Chosroes  II.,  445 

Apcheron,  naphtha  found  at,  695 


714 


INDEX. 


Apollonius  Perga,  549 

Apollophanes  neglects  to  furnish  supplies  to 

Alexander's  army,  343 
Aporateeion  of  Josephus,  40 
Apostacy  of  the  old  world,  3 
Apostani,  probably  the  Bay  of  Congoon,  a 

station  of  Nearchus'  fleet,  353 
Apronadius,  king  of  Babylon,  145 
Aqueducts,  ancient,  on  the  Euphrates,  645 
Ar,  a  city  of  the  Moa bites,  69 
Arab  Mostearibe',  El,  descended  from  Ish- 

mael  and  his  twelve  sons,  70 
intermixed  with  the  earlier  inhabitants 

of  Arabia,  70 
'Arabah,  Wadi  El,  retreat  of  the  Israelites 

along,  104 
• ,    or    Hormiirah,    probably    Bagasira, 

a  station  of  Nearchus's  fleet,  347 
Arabia,  Western,  possessed  by  two  Shemitic 

tribes,  48 
,  occupied  by  Kahtan  and  his  followers, 

49,  50 
Happy,  occupied  by  the  Himyarites 

and  Kahtiinites,  50 

,  limits  of,  50 

■ •,  descendants  remaining  in,  50 

,  caravan  trade  of,  570 

,  expedition  into,  by  ^lius  Gal- 

lus,  414,  415 
,'position,  extent,  superficies,  &c., 

of,  448 

,  the  tribes  of,  448,  449 

Arabia,  Ishmael's  territory  in,  70 

• ,  the  El  Arab  Mostearibe  intermingles 

with  other  tribes  of,  70 
,  Ishmael's  name  preserved  among  some 

of  the  earlier  tribes  of,  70 
,  intermixture  of  Esau's  family  with  the 

Amorites  and  other  Cushite  tribes  of,  76 
Nabatheans,  or  nomad  races  of  Upper, 

76 
,  the  Nabatheans,  Hagarenes,  Saracens, 

&c.,  76 
,  mingled   people  of,  from  -whom  de- 
scended, 76 

,  the  dukes  of  Edom,  and  sheiks  of,  76 

,  intercourse  between  the  Shemites  of 

Mesopotamia  and,  77 

,  state  of,  uuder  the  Tobbai",  79,  80 

,  Tobbai  inscriptions  found  in,  81,  82 

,  period  of  the  highest  civilization  in, 

85 
,  the  square  Chaldaic  letters  from  the 

same  origin  as  tliose  of  India  and  Phoe- 
nicia, 85,  86 
,  successive    colonies    from   Egypt  to, 

87,  88 
,  Himyaritic  character  in    use   in   the 

time  of  Joseph  in,  91 
,  state  of  civilisation  in,  at  exodus  of  the 

Israelites,  100 
,  the  Himyarites  the  same  people  as  the 

African  Sabjvans,  l->:i 

,  caravan  routes  througli,  124 

,  march  of  C'ambyscs  across,  173 

,  the  circunuiavigalioii  and  subjection  of, 

contemplated  by  Alexander,  366 


Arabia,  partly  surveyed  by  two  of  Alexan- 
der's admirals,  366,  367 

trade  with  India,  577,  578 

pilots  and  mariners,  578 

vessels  on  the  coast  of  Mekkran,  579 

Arabian  polity  the  basis  of  Moses'  govern- 
ment, 100,  101 

system  of  government,  101,  102 

,  Syro-,  a  Semitic  race,  509 

commerce  extended  to  distant  coun- 
tries, 581 

exports  of  pearls,  carpets,  cotton,  &c., 

583 
,  imports  from  China  and  other  coun- 
tries, 583 

colonies  on  the  coast  of  India,  579 

literature  not  sufficiently  known,  552 

and  Persian  Gulfs,  trade  with  India, 

598 

,  architecture,  sculpture,  &c.,  603 

Petrsea  subjected  by  Trajan,  418 

declared  a  Koman  province  by  Trajan, 

420 
Arabians    and   Abyssinians,    probably    the 
same  people,  46,  47 

,   resemble    the    Armenians    and 

Syrians,  52 
Arabic,  the  Hebrew  language  derived  from, 
85 

,  common  origin  of,  with  other  eastern 

languages,  86 

,  a  Shemitic  language,  84 

Chaldee,  derived  from  the  Arabic  of 

the  Canaanites,  85 

works  collected,  549 

works  in  European  libraries,  551 

rhymes,  552 

numerals,  555,  564 

medicine  introduced  into  Italy,  558 

philosophy  encouraged  by  Frederic  II., 

561 

language  acquired  by  Frederick  II., 

563 

sciences  studied  by  Daniel  Morley,  561 

Arabitffi  fly  before  Alexander,  343 

,  separated  from  the  Aritae  by  the  river 

Arabius,  346 
Arabius  river,  situation  of  the,  342,  346 

,  reached  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  346 

Arabs,  the,  their  dress,  arms,  customs,  &c., 
454 

,  Baghdad  built  as  the  capital  of,  458 

,  privileges  of  the  Muslims  of,  463,  464 

,  formation  of  regular  troops  in.  464 

,  declined  under  Moktader  Bi'Uah,  467, 

468 

,  and  change  in  their  pursuits,  543 

,  works  numerous,  543 

,  the,  become  the  centre  of  civilization, 

543 

employed  in   translating  from  Greek 

and  Sanscrit,  550 

cause   great   changes   in  the  middle 

ages,  552 

,  rise  of,  in  the  East,  552 

of  Spain  study  philosophy  uuder  Kah- 

tiin,  554 


INDEX. 


715 


Arabs,  early  navigators  and  pirates,  578 
trade  oxtiuded  from  the  Red  Sea  to 

India,  580 

.  the.  anxious  for  trade,  599 

favourable  to  the  uavigatioa   of  the 

Euphrates,  (3(iO 

,  love  of  poetry,  603 

,  the,  excel  in  preparing  leather,  031 

vessels,  superiority  of,  G44 

,  early  navigators  in  the  eastern  seas, 

645 

,  early  use  of  the  compass,  045 

Arachosi  submits  to  Alexander,  30" 

,  supposed  situation  of  their  district,  &c., 

307 
Aradus   (Ruad),   one    of   the    Phcenician 

governments,  276 
,  Gerostratus,  sovereign  of,  submits  to 

Alexander,  276 
Aragaz,  or  Armenagaz,  city  built  by  Anne- 

nac,  40 

,  tombs  of  Noah  and  his  wife  in,  40 

,  situation  of  the  city  and  plain  of,  40, 

41 

,  called  Marant,  or  Maranta,  41 

Aram,   or   Harma,  sou    and    successor    of 

Gelam,  42 
Aram,  eldest  son  of,  founded  Damascus,  77 
Aramais  succeeds  Armenac,  41 
changes  the  name  of  the  river  Gihon 

to  Arazes,  41 

calls  his  capital  city  Armavir,  41 

succeeded  by  Amassia,  41 

Arameans   called  Assyrians   or   Mesopota- 

mians,  2,  31 

,  their  territory,  2,  30 

,  according  to  Mas'udi,  a  sect  of  Chal- 
deans, 2,  31 
Ararat,  named  the  "  Foot  of  Armenac,"  41 
,  named,   by  Amassia,  the   "  Foot   of 

Masis,"  41,  42 
Ararena  of  ^lius  Gallus'  expedition,  pro- 
bably Nejd-el-'Aridh,  415 
Aras,  or  Phasis  river,  crossed  by  the  10,000 

Greeks,  229 
,  probable  derivation  of  its  name  (note), 

229 
,  probable  situation  of  the  ford  used  by 

the  Greeks,  229,  230 
Araxes,  river  of  Paradise,  2 

,  the,  or  Gihon,  41 

,  derivation  of  the  name,  41 

reached  by  Cyrus'  army,  214 

crossed  by  Alexander,  300,  301 

©f  Cyrus,  or  the  Jaxartes,  312 

,  mistaken  for  the  Tanais,  312 

Araxes,  the,  crossed  by  Antony,  413 
Arbela,  probable  site  of  the  battle  of,  295 

,  built  by  Darius  Codomauus,  295 

,  Darius  halts  at,  280,  295 

,  the  battle  of,  and  its  results,  292,  293, 

294,  297 
Arbonai,  river  of  Judith,  151 
Arcaa  of  the  Hebrews,  or  Erech,  24  (note) 
Arcadians  and  Achceans  leave  the  Greeks, 

and  proceed  by  sea  to  Calpa-,  238 
defeated  by  the  Thracians,  238 


Arcadians  and  Aclueaas  rescued  by  Xeno- 

phon's  division,  239 
Archclaus  appointed  by  Alexander  governor 

of  Susa,  (S;c.,  298 
Arches,  antiquity  of,  in  Egjpt  and  Baby- 
lonia, 615 

and  cupolas  of  Persia,  how  constructed, 

623 
Arches,  ancient,  on  the  Euphrates,  645 
Archias  surveys  tiie  coast  of  Arabia,  366 
Archimagus,  Darius  assumes  the  title  of,  186 
Archimedes  the  mathematician,  530 
Archipelago,  Phoenician  colonies  in  the,  95 

,  Phoenician  remains  in  the  islandJs  of 

the,  95 
Architecture  similar  in  eastern  countries.  34 

,  &c.,  of  Egj"pt  derived  from  Ass3Tia,  48 

introduced  into  Greece  from  Egjpt, 

48 

,  &c.,  encouraged  by  Al  Mutasem,  463 

,  sculpture,  &c.,  of  I'nin,  603 

,  a  symbol  of  the  social  state,  603 

Arcles,  the  last  sovereign  of  the  Shepherds, 
112 

led  the  Shepherds  into  Phoenicia,  112 

(the  Tyrian  Hercules)  the  first  navi- 
gator in  the  Mediterranean,  128 

,  or  Certus,  deified  by  the  Tyrians  and 

Egyptians,  128 

• ,  founded  a  colony  in  Spain,  128 

,  temples  at  Tyre  consecrated  to,  129 

Ardebil,  a  commercial  depot,  581 
'Arenjej  and  El  'Arfej,  names  of  Hiuiyar,  80 
Areon  brook,  Nearchus  arrives  at  the,  353 

,  probably  represented  by  Cogoou,  353 

Arethas,  a  Roman  general  under  Belisarius, 
443 

campaign  of,  in  Assyria,  443 

Arfkesed,  father  of  the  Chaldeans,  3,  53 
Argjasp's  invasion  of  Persia,  183 
Argonauts,  voyage  of  the,  113,  114 

,  ships  of  the,  114 

,  places  visited  by  the,  114 

,  Egyptian  and  Phcenician  colonies  esta- 
blished in  Spain  by,  1 1 4 

,  booty  acquired  by  the,  114 

,  sons  of  the,  engaged  in  the  Trojan 

war,  119 
Argos,    the   country    of   the    Macedonian 

princes,  253 
Argos  founded  by  luachus,  112 
Argyraspides,  corps  of  noble  Persians  raised 
by  Alexander,  363 

,  their  treachery  to  Eumenes,  388 

Ariaeus,  the  Greeks  offer  him  the  crown,  218 
Ariandes,  deputy  of  Cambyses  in  Egypt,  175 

.death  of,  188 

Arians  revolt  and  are  dispersed  by  Alex- 
ander, 308 

,  country  of  the,  507 

Ariarathes,  king  of  Cappadocia,  crucified  by 

Eumenes,  381 
Ariaspaj,  district  of  tlie,  307 

,  called  Evergeta;  by  Cyrus,  307 

,  declared  a  free  people  by  Alexander, 

307 
Ariaspes,  son  of  Artaxerxes,  250 


716 


INDEX. 


Ariaspes,  Ochus  destroys  his  brother,  250 
Aindteus  appointed  regent  after  Alexander's 

death,  380 
,  receives  the   government   of   Lesser 

Phrygia  from  Autipater,  381,  382 

put  to  death  by  Olympias,  383 

Arigaeum  burnt  by  the  Aspii,  320 

'Arim,  El,  the  flood  of.  449 

Arimazes,  or  Lysimithres  rock,  or  hill  fort 

of  Oxyarta,  captured  by  Alexander,  317 
Ariobarzanes    defends    the    Persian    gates 
Aristotle,  influence  of 

against  Alexander,  300 

is  defeated,  and  flies  to  Persepolis,  300 

Arioch,  plain  of,  14 

Aristagoras  revolts  against  Darius  Hystaspes, 

181,  182,  186 
Aristotle,  his  knowledge  derived  from  the 

east,  526 

and  Plato's  philosophy  compared,  526 

and   other  sages   connected  with   the 

literature  of  the  east,  539 

,  his  works  translated,  556,  558,  562 

Arithmetic  and  astronomy  imparted  to  the 

Egyptians,  &c.,  by  Abraham,  64 
Ark,  the,  mentioned  by  Berossus,  4,  5 

,  the,  and  its  dimensions,  5 

,  the  building  of,  6 

,  the   remains  of,   in  the    Corcyraean 

mountains,  7 

,  the,  stranded  in  Armenia,  7 

,  portions  of,  used  as  amulets,  &c.,  7 

,  the,  profane  account  of,  7 

,  the  city  and  tower  of  Erech  built  in 

'  commemoration  of  the  descent  of  the,  24 

,  the,  and  its  construction,  637,  638 

Arkianus,  king  of  Babylon,  145 
Arkite  religion,  13 

altar  used,  described,  13,  14 

religion  once  prevailed  over  the  ancient 

world,  15 
Aries,  monks  from,  to  Baghdad,  547 
Armais,  brother  of  Sesostris,  109 

assumes  the  sovereign tj-  of  Egypt,  109 

Armavir,  capital  of  Aramais's  kingdom,  41 

,  probable  situation  of,  41 

Armenac,  son  of  Haik,  and  his  successor,  40 

,  migrations  of,  40 

,  builds  Aragaz,  or  Armenagaz,  40 

,  named  Ararat,  "  Foot  of  Armenac," 

41 

,  succeeded  by  Aramais,  41 

Armenia,  the  ark  stranded  in,  7 

,  antiquity  of  the  language  and  nation, 

12 
Major  inhabited  by  Noah's  family  after 

the  Deluge,  13 
,  the  centre  of  the  territory  of  Mizraim's 

descendants,  30 

,  mixed  people  of,  30,  39 

,  Haik  assumes  the  sovereignty  of,  40 

,  First,  Second,  and  Third.  43 

,  distinction  between  the  Greater  aud 

I^esser,  43 

• Major,  territory  comprised  in,  43 

,  spread  of  Ham's  aud  Japhet's  descend- 
ants from,  43 


Armenia,  a  colony  of  the  ancient  Canaanites 

settled  in,  106 

war  between  Assyria  and,  106 

once  a  dependency  of  Egypt,  109,  110 

,  the  10,000  Greeks  march  through.  227 

,  Phraates  HI.  takes  refuge  in,  406 

,  campaign  of  the  Eoman  under  Lucullus 

and  Pompey  in,  406,  407 

bestowed  on  Tigranes  by  Augustus,  41 6 

,  Persians  defeated  by  Galerius  in,  430 

restored  to  Tiridates,  430 

campaign  between  the   Persians   and 

Komaus  in,  445 

subjected  by  Tai'miir,  492 

Armenian  contingent  employed  at  the  siege 

of  Troy,  119 

,  consolidation  of,  under  Phamak,  133 

■ mercenaries  oppose  the  Greeks  at  the 

Centrites,  226 

villages,  &c.,  described,  229 

Armenians   (also    called   Haigauians),   re- 
semble the  Arabs  and  Syrians,  52 
of  the  Caucasus  called  Haikanians, 

133 

,  the  Gargareis  of  Strabo,  133 

Arnohwote,  and  its  derivation,  8,  40 
Arosis,  the,  of  Nearchus,  probably  the  Tab 

or  Indian,  354 
Arphaxad,  a  Shemitic  Chaldean,  settles  at 

Haran.  31,  55 
Arphaxad,  death  of,  148 
Arsaces  succeeds  Darius  Nothus,  203 

takes  the  name  of  Artaxerxes,  203 

becomes  governor  of  Parthia,  400 

• captures  Seleucus  Callinicus,  402 

renders  Parthia  independent,  402 

assumes  the  title  of  king  of  Parthia, 

402 

,  his  treaty  with  Antiochus,  404 

Arssei,  campaign  against  the,  by  Alexander, 

319 
Arsames,  inscription  of  ( Appendiv  D) 
Arslan,  Kilij,  sultan  of  Al  Rum,  478 
Arsiif,  Salah-ed-di'n  defeated  by  Kichard  I. 

on  the  plains  of,  483 
Artabanes  murders  Xerxes,  197 

,  death  of,  198 

Artabanes,  the  Parthian,  expelled  from  Ar- 
menia, 416 

invades  the  Roman  territories,  422 

Artabazus  rewarded  by  Alexander.  305 

or  Artavasdes  king  of  Armenia,  409 

his  advice  to  Crassus,  409 

forms  an  alliance  with  the  Parthians, 

412 
Artabazanes  submits  to  Antiochus  the  Great, 

403 
Artacaonia,  capital  of   the  satrap  Satibar- 

zanes,  306 

,  afterwards  Alexandria,  306 

,  position  of,  306 

Artacus  probably  Esarhaddon,  145 
Arlaphernes,  general  of  Darius,  187 
Artaxance  recovered  from  the  Persians  by 

the  Romans,  423 
Artaxata,  the  city  of,  besieged  by  Phraates 

III.,  406 


INDEX. 


717 


Artnxcrxes  Macrochir,  or  Longinianus.  148, 

198 
,  thiril  son  of  Xerxes,  usurps  tlie  throne, 

198 

puts  Artabanes  to  deatli.  198 

defeats  his  brother  in  Hactriana,  198 

,  his  banquet  at  Shushan,  and  divorce 

of  Vashti,  198,  199 

raises  Esther  to  the  throne,  199 

empowers  Esdrasto  rebuild  the  temple 

of  Jerusalem,  199 

reception  of  Themistocles,  199 

prepares  for  a  war  with  Greece,  199 

defeated  by  the  Greeks  under  Cimou, 

200 
— •  death,  and  successor  Xerxes,  200 

(Arsaces),   succeeds   Darius   Nothus, 

203 

known  as  Mnemon  among  the  Greeks, 

203 

,  Cyrus  rebels  against,  203 

,  army  of,  215,  2 16 

retreats  before  Cyrus,  216 

advances,  gains  the  battle  of  Cunaxa, 

216-218 
treachery  to  tlie  Greeks  at  the  Ziib, 

222 

,  his  forces  harass  the  Greeks,  223,  22 1 

governments  and  satrapies,  244,  245 

rescript  to  the  Greeks,  247 

sends  an   army  into  Cyprus   against 

Evagaras,  247 

expedition  against  the  Cadusians,  248 

second  rescript,  248 

pardons  Tachos,  248,  249 

troubled  state  of  the  empire  of,  249 

dei'lares  Darius  his  successor,  249 

,  death  and  character  of,  250 

establishes  the  Persian  power  in  Par- 

thia,  422 

is  defeated  by  the  llomans.  423 

,  inscription  at  Persepolis  about  (Ap- 
pendix D.) 

Artemisia,  bravery  of,  at  Salamis,  195 

Artemisiuni,  battle  of.  195 

Artillery  used  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople 
by  Miihammed  II.,  499,  500 

Arts  in  use  by  the  people  of  the  old  world,  8 

Artychas,  or  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  As- 
syria, 138 

;  succeeded  his  father  Pul,  or  Sosarmus, 

138 

,  a  separate  government  under,   138, 

139 

invades  Judea  and  carries  the  inhabit- 
ants captive,  139 

,  wars  of,  with  the  kings  of  Syria  and 

Israel,  139 

— —  receives  the  treasures  of  the  Temple, 
139 

Aryandic,  coin  of  Egypt,  189 

Aryat,  or  Aruat,  the  first  of  the  Abyssinian 
kings  over  Yemen,  450 

Aryavarta  the  holy  land  of  the  Brahmins, 
507,  508 

Asabii,  Saba  or  Sheba,  South,  123 

Asca  (Cisca)  taken  by  the  Komans,  415 


Ascanazians,  another  name  of  the  Ilaika- 

uians,  41 

,  settlement  in  Pontus,  43 

Ascent  of  the  Euphrates    by  Commander 

Campbell,  599 
Ashtola,  probably  the  island  of  Karnine,  348 
Ashur,  the  sous  of,  subjected  a  second  time, 

24 

,  probably  the  Larissaof  Xenophon,  222 

Asia,  first  landing  of  the  Greeks  in,  119 

,  Alexander's  proposed  invasion  of,  259 

,  from  the  time  of  Xerxes  to  Darius 

Codomanus,  260 
•,  weakness  of  the  governments  of,  261, 

262 

,  the  Macedonians  land  in,  263 

,  progress  of  the  Uoman  power  in,  404 

,  intercourse  between  Europe  and,  472 

,  philosophy  and  the  sciences  derived 

from,  508 

,  the  Scandinavian  worship  from.  513 

,  colonies  entered  Ireland  from,  513 

,  the   Huns,   Bulgarians,   Hungarians, 

&C-,  settle  in  Europe  from,  514 
,  knowledge  of  the  ancient  sages  derived 

from,  514,  515 

,  astronomy,  &c.,  derived  from,  517 

Minor  occupied  by  Ham,  IS 

submits  to  Alexander,  268 

,  wars  in,  of  Antiochus  the  Great, 

403 

connects  Asia  with  Europe,  515 

,  commerce  with  Persia,  595 

,  manufactures  of,  628 

Asiatic  army  raised  by  Alexander,  363 

• ■  history   an    introduction    to    that    of 

Europe,  505,  506 

dwellings  described,  623 

products  sought  in  all  times,  568 

Asiatics  and  early  Egyptians  compared,  34 

,  spread  of,  to  America,  508 

Asidates,  Persian  chief,  Xenophon  captures 

the  wife  and  family  of,  242 
Askulan,  Salah-ed-din  defeated  by  the  Cru- 
saders near,  478 

taken  by  the  Muslims,  479 

taken  and  demolished  by  the  Crusaders 

under  Richard  I..  482,  483 
,  the  Karismians  raze  the  fortifications 

of,  485 
Asmah,  a  king  of  the  Ilimyarites,  80 
A.sopus,   Mardonius'  army  encamp  on  the 

river,  196 
Asphaltites,  Demetrius  retreats  from  Petra 

towards,  391 
Aspii,  campaign  of  Alexander  against  the, 

319 

,  are  defeated,  320 

,  cattle  of  the,  sent  to  Greece,  320 

Assakenes.  Alexander's   campaign  against 

the,  320,  321 

,  revolt  of  the,  against  Alexander,  323 

Assaal,  Al,  son  and  successor  of  Saliihed- 

di'u,  484 

loses  Egypt,  &c.,  484 

Assan,  'Othmdn  Ibn,  (see  'Othman) 
Assis  or  Asith,  a  shepherd  king,  74 


718 


INDEX. 


Assis  or  Assith  added  fire  intercalarj-  days 

to  the'year,  74 
Assur,  called  Athur  by  the  inhabitants,  419 
Assyria    occupied    by   the    descendants   of 

Shem,  23 

,  Nimriid  wars  with,  24 

,  a  separate  kingdom  from  Mesopotamia 

in  the  time  of  Cushau-Rashathaim,  106 

,  war  between  Armenia  and,  106,  107 

subdued  by  Belus,  115 

bore  the  name  of  Belus,  115 

,  the  remains  near  Nineyeh  throw  light 

on  the  history  of,  136 

,  duration  of  the  empire  of,  136 

,   remains  described   in    Mr.  Hector's 

letter,  136, 137 
,   history  of,   connected   with   that  of 

Judea,  &c.,  137,  138 
,  conquests  of,  under  Pul  and  his  son 

Tiglath-Pileser,  138,  139 
,  the  Jews  carried  captive   into,  139, 

140,  141 
,  conquests  of,  under  Shalmaneser,  1 40, 

141 

sends  colonies  into  Syria,  141 

,  idolatry  of,  introduced  into  Samaria, 

141 

,  conquests  of  Sennacherib,  141,  142 

divided  after  Sennacherib's  death,  144 

Esarhaddon  ascends  the  throne  of,  145 

extends  and  consolidates  the  go- 
vernment of,  145,  146 

re-union  of  Babylonia  and,  145 

its  history  supplied  by  the   book  of 

Judith,  148 

inroad  of  the  Scythians  into,  152,  153 

Pharaoh  Necho's  invasion  of,  over- 
thrown by  Nebuchadnezzar,  155 

declared  a  Roman  province  by  Tra- 
jan, 420 

laid  waste  by  the  Romans  under  Are- 

thas,  443 
Assyrian  dominion  founded  by  Nimriid,  65 

characters    more    modern    than    the 

t   Himyaritic,  84 

and  Median  dynasties  explained,  135 

empire  and  line  of  kings,  probably  un- 
interrupted, 136 

remains,  antiquity  of,  603 

architecture,  carried  to  other  countries, 

611 

inscriptions  and  characters,  627,  628 

Assyrians,  or  Syrians,  also  Arameans  and 
Mesopotamians,  2 

,  possessions  of  the,  after  the  Disper- 
sion, 2 

,  (Athuri),  Chaldeans  or  Syrians,  2 

,  the,   identical  with   the  Nabatheans, 

&c.,  31 

,  the,  territory  of,  3 1 

,  the,  divided  into  several  tribes,  31 

,  the,  introduced  literature,  &c.,  into 

India,  34 

,    the,     introduced    architecture    into 

Egypt,  48 

,  or  Syrians  of  'Iriik  Arabi,  the  same 

people  as  the  Chaldeans,  52 


Assyrians,  the,  subject  Judea,  65 

,  dominion,  extent  of  the,  133 

during  the  time  of  Abraham,  134 

,  kings  according  to  Ctesias,  134,  133 

,  the,  oppose  Trajan's  passage  of  the 

Tigris,  418,  419 
Astarte  one  of  the  wives  of  Ham,  20 

queen  of  Byblus  and  Melcander,  20 

,  temples  at  Tyre  conseci"ated  to,  129 

Aster-ubad,  and  Napoleon's  invasion  of  In- 
dia, 537 
Astracan,  khanat  of,  subjected  by  Russia, 

491,  536 
Astrolabe,  treatise  on  the,  546 
Astrologj-  promoted  by  Enoch,  9 

preserved  by  Ham,  19 

the  offspring  of  asti'onomy,  57 

among  the  Chaldeans,  57,  58 

and  alchemy  studied  by  Roger  Bacon, 

564 
Astronomy    and    astrology    promoted  ^by 
Enoch,  9 

in  its  primitive  state  exemplified,  10 

of  the  earliest  Chaldeans  and  Egj'p- 

tians,  1 1 
favoured  by  the  longevity  of  the  ante- 
diluvians, 11 

,  cycles  of  the  antediluvian,  11,  57 

presei-ved  by  Ham,  19,  57 

,  Sec,  introduced  into  India  from  As- 
syria, 34 

,  knowledge  of,  among  the  Chaldeans, 

57 

made  subservient  to  Sabaism,  57 

of  the  shepherds  of  Egypt,  74 

of  the  Egyptians,  and  their  discovery 

of  the  Canicular  period,  &c.,  110 

carried    to    India  and    China    from 

central  Asia,  507 

of  Greece  derived  from  the  east,  516, 

517,  529,  530 
,  Thales'  work  on  nautical,  519 

of  the  Chaldeans  introduced  by  De- 

mocritus,  527,  528 

,  Ptolemy  established  a  sj'stem  of,  530 

declined  after  the  time  of  Pythagoras, 

530 

,  medicine,  &c.,  from  the  east,  542 

Astyages,  marriage  of,  152 

resents  the  insult  of  Evil  Merodach, 

162 

succeeded  by  Cyaxares,  162 

Aswiid  crossed  by  Cyrus"  army,  213 
Atargetes,    the    temple    of,    plundered    by 

Crassus,  408 
Atbara,  the  first  Cushite  colony  to  Abys- 
sinia, settled  on  the  confines  of,  73 
Athenian  colonies  in  the  Archipelago,  574 
Athenians  victorious  at  M;irathon,  187,  18S 

defeated   by  the  Macedonians  under 

Philip,  254 

Athens,  citadel  taken  by  Xerxes,  195 

burnt  by  Mardonius,  196 

Athos,  Cape,  loss  of  Darius  Hystaspes'  fieet 

off,  187 
,  mount,  caual  cut  by  Xerxes  through, 

191 


INDEX- 


719 


A^os,  mount,  existence  of  the  canal  of,  191, 

192 
,  formerly  Nymphaeum  promon- 
tory, 252 
Athrulla  taken  by  the  Romans,  415 
Athuri,  or  Assyrians,  31 
Atossa,  daughter  and  wife  of  Artaxerxes 

Arsaces,  250 
Atra,  the  Komans  defeat  the  Persians  before, 
423 

besieged  by  the  Romans,  421,  423 

Atropataua  besieged  by  Antony,  413 
Atropatians,  the,  submit  to  Autiochus  the 

Great,  403 
Attica,  kingdom  founded  in,  112 

,  march  of  Mardonius  through,  196 

Attock,  Alexanders  bridge  of  boats  over  the 
Indus,  near,  323 

,    Alexander    receives    presents    from 

Taxiles  at,  323 

,  route  through,  572 

Augustus  proclaimed  emperor,  414 
sends  an  expedition  into  southern  Ara- 
bia, 414,  415 

recovers  the  trophies  taken  from  Cras- 

sus,  416 
Auramazdes  (Appendix  B) 
Aurea  Chersonesus,  probably  Ophir,  126 
Aureliau's  vrars  with  the  Goths,  427 
— —  campaign  against  Zenobia,  427-429 

examination  of  Zenobia  at  Emessa,  429 

executes  Longinus,  429 

,  Palmyra  destroyed  by,  430 

Auritac,  or  Cushites,  37 

Autophradates,  confirmed  in  his  satrapy  by 

Alexander,  305 
Avebury  in  Wilts,  and  its  remains,  15 
Avendar,  Jewish  philosopher,  556,  557 
Avicenna,  546 ;  his  works,  555,  557 
'Awara,  or  'Awarana,  Sanscrit  for  an  en- 
closure, 323 
Axum  city,  founded  by   the  Cushites   in 

Abyssinia,  73 
Axumitic  or  Amharic  characters,  47 
Ayeshah,   widow  of  Muhammed,   opposes 
'All,  456 

takes  Basrah,  456 

at  the  battle  of  the  Camel,  456 

Azarethes  defeats  Belisarius,  442 
Azerbaijan,  quicksilver  from,  583 

invaded  by  the  Tobbdi,  449 

subdued  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

'Aziz,  'Omar  ben  'Abd-el-,  successor  of  So- 

le'iman  as  khaliph,  457 
,  his  fiscal  arrangements,  &c.,  457 

Ba'al,  Abii,  (Abibalus)  the  first  sovereign  of 

Tyre,  129 
Ba'al,  supposed  statue  of,  631 
Ba'alat,  the  moon,  45 

,  worshipped  by  the  lost  tribes,  45 

Ba'alath  built  by  Solomon,  122 

,  Ba'alat,  or  Baalbek,  caravan  routes, 

124,  570 
Ba'albek,  caravan  routes  through,  93 

taken  by  Taimur,  495 

■  built  by  Solomon,  495 


Baaltes,  or  Astaroth,  the  moon,  20  (note) 

,  worshipped  by  Hani's  descendants,  20 

Bala,  the,  of  the  Arabs,  or  Amenophis  and 

Shishak,  132 
Babel  called  Kusdi  Nimnid,  18 

,  tower  of,  built  by  Niniru'd,  24-26 

,  dome  and  image  on  the  tower  of,  26 

,  temple  of,  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Belus, 

26 

,  confusion  of  tongues  at,  27 

,  the  people  of,  at  the  dispersion,  1 ,  30 

,  Nimriid  appears  to  have  remained  at, 

31,  32 

called  Padmamandira,  45 

Bab,El,  fountain  at,the  source  of  the  Dhahab, 

213 

,  Cyrus'  army  passes,  213 

Bab-el,  Mandeb,  straits  of,  crossed  by  the 

Hamites  into  Africa,  46 
Babylon  a  viceroyalty  of  Assyria  under 

Nabonassar,  139 

,  records  destroyed,  139 

,  works  of  the  second  Semiramis,  139, 

140 
,  successors  of  Semiramis  the  Second, 

140 

—  was  not  the  only  abode  of  the  captive 
Hebrews,  141 

sends  colonists  to  Syria,  141 

,  Elibus  usurps  the  throne  of,  141 

,  Sennacherib  subdues  Elibus,  and  ap- 
points Esar-Haddon  king  of,  141 

• ,  revolts  from  Assyria,  145 

,  united   to  Assyria   by   Esarhaddon, 

145 

becomes   a  separate  kingdom  imder 

"■  Nabopolasar,  152 

,  becomes  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian 

empire,  153 
,  Ezekiel  and  others  taken  as  hostages 

by  Nebuchadnezzar  to,  155-157 
,  two  routes,  between  Jerusalem  and, 

155,  156 
— — ,  adorned  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  157-1  GO 

,  Belshazzar  ascends  tlie  throne  of,  163 

,  defended  by  Nitocris,  163 

,  advance  of  Cyrus'  army  against,  163, 

164 
,  Belshazzar  retires  within  the  walls  of, 

164 

,  siege  of,  164-166 

,  Cyrus'  stratagem  to  take,  165,  166 

taken,  and  Belshazzar  killed,  167 

,  Cyrus  went  to,  169 

,  and  Cyaxares'  death,  169 

,  the  winter  residence  of  Cyrus,  172 

,    rebellion   of  Cyrus  during   Darius' 

reign,  178 

,  secretly  prepares  to  revolt,  179 

retaken  by  stratagem,  179 

,  repeopled  by  Darius,  179 

,  its  defences  destroyed  by  Darius,  1 79 

,   and   worship    of   the    Persians    and 

Mesopotamians  of,  ISO 
,  and  Alexander's  march  from  Thap- 

sacus,  285,  286 
,  force  assembled  by  Darius  at,  285 


^20 


INDEX, 


BabyloD,  delivered  up  to  Alexander  after 

the  battle  of  Arbela,  296 
,  the  temple  of  Belus  restored  by  Alex- 
ander at,  2'.t6 
,  the    government    of,    regulated    by 

Alexander,  297 

■ ,  the  queen  of  the  east,  296,  297 

,  satrapy  of,  continued  to  Mazceus,  298 

,  entered  by  Alexander  contrary  to  the 

warning  of  the  Chaldeans,  365,  366 
,  chosen  by  Alexander  as  the  seat  of 

government,  366 
,  improvements  ordered  by  Alexander 

to,  366,  367 

,  fleet  collected  at,  by  Alexander,  368 

,  reinforcements  arrive  at,  from  Greece, 

Persia,  &c.,  368 

,  Alexander  dies  at,  of  fever,  368 

,  Seleucus  appointed  governor  of,  381 

,   Seleucus  tiies    to    Ptolemy    on    the 

approach  of  Antigonus  to,  389 
,  and  commencement  of  the  Seleucidse, 

390 

visited  by  Trajan,  419 

,  commerce  with,  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 

434 

• ,  tunnel  of,  615 

• ,  ancient,  statues  of,  631 

Babylonia  before  the    flood,   and  Berosus' 

account  of,  4 

,  produce  of,  4,  5 

,  and  idolatry,  16 

not  materially  changed  by  the  deluge, 

16 

,  mixture  of  races  at,  30 

after  the  dispersion,  31 

,  the  Chasdim  of,  36,  37 

centre  of  the  Cushite  dominions,  37 

,  spread    of    mankind    eastward    and 

northward,    southward    and    south-east- 
ward, 44 

quitted  by  the  sons  of  Joktan,  49 

recovered  by  the  Shemites,  52 

,  a  colony  from  Arabia  Deserta,  52 

,  or  the  Chaldeans  of  Gerrha,  52 

,  their  origin,  54 

,  the  Chaldeans  the  priest  class  of,  53, 

54,  56 

invaded  by  Eumeues,  and  his  route, 

382 

invaded  by  Demetrius,  391 

,  writers  in  the  middle  ages.  541 

Babylonian  letters  simihir  to  the  Chinese, 
35 

worship   similar  to    that  of  ancient 

Egypt,  Canaan,  &c.,  57 

image  worship  probably  astrological, 

59 
images  similar  to  the  teraphim  of  Scrip- 
ture, 59 

ruins,  appearances  of,  604 

- — -  bricks,  604,  605 

stiuctures  frcfjuently  pyramidal,  606 

cylinders  and  inscriptions,  629 

Babylonians  defeated  by  Aram,  42 

,  cruelty  of,  during  the  siege,  179 

Bacon,  Koger,  and  his  acciuirements,  5G4 


Bactra,  or  Zariaspa,  a  principal  city  taken 

by  Alexander,  311,312 

,  Bessus  sent  to,  by  Alexander,  312 

,  Alexander's  winter  quarters,  315,  318 

,  and  murder  of  Clitus,  318 

,  and  Alexander  s  march  to  the  Indus, 

318,  319 
Bactria,  the   empire   of,   founded   by   Abu 

Kurrub  the  Himyarite.  8 1 

conquered  by  Ninus,  115 

consolidated  by  Semiramis,  115,  118 

Psiuus  dies  in,  115 

,  and  Alexander's  march,  306 

,  Bessus  retires  from,  into  Sogdiana,  on 

the  advance  of  Alexander,  3 1 1 

subjected  by  Alexander.  311 

— — ,  the  wounded  soldiers  sent  from,  to 

Europe,  311 
,  Spitameues  is  expelled  from,  by  Alex- 
ander, 316 

subdued  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  404 

settlements,  and  spread  of  civilizatioD, 

507 

,  or  Bdlkh,  centre  of  trade,  571 

Badaca,  and  Antigonus"  retreat,  384 

Badge'r,  or  wind  tower,  625 

Badhai!,  the  last  Persian  satrap  of  Yemen, 

450 
Badis,  port  of,  reached  by  Nearchus,  350 

,  probably  Jiisk,  35o 

,  stores  of  com,  wine,  &c.,  found  at,  by 

Nearchus,  350 
Bagar,  branch  of  the  Indus,  372,  373 
Baixa;,  or  Gabae,  on  the  Oxus,  and  defeat  of 

Spitamenes,  316 
Bagasira,  haven  reached  by  Nearchus,  347 
Bacdad  suitable  for  commerce,  {Appendix 

A.) 

,  supplies  from  the  Persian  Gulf  (ditto) 

Baghashii,  Eas,  Himyari  inscriptions,  82  . 
Baghdad,  built  and  occupied  as  the  capital 

of  Arabia,  458 

flourishes  under   Hariin  el    Rashi'd, 

459 

literary  entertainments  given  at,  by 

the  khaliph  al-Mauuin,  460,  461 

Al    Mu'tasem  removes  the   camp  to 

Kiitiil,  465 

,  decline  of,  during  the  fourth  century 

of  the  Hijrah,  465,  4i;S 

taken  by  Togrul  Bei,  470 

,  extinction  of  the  Fatimites,  477 

taken  by  Taimur,  492 

her  scholars  removed  from,  493 

;  revolt  and  massacre  of  the  inhabitants 

by  Tainuir,  405 

,  learned  men  of,  552 

,  the  commercial  capital  of  'Inik,  5S1 

and  Basrah,  trade  of,  592 

,  great  emporium,  601 

Baghistan,  or  liisutun,  117 

,  sculptures  and  inscriptions    at,   1 1 7, 

118 
Baghistane   visited   by   Alexander    on   his 

march  to  Media,  365 

visited  by  Semiramis,  3G5 

,  the  well-known  Bisiituu,  3G5 


INDEX. 


'21 


Bagia  (probably  Riis   Briefs),   roaclieil   l)y 

Nearchus,  349 
Bagtias,  viceroy  under  Ochus,  2r.O 
Bahrein,  remains  of  the  Amalekites  in,  51 
Baibiirt,  halt  of  the  10,0UO  Gret^ks  near  tliis 

town,  2.?2 
Bajazct  defeated  by  Taimur,  494,  499 

Bayazid  II.,  reigns  over  the  Turks,  .500 

Balaam's  prophecy  fulfilled,  18u 

Baladan   Merodach,    and    his   reign    over 

Babylon,  140 
- —  slain  byElibus,'^141 
Balbl's  voyage  to  Pegu,  590 
Baldwin  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Cru- 
saders, 484 
Balesius  or  Belik,  and  battle  of  the  Parthians 

and  Koniaus,  410 

probable  site  of  this  battle,  4 1 2 

Balista,  or  Calistus,  wars  against  Sapor,  425 
Biilkh,  and  death  of  Zoroaster  and  the  Magi, 

183 

taken  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

,  route  through,  571,  581 

,  caravan  routes  converging  on,  309, 

571-573 
Balomns,  coast  of,  and  Nearchus'  fleet,  349 
Baltic,  migration  from,  513 
Baluches  of  Pasira.  and  trade,  348 
Baluk-sii,  or  Baliiklii-su (Fish  river),  crossed 

by  Cyrus,  212 
liahit  Ti'igh,  or  Cloudy  Mountain;  and  its 

continuation  as  the  Himalaya,  368 

,  and  springs  of  the  Indus,  3G8 

Bambiirak,  or  Kove  Mubarrack,  passed  by 

Nearchus'  deet,  350 
.  called  the  second  mount  of  Semiramis, 

by  Nearchus,  350 
Bambuche,  Kara,  Julian  at  433 
Bamiyan  stormed  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 
Band-emi'r,  or  Araxes,  300 
Bang,  Cape,  or  Sous  Poshoon  (Mesambria), 

3.54 
Banna,  town,  the  apex  of  the  delta  of  the 

Indus,  372 
Barathra    (Kara    Bunar),    where    Epyaxa 

quits  Cyrus,  209 
Barathu  and  the  Cainites,  4 
Barax-nialkd  (probaVdy  Jibba)  and  Julian's 

passage  of  the  Euphrates,  436 
Barbarossa  advances  against  Constantinople, 

481 
Barbary,  a  colony  from,   traces  in  Ireland, 

514 
Bardeus,  or  Smerdis,  usurps  the  throne  of 

Persia,  and  is  murdered,  175 
Baris,  or  Barit,  i.e.,  the  ark  or  ship  in  which 

Noah  was  preserved,  7 
Bania,  village,  Nearclnis'  fleet  reach,  349 
Baruea,  Kadesh,  and  journey  of  the  Israel- 
ites. 103 
Barophtha;  reached  by  Julian's  army,  439 
Barsham,  prince  of  the  Babylonians,  defeated 

by  Aram,  42 
Barsine,  or  Statira,   and  Alexander's  mar- 
riage, 359 
,  and  her  son  Hercules,  murdered  by 

Polysperchon,  391 

VOL.  II. 


Barsine,  w^idow  ofMemnnn,  391 
Barsippaians,  a  branch  of  Chaldeans,  54 
Barygaza,  or  Baroacli,,port  of,  576 
Barylas,  a  Jacobite  and  instructor  of  Mu- 

hammed,  452 
Barzffintes,  one  of  the  satraps  who  caused 

Darius'  death.  304 

,  satrap  of  Drangiana,  306 

,  executed  by  order  of  Alexander,  306, 

308 
pursued  by  Alexander  into  Drangiana, 

306 
Basilius  and  Julians  advance,  434 
Baskets  for  raising  water,  651 
Basrah  built  for  Arab  trade,  580 
Basran   proposed  by  Napoleon   as  a  place 

d'armes  against  India,  536 
Bassadore  bank,  on  which  Nearchus'  fleet 

was  exposed  to  a  storm,  352 
Batan,  or  Chaldean  district,   near  the  Cen- 

trites,  226  (note) 
Batillas,  or  trankeys,  and  their  construction, 

644 

,  found  in  India  and  Arabia,  645 

Batna;  in  Osrhosne,  and  Julian's  visit  to,  433 
Batis'  brave  defence  of  Gaza  against  Alex- 
ander, 281,  282. 

cruelly  put  to  death  by  Alexander,  283 

Battani,  El,  work  on  astronomy,  561 
Batu,  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  and  his 

territories,  490 
Batuta'=,  Ibn,  work  on  geography,  535 
Bayazid,  see  Bajazet 
Bazira,  near  the  Indus,  taken  by  Aldatus, 

321 
Beas,  Beeah,  or  Bypasa,  the  upper  part  of 

the  Hyphasis,  370 

joins  the  Sutlej  near  Hurrekee,  370 

Bectoleth  plain,  probably  near  Bektash,  150 

(note) 
Bedawi'n,  conquests  of, 

,  the,  as  lyric  poets,  554 

Bede  on  the  astralobe,  540 

acquainted  with  Arabic,  545 

Beghram,  or  Beihrdm,  probably  Alexandria 

ad  Caucasum,  311 
Behui,  or  Bedusta,  371 
Behut  or  Jailum,  and  Hydaspes,  324-326 
Beilan  pass,  abandoned  by  Abrocamas  on 

the  approach  of  Cyrus,  212 
Beirut^  trade  of, 
Beirut  taken  by  the  Mushins  after  the  battle 

of  Hattin,  479 
Beja  the  seat  of  the  Abyssinian  shepherds, 

73 
Bekr,  Abii,  successor  of  Mahammed,  454 
Bektash,  Haji',  probably  near  plain  of  Bec- 
toleth, 15u 
Bel,    or   Belus    Saturnus,   worshipped    by 

Ham's  descendants,  19 

,  called  Beelsamen  by  the  Phoenicians, 

19 

,  a  name  of  Cronus,  or  Ham,  19 

,  temple  of  Babel  afterwards  dedicated 

to,  26 
Bela  Lot's  city  of  refuge,  68 
Beles,  caves  of,  609 

3  B 


722 


INDEX. 


Beles,  proposed  place  of  trade,  601 
Belesis'  palace,  destroyed  by  Cjtus,  213 
Belgrade  taken  by  Sultan  Suleiman,  500 

treats  at,  503 

Belik  river  (see  Balesius),  and  battle  of  the 

Romans,  410 
Belisarius  is  defeated  by  the  Persians,  442 
,  his  campaigns   against  the  Persians 

under  Chosroes,  443,  444 
Belicha,  valley,  and  the  Chaldeans  opposed 

to  the  Greeks  at  Centriti,  226  {note) 
Bellavese  leads  Colonies  of  Gomerians,  or 

Celts,  into  Europe,  513 
Belochus,  or  Belock,  king  of  Assyria,  107 
defeats  the  Armenians  and  kills  Hey- 

kab,  107 
Belshazzar  (Nabonnedus),  ascends  the  throne 

of  Babylonia,  163 
,  the  son  of  Evil-Merodach,  by  Nitocris, 

163 
,  his  character,  compared  with  that  of 

Nitocris,  163 
,   the   Nabonnidich    of   Ptolemy    and 

Labynetus,  163 

retires  within  the  walls  of  Babylon,  164 

,  death  of,  167 

Belthis,  the  moon,  or  Ba'altas,  20 
Belus  of  the  Greeks,  or  Nimriid,  24 

,  temple  of,  on  the  tower  of  Babel,  26 

the  First,  or  Nimriid,  39,  40 

the  Second,  or  Ninus.  39,  40 

,  the  Assyrian,  bore  the  name  of  Picus, 

115 

subdues  Assyria,  115 

succeeds  Alcaeus  asking  of  Lydia,  114, 

115 
,  or  Ba'al,  the  title  of  Amenophis,  king 

of  Egypt,  132 
■ of  the  Arabs,  and  probably  Shishak, 

132 
,  temple  of,   built   by  Semiramis  II., 

140 

,  king  of  Babylon,  1 45 

,  ,  adorned  by   Nebuchadnezzar, 

160 

• , ,  restored  by  Alexander,  296 

Ben  Ammi,  Lot's  younger  daughter's  son,  69 
Benares,  commercial  route  through,  572 
Benarooz,  Hepha'stion  passes  through,  when 

marching  to  Ldristan,  358 
Benedictines,  their  learning  and  influence, 

546,  548 
Bern'  Jadis,  a  lost  tribe,  45 
,  probably  absorbed  m  the  Kahtanites, 

51 

■  Jeruh,  or  Beni  Jurham,  51 

— —  .lobab,  from  a  sou  of  Joktan,  52 

Jurham,  near  Mekkah,  51 

Klialed,  the,  represent  the   Shemltic 

Chaldeans,  55 
,  Beni  Kabiah,  a  branch  of,  still  ex- 
isting, 55 
Benjamin,  the  tribe  of,  return  to  Jerusalem, 

171 

of  Tudela's  travels,  534 

Berbers,  or  shepherds,  73,  &c. 
settle  in  Africa,  455,  456 


Berbers,  like  the  Egyptians,  descended  from 

Ham,  455 

,  corps  of,  in  the  Muslim  army,  464 

Berenice,  city  named  after  Ptolemy's  mother, 

399 
Bercea  and  Chosroes'  tribute,  443 
Berossus'  History  of  Babylonia,  4,  5 

account  of  the  deluge,  6,  7 

account  of  Abraham,  62 

and  other  profane  writers  agree  with 

Moses'  account  of  the  ark,  80 
,  his  account  of  the  destmction  of  Sen- 
nacherib's anny,  142 
Bertha,  'Ain-el  (iNIons  Nicator),  the  battle 

of  Arbela  fought  between  the  Great  Zab 

and, 295 
Beruz  passed  through  by  Alexander  on  his 

way  to  Basagaula.  358 
Bessus,  general  of  Darius,  280 

carries  Darius  captive,  and  murders 

him,  303,  304 

flies  with  Satibarzanes  and  Barzsentes, 

304 
claims  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  calling 

himself  Artaxerxes,  305 
,  Alexander  advances  against  him,  306 

neglects   to  oppose   Alexander  when 

crossing  the  Paropamisus,  311 

is  delivered  up  to  Alexander  by  his 

own  satraps,  31 1,  312 
,  ignominiously  treated  by  Alexander, 

312 
,  mutilated  by  Alexander's  orders,  and 

put  to  death  at  Ecbatana,  312-315 
Besuchis,  fortress  of,  taken  by  Julian,  433 

{note) 
Beth-horon,  the  Upper  and  the  Nether,  built 

by  Solomon,  122 
Bethlehem  ceded  to  the  crusaders,  484 
Bethuliah,  Holofernes,  151 

,  Jotapata,  or  Safet,  151  {note) 

Betlis,  trade  of, 

Bezabde,  once  Phenice,  stormed  by  Sapor, 

433 
Bhuddists,  spread  of,  and  revolution  caused 

by,  541 
Bibacta,  or  Bibaga,  and  Nearchus'  fleet,  346 
Bidaspes,  or  Hydaspes,  324 
Bir,  excavations  of,  609 
Birs,  or  Baris,  meaning  a  high  altar,  26 
Birtha  (Bir),and  Sapor's  misuccessful  attack, 

433 
Bi'sutiin,  or  Baghistane,  inscriptions  found 

at,  116,  117 

,  inscriptions  at  Mount  Baghistan,  1 1 7 

,  Syriac  inscriptions  supposed  to  have 

been  efi'aced,  117 
,  according  to   Diodorus  Siculus,  and 

inscriptions,  117,  118 
,  and  account  of    Darius    Hystaspes' 

usurpation,  175 
,  rebellions  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia 

quelled  by  Darius,  178 
— —  tablets  mention  the  religion  of  Persia, 

186 

,  remains  at,  606.  617 

Bithynia.  the  10,000  Greeks  coa.st  along,  233 


INDKX. 


723 


Bithynia,  Xenophon's  mistake  regarding  its 
geography,  238 

attacked  by  Zenobia,  427 

conquered  by  Urklau,  468 

Bithyniaii,  or  the  Ilellespoutine,  satrapy  of 
Pharuabazus,  243 

phindered  by  Agesilaus,  245,  246 

Bithyuium  fouuded  by  the  PhoBnicians,  95 

Bitumen  used  as  a  cement,  624 

and  naphtha,  how  collected,  (124 

Bituminous  pits  in  the  vale  of  Siddim  caused 
the  destruction  of  Sodom,  67,  68 

,  coins  of,  84 

Black  Sea  rounded  by  the  Turkish  army  in 
Munid's  reign,  511 

,  eruption  of,  after  the  settlements  in 

Europe,  512 

,  commerce  of,  5S2 

Boats  kept  at  Bi'r  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  591 

■,  bridge  of,  at  Babylon,  630 

■ at  Lamliim,  Hit,  and  Tekret,  635 

,  construction  of,  at  Hit,  636,  637 

,  in  various  countries,  640 

,  similar  to  those  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus. 639 

,  round,  their  use  and  advantages,  638, 

C39,  641 

,  long,  succeed  the  round,  641 

of  Lamliim  coated  with  bitumen,  641 

at  Kxiniah  and  Basrah,  641 

,  wooden,  at  Hit  and  'A'nah,  642 

,  f.-rry,  of  the  Arabs,  643 

,"at  Bi'r,  643 

of  the  lower  Euphrates  and   Tigris, 

644 

trading  to  India,  644 

and  galleys  depicted  in  the  pyramids, 

645 

,  ancient,  similarity  of  to  the  modern, 

645 

of  the  Chinese,  oars  and  sweeps,  646 

• .  tanker  or  egg,  647 

,  the  fishing,  of  China,  647 

,  cargo,  flower,  and  war-boats,  648 

Boethius,  poem  of,  553 

Bceotia  colonised  by  the  Cadmonites,  proba- 
bly from  Egypt,  112 

Bohemund  leads  the  Crusaders  against 
Antioch,  474 

Bokhara  subdued  by  Genghis  Khim,  429 

and  Samarkand,  route  through,  596 

Borak  used  as  stucco,  625 

Bosphorus  crossed  by  Darius'  army,  on  a 
bridge  of  lx)ats,  181 

Botany  studied  in  the  east,  at  an  early  pe- 
riod, 531 

studied  by  Pythagoras  and  Democritus 

531 

,  work  of  Theophastus  on,  531 

Boudroun,  or  Halicariiassus,  266 

Bozra  and  Miihammed's  assist  at,  451 

Brahmapootra,  or  San  poo,  source  of  the, 
369 

Brahmins,  origin  of  the,  &c.,  33,  186,  507, 
508 

Brass  brouglit  from  Mesopotamia  by  David 
as  spoil,  121 


Bricks  of 'Akar  Kiif,  6ti4 
Bridges  of  Babylon,  ancient  and   modern, 
622 

-  of  Persia,  622,  623 

Briefs,  Kas,  probably  represents  the  island 
of  Bagia,  passed  by  Nearchus  fleet,  349 

Britain,  Severus  dies  in,  422 

,  and  works  of  the  Uomans  under  Se- 
verus, 422 

and  early  Phoenician  trade.  575 

re-discovered   by   the    Carthaginians, 

575 

,  trade  with  Gaul.  576 

Brizana  river  (probably  Bander  Delem), 
station  of  Ntarclius'  fleet,  354 

Bruges,  a  commercial  city,  578 

Brusa  taken  by  'Osiuan,  498 

Bubastis,  in  Egypt,  and  Pharaoh  Necho"s 
canal,  153 

Bucephala,  site  of,  determined  by  Mr.  Mas- 
son,  324 

,  built  on  the  Hydaspes,  in  honour  of 

Alexander's  horse,  330 

,  improved  by  Alexander  on  his  return 

from  the  Hyphasis,  334 

,  at  Jailum,  371 

Buda  captured  by  the  Turks  under  Sulei- 
man. 500 

Bu'id,  the  leader  of  Buddhists,  supposed  to 
have  been  Phut,  Ham's  son,  33 

Buddhism,  influence  of,  523,  541 

Budii  of  Media,  probably  a  tribe  of  Cush- 
ites,  32 

Budroun,  or  Halicarnassus,  266-268 

Buhtan-chai  (see  Centrites),  225 

Bulgarians  settle  in  Europe,  514 

-— — ,  or  Triballians,  defeated  by  Alexander, 
258 

Bulimy,  or  excessive  hunger,  experienced 
by  the  Greeks  in  tJieir  marches  through 
Armenia,  228 

Bullock  rollers  for  raising  water,  652,  653 

Bumadus,  and  Darius'  camp,  287 

or   Khazir-sii,  and   plain  of  Arbela, 

295 

Bunar,  Kara  (see  Barathra),  209 
Bunds  in  Africa,  Arabia,  and  Asia,  612 

,  method  of  construction,  613 

in  European  Turkey,  613 

used  on   the  Mygdonius  to  inundate 

Xisibis,  432 

Bimpur,  and  Alexander's  march  to  Pura,  or 

Pareg,  343 
Burech,  El,  canal,  611 
Burgos,  bishop  of,  558 
Busa-Cossorus  (see  Nabopolasar) 
Buslieab,  reached  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  353 
Bushire,  or    Abu   Shehr,  or  Sitakus,   and 

Nearchus'  fleet,  353,  354 

,  Alexander's  depot,  354 

But,  or  Put,  Avas  the  Chaldaic  for  Phut,  or 

Pha,  the  Blind  of  the  east,  18 

,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  18 

,  sovereign  of  Kusdi  Khorasan,  18 

Buyuk  Membij,  or  Kara  Bambuche,  433 
Buz,  from  whom  came  the  Haiks  or  Burzo- 

uians,  41 

3  B  2 


^24 


INDEX. 


Buz,  son  of  Nahor,  in  Upper  Mesopotamia, 

77 
— — ,  Elihu  probably  his  descendant,  79 
Byas,  afterwards  Byzantium,  visited  by  the 

Argonauts,   1 1 4 
Byblus,  Ham's  kingdom,  19 
,  now  Jubeil,  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 

once  Gebal  of  the  Ammonites,  1 8 

,  Canaan,  born  at,  20 

Byblus  capitulates  to  Alexander,  277 

Bypasa,  Beas  or  Beeah,  370 

Byzantium  captured   by  the   lonians  from 

Darius,  182 
taken  by  the  Greeks  from  the  Persians, 

197 
saved  by  Zenophon,  241 

Cables,  chain,  their  use  in  China,  G51 
Cadmonites.  or  Hivites,  94 

,  settlement  of,  in  BcEotia,  112 

Cadmus  founds  colonies,  94 

,  son  of  Haik,  settles  near  Ararat,  39 

Cadusians,     and     Artaserxes'     campaign 

against.  248 
Cffisarea  or  Gaysarey,  formerly  Mazaca,  42 

built  by  Mesha'k,  43 

stormed  by  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 

425 
in  Cappadocia  captured  by  the  Persians, 

under  Chosroes  II.,  445 
Caicandrus,  island  of,  opposite  Chiroo,  353 

,  the  fleet  of  Nearchus  anchored  at,  353 

Cain  and  his  wife  are  supposed  to  be  the 

Genus  and  Genea  of  Syria,  4 
Cainites,  or  the  daughters  of  men  mentioned 

in  Gen.  vi.  2,  3 
,  supposed  that  the  last  of  them  was 

Niemaus  or  Naamah,  the  sister  of  Tubal 

Cain,  and  wife  of  Ham,  19 
Cairo  successfully   resists    the   Crusaders, 

484    . 

and  Baghdad,  learned  men  of,  552 

Calah,  now  Sar-piili-Zohab,  on  the  slopes  of 

the  Zagros,  24 
Caledonians,  or  Picts,  from  the  Celtic  tribes 

of  Asia,  513 
Calistus  (or  Balista)  wars  against  the  Per- 
sians under  Sapor,  425 
Callas,  satrap  over  the  Hellespontine  Phry- 

gia,  265 

receives  orders  from  Alexander,  205 

Callenicum  or  Nicephorium,  now  Rakkah, 

434 

,  Julian  arrives  at,  434 

Callinicus  on  the  Euphrates,  the  Romans 

under  Belisarius  retreat  to,  442 
Calpa;,  critical  situation  of  the  Arcadians  at, 

238 
—  — ,  arrival  of  Xenophon  at,  239 
,  situation  of  Kiepe,  or  Ke'fken  'Adasi, 

formerly,  239 

,  Cheirisophus  died  at,  230 

,  proposed  (ircek  colony  at,  240 

Calwadha,  capital  of  the  ancient  Chaldeans, 

from  which  Kelani,  &c.,  was  derived,  2 
Cambyses,  (also  called  Aliasuerus),  son  and 

successor  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  173 


Cambyses  (also  called  Ahasuerus)  crosses 
the  Arabian  desert  and  subdues  Egypt, 
173, 174 

expeditions  against  the  temple  of  Am- 

mon  and  Ethiopia,  174 

dies  when  returning  to  Persia,  1 75 

Gomates  the  Magian  usurps  the  throne, 

175 

called  the  master  of  the  empire,  176 

Camel,  battle  of  the,  45C 
Campanus's  demonstrations  of  Euclid,  559 
Campbell,  CD.,  Commander.  I.N.,  on  the 
practicability  of  navigating  the  Euphrates 
(Appendix  N.) 
Cana,  or  Coptos,  part  of,  580 
Canaan  said  to  have  been  born  at  Byblus,  20 

,  his  kingdom  took  his  own  name,  21 

,  inhabitants  of,  and  extent  of,  21 

,  sons  of,  remained  in  Syria  and  Phoe- 
nicia, 23 

,  the  Israelites  cross  the  Jordan  and 

enter,  106 

,  flight  of  the  inhabitants  to  Egypt  and 

Armenia,  106 

,  a  portion  of  its  inhabitants  called  Gun- 

thanians,  106 
Canaanidas   leads   some  of  the  Canaanites 
into  Armenia,  106 

,    descendants    of    the,    called    Guu- 

thanians,  106 
Canaanites,  flight  of  the  Philistines  and  the, 

106 
Canaanites  and  their  descendants  the  Ber- 
bers, 456  , 
Canal    proposed    between    Euphrates    and 

Tigris  (  Append! X  N.) 
Canals  of  Mesopotamia,  Lamlum,  612,  613, 
614 

,  ancient,  for  commerce,  613 

Canastserum,    promontory    of,    now    Cape 

Pailhuri,  252 
Candia  visited  by  British  vessels,  590 
Canicular  period,  discovery  of,  attributed  to 

the  Egyptians,  110 
Canoes  of  Lamlum,  Kurnab,  and  Basrah, 

641,  642 
Capacerunt  bestowed  on  Niul  by  Pharaoh, 

511 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  circumnavigated,  689 
Caphthorim,  people  of  Mizraim,  21 
Cappadocia,  styled  the  first  Armenia,  43 

,  posterity  of  Meshech  also  occupied,  43 

,  the  Medes  and  descendants  of  Togor- 

mah  in,  43 

invaded  by  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 

425 
Caprus,  the,  or  Lesser  Zdb,  crossed  by  Da- 
rius, 286 
Caracalla,  invasion  of  the  Roman  territories 
by  the  Parthians  during  the  reign  of,  422 
Caravan  routes  through  Egypt,  Arabia,  &c., 
92,  93,  124,  569 

route  from Tadmor  towards  the  Persian 

Gulf,  125 

trade  by  land  to  India  probably  led  to 

the  Ophirian  voyage,  125,  12i'J 
routes  through  Persia,  309 


IXDliX. 


725 


Caravans  between  Elath  and  Rhinocohua 
superseded  by  the  ships  of  Ptolemy  II., 
41)0 
Carchemish,  Nebuchadnezzar  defeats  Pha- 
raoh Necho  at,  1 55 
Cardacs  in  Darius  Codomanus'  army,  269 

the,  were  trained  to  close  fight,  269 

Carduchian  Mountains,  route  of  the  10,000 

Greeks  over  the,  225 
Carduchians  harass  the  Greeks,  226,  227 
Caria  supports  Alexander  and  IJarius,  265 

,  Alexander's  army  winter  in,  266 

,  Alexander's  successes  in,  2G6,  267 

Carians,  the,  succeed  the  Milesians,  574 
Carmandte,  supposed  situation  of,  214  (note) 

furnishes  wine  and  other  supplies,  214 

,  and  dispute  among  the  Greeks,  214 

Carpets  exported  by  the  Arabs,  583 

of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  631 

Carrhae,  Eumenes  takes  up  a  position  near, 

382 
Carrhai,  retreat    of    the     Romans    under 

Crassus  to,  411 
captured  from  the  Romans  by  the  Per- 
sians under  Sapor,  423 

recovered  by  the  Romans  under  Gor- 

dian,  423 

recovered  by  Odenatus  for  the  Romans, 

426 

,  Julian  advances  to,  433 

,  two  routes  from,  to  Persia,  433 

demolished  by  the  khaliph  Al  Mamiin, 

460 
Carthage,  a  colony  from  Tyre  founds,  its 
commanding  position,  129,  130 

,  the  Tynans  paid  a  ground  rent  for, 

129 

,  revenue  derived  from  the  colonies  by, 

130 

,  great  resources  of,  131 

,  nature  of  the  government  of,  131 

sends  colonies  to  the  British  isles.  190 

,  maritime  enterprises  of.  190,  131 

taken  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  485 

Carthaginian  wai-s,  cause  of  the,  131 
Carthaginians,  the,  usurp  the  western  trade, 
575 

rediscover  Britain,  575 

Caryauda,  the  native  place  of  Scylax,  180 
Casluhim,  a  people  who  lived  to  the  south- 
west of  Canaan,  21 
Caspatyrus,  situation  of,  180 

,  Darius'  fleet  built  at,  180 

Caspian  Sea,  the  examination  of,  projected 
by  Alexander,  366 

Gates  and  Alexander's  pursuit  of  Bes- 

sus,  303 

,  Caspian  612 

Cassander  becomes  the    dependent  ally  of 
Antigonus,  390 

governs  Asia  for  the  young  king,  391 

murdei-s  Roxana  and  her  son  Alex- 
ander, 39 1 

shares  the  government  with  Polysper- 

chon,  391 

,    Antigonus     commences     operations 

against,  392 


Cassander  proclaims  himself  king,  392 

,  addition  to  the  territory  of,  398 

.  puts  Olympias  to  dea^h,  389 

combines  with   Selucus  and  Ptolemy 

against  Antigonus,  389 
Cassiterides.    the,    or    Sorlings    (Britain), 

known  to  the  PhcGuicians,  575 
Cassius  Mount,  named  after  a  descendant 

of  Cain,  4 
Cassius,    Roman   General   under   Crassus, 

409,  411 
Cataphractarii,  or  Clibanarii,  of  the  Per- 
sians, 423 
Cataea,  a  rocky  island  passed  by  Nearchus 
fleet,  3.'j3 

probably  Kenn  or  Kefs,  353 

Cathsei,  the,  subjected  by  Alexander,  330,331 

,  origin  of  the,  331 

,  the,  now  tiie  Kattias,  331 

Caucasus,  Sesostris  planted  a  colony  in  the 

valleys  of  the,  109 
Causeways  and  roads  of  Assyria,  612 
Cauzaca  (see  Shiz) 
Caves,  Mithraic,  607 

of  the  Chaldeans,  607 

of  Assyria  and  Persia,  607,  608 

Caystrus,  plain  of,  and  Cyrus'  march  to, 
206 

,  Cyrus  visited  by  Queen  Epyaxa,  208 

Cecrops  of  Sais,  in  Egypt,  founded  a  settle- 
ment in  Attica,  112 
Celsenae,  and  halt  of  Cyrus'  army,  205 

,  or  Apamea  Cibotis.  near  Dine'ih,  205 

,  capital  of  Phrygia,  taken  by  Alexander, 

267 
Celonte,  Alexander  s  army  halt  at,  364 

,  a  Boeotian  colony  planted  by  Xerxes' 

expedition,  364 

,  now  Sirwan  or  Keilun,  364 

,  Antigonus'  army  winters  at,  390 

Celsus'  account  of  the  sabaism  of  the  Per- 
sians, 184 
Celtic,   their  tribes  spread   from  Asia  into 

Europe,  512,  513 
Celts,  their  names,  government,  and  religion, 

512,  513 
Cements  of  various  kinds,  625-627 

of  the  Persians,  627 

used  by  Shapiir,  627 

Centrites,  or  Buhtau  Chai,  passed  by  the 

10,000  Greeks,  226,  227 
Ceramorum  A  gora  (market  of  the  C  rami  an  s), 

site  of,  206 
Cerasus  (or  Kerasunt)  reached  by  the  Greeks, 

235 
Ceres,  temple,  and  defeat  at  Plataea,  196 

• and  Isis,  ceremonies  of,  based  on  those 

of  Egypt,  519,  518 
Cerne  island,  and  Carthaginian  colonies,  190 
Certes,  Cape,  or  Ras  Jerd,  passed  by  Near- 
chus' fleet,  353 
Certus,  or  Arcles,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
shepherds,  112 

led  the  Shepherds  into  Phoenicia,  112 

Ceylon,  or  Taprobana,  part  of,  576 
Chaala,  ^Elius  Gallus  at,  415 
Chain  bridges  used  in  China,  651 


726 


INDEX. 


Chalanne  or  Calneh  (Carchemish)  Kbabur, 
24 

,  ruins  of,  679 

Chalcis  probably  the  Challeores  of  Judith, 
151 

plundered  by  the  Pei-siaus,  443 

Chaldea  (or  Chasdim,  extent  of,  53,  55 

,  -wickedness  of  the  inhabitants  of,  before 

the  flood,  3 

,  Pherecydes  studies  in  Egypt,  520 

Chaldean  creed,  20 

• mercenaries  oppose  tlie  Greeks  at  the 

Centrites,  226 

districts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 

Centrites,  226  {note) 

Chaldeans  spoke  Arabic,  and  the  same  people 
as  the  Syrians  or  Assyrians  of  'Irak 
Arabi,  31,  52 

(Shemitic)  on  the  steppes  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, 53 

,  the  Shemites,  also  the  Sabean  fol- 
lowers of  Cush  were  called,  53 

,  derivation  of  the  name,  53 

,  different  applications  of  the  name,  53 

,  the,  considered  as  tribes,  as  a  priest 

class,  and  as  a  nation,  54 

,  Evechius,  or  Nimriid,  the  first  king  of 

the,  55 

,  the  Chasdim  or  Cushite,  55 

,  the  Bern'  Khaled  represent  the  She- 
mitic, 55 

,  generally  applied  to  a  caste,  56 

,  the  most  ancient  Babylonians  called,  56 

,  customs    of,  resemble    those    of   the 

Egyptian  priests,  56 

,  philosophy  of  the,  56 

,  acquaintance  with  astronomy  of  the, 

57 

,  the,  first  divided  the  day  into  twelve 

parts,  57 

— — ,  Sahaism  of  the,  57 

,  astrology  among  the,  58 

names  for  the  planets,  58 

ideas  regarding  comets.  &c.,  58 

,  supposed    influence    of   the    planets 

among  the,  58,  59 

,  image  worship  among  the,  59 

images  had  Shemitic  names,  59 

,  period  of  the  probable  superiority  of 

the  priest  caste  of  the.  60 

more  advanced  than  the  Egyptians  in 

the  time  of  Abraham,  65 

,  of  Strabo,  or  Chalylieans,  231 

,  a  leading  branch  of  the  Syro-Arabian 

race,  509 

,  early  knowledge  of  the,  509 

and  the  Trinity,  541 

Chaldee  a  Shemitic  language,  84 

spoken  by  Abraham  till  his  departure 

from  Hi'iran,  85 

the  root  of  the  Arabic  and  Hebrew, 

85,  86 

,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Phoenician  cha- 
racters similar,  628 

Chaldees,  U'r  of,  three  sites  of,  37 

Chalybeans,  march  of  the  10,000  through 
the  country  of  the,  231 


Chalybeans.  the  Chaldeans  of  Strabo,  231 
,  country  of,  probably  a  part  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Tchildir,  231 
Chalybes,   the  Greeks  march  through  the 

territory  of  the,  237 
Chains  (or  Chalib),  Cyrus  reaches  the  river, 
212 

,  the,  abounds  in  fish,  213 

Cham,  son  of  Xoah,  and  father  of  .^gyptus 

or  ]Mizraim,  45 
Chamitoe,  Chaldeans  of  Colchis  or  Djani, 

afterwards  called,  35,  36 
Chandrabhaga  (see  Chinab),  324 
Chaone  (see  Kangawar) 
Charbar,  bay  of,    probably   represents  the 
harbour  of  Talmona,  349 

town  described,  349 

Charcha,  the  Romans  under  Jovian  reach, 

440 
Charidemus,  execution  of,  by  Darius  Codo- 

manns,  270 
Charlemagne,  embassy  to  Harim-el-Rashid, 
459 

,  receives  the  keys  of  Jerusalem,  473 

connected  with  the  east,  547 

Charles  V.  encourages  literature,  564 
Charlewood,  Commander,  R.N.,  Report  on 
the    navigation   of   the  Euphrates    (Ap- 
pendix J.) 
Charma,  another  name  for  Ham,  45,  46 
Charmalikand  Narsis,  ruins  described,  609- 

611 
Charras,  village  of,  passed  by  Alexander,  364 
Charter  of  Queen  Elizabeth  for  opening  a 

trade  with  Babylon,  590-594  (note) 
C'hasas  of  the  east,  or  the  Cesi  of  Pliny, 

54 
Chasdim,  Chasas,  C'hasyas,  or  Cossais,  the 
name  of  another  section  of  Ham's   de- 
scendants, 35 

territory  they  occupied,  &c.,  35 

synonymous  with  the  Chaldeans,  36 

conquered  Babylonia  from  Shem's  de- 
scendants. 36 

class  of  wise  men  among  the,  36 

,  chief  people  of  Babylonia.  37 

,  in  connexion  with  the  Chaldeans  con- 
sidered, 54 

,  tlie  Cushites  were  the  earliest,  55 

,  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Cushite, 

55 
(Chaldea),  a  name  given  to  the  terri- 
tory near  the  Pontus,  55 

amalgamate   in   Babylonia  with   the 

Kelani',  55 

equally  applicable  to  the  Hamites  and 

Shemites.  55 
Cha  Spi  of  the  Kurds,  Jebel  'Abyiidh,  224 
Chebar  river,  captive  Jews  formed  into  colo- 
nies on  the  banks  of  the,  157 
Chebran,  or  Aniosis,  the  Pharaoh  who  op- 
pressed the  Hebrews,  97 
Clieirisophus    and  Xenophon   conduct  the 
Greeks,  222 

elected  commander  of  the  Greeks,  238 

loses  the  cimimand  at  Heraclea,  238 

leads  his  division  to  Calpae,  238 


INDEX. 


727 


Cheirisophus  dies  at  Calpa?,  239 

Chelek,  pass  (in  Kurdistiiu),where  the  10,000 

Greeks  regained  the  Tigris,  2'2C> 
Chei-souesiis,  Aurea,  considered   as  Ophir, 

12(J 
Chesed  was  a  Sheraitic  Chaldean,  55 
Chilod,  or  Gelod.  of  Herodotus,  147  {note) 
China,   Mizraim's  descendants  spread    to- 
wards, ."U) 

,  or  the  land  of  Siuini,  30,  {note) 

,  spread  of  mankind  to,  and  worship  of 

Budd  carried  to,  33 

,  names  of,  33 

architecture,  &c.,  similar  to  that  of  the 

Cushites,  34 

■,  and  calculating  boards  called  Swau- 

pau,  of,  34 

,  exclusive  policy  of,  34 

,  traditional  accounts  of  the  deluge  in, 

35 

,  founders  of,  from  Babylonia,  35 

,  names  of  Noah's  sons  traditionally 

recorded  in,  35 

letters  resemble  those  of  Babylonia,  35 

,  trade  of  Nebuchadnezzar  with,  161 

,  Dr.  Sprenger's  account  of  the  ancient 

trade  with,  I'il  {note) 
,  early  trade  of  the  Phoenicians,  Per- 
sians, Indians  with,  310 

twice  invaded  by  Genghis  Khan,  488, 

489 

,  invasion  of,  and  Taimurs  death,  495 

Chintib  or  Chandrabhaga,  the  Akesines  of 
Alexander,  324 

,  Alexander's  passage  of  the,  330 

,  source,  course,  and  tributaries  of  the, 

370,  371 

,  the  (see  also  Akesines)  takes  the  name 

of  Pauj-nud,  371 
Chinese  letters  resemble  the  characters  on 
the  Babylonian  cylinders,  35 

system  of  medicine  like  that  of  Galen, 

532 

colonies  in  Armenia,  572,  {note) 

trade,  nature  of,  with  Russia  and  Tar- 

tary,  594 

with  Fars  and  'Oman,  577 

boats,  description  of,  G47-650 

used  as  dwellings,  647 

Chinilidauus,  or  Saracus,  successor  of  Nabu- 
chodonosor,  151 

,  revolt  of  the  Medes  from,  151,  152 

,  Babylonia,  under  Nabopolasai",  revolts 

from,  152 
,  death  of,  and  fall  of  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire, 152 
Chintz  from  Shiraz,  583 
Chinzius  and  Porus  reign  over  Babylon,  140 

are  succeeded  by  Juda;us,  140 

Chiroo,  formerly  Has,  passed  by  Nearchus, 

353 
Choaspes,  now  the  Kerah  or  Kerkhah,  298 

,  Alexander  probably  passed  into  the, 

from  Opis,  364 
Chodda  (see  Kedje) 

Chonos  (afterwards  Chronoe  on  the  Lycus), 
Cyrus  halts  at,  205 


Chorienes,  Alexander  besieges  the  rock  fort 

of,  318 

capitulates  to  Alexander,  318 

,  probable  position  of  the  fort  of,  3 1 8 

Chosroes  I.  ('Aniishirevun),  accession  of,  442 
,  campaigns  of,  against  the  Romans, 

442-444 

is  succeeded  by  Hormisdas,  444 

II.,  successor  of  Hormisdas,  445 

puts  down  the  rebellion  of  Varanes,  445 

,  his  campaigns  with  the  Romans,  and 

death  of,  445,  446 
Chosroes '  Anushireviin's  conquest  of  Yemen, 

450 
Christian   pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land, 

472,  473 
Christians,  the,  lose  Antioch  and  Jerusalem, 

473 

ill  treated  at  Jerusalem  by  Ortok,  473 

Chrysor,  Leuco-Syrians  were  also  called,  36 

territory  occupied  by  the,  36 

Chulnii  island,    probably  passed  by  Near- 
chus' fleet,  346 
Chun,  a  city  of  Zobah,  from  which  David 

brought  much  brass,  121 
Chunam,  and  how  prepared,  626 
Chus,  of  the  Caucasus,  or  Kusdi  Kabgokh, 

territory  so  named,  position,  &c.,  35 
Cilicia  traversed  by  Cyrus'  army,  209-211 
,  gates  of,  turned  by  Cyrus,  209  ;  de- 
scription of,  211 

,  pass  of,  carried  by  Cyrus,  212 

Campestris  and   Rugged  Cilicia  sub- 
jected by  Alexander,  269 
,  invaded  by  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 

425 
invaded  by  the  khaliph  Al  ^lamiin, 

460 
,  and  exchange  of  prisoners  with  the 

Christians,  466 
Cillutas,  Alexander  passed  the  island  of,  and 

sails  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  342 
Circesiimi  on  the  river  Aboras,  424 
,  Julian's  army  crossed  the  Khiibur  at 

434  ;  Chosroes  I.  at,  442 
Chosroes  II.  seeks  refuge  from  Varanes  at 

445 
Circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  589 
Cisca  or  Asca  taken  by  the  Romans,  415 
Cistern  of  Hesbun,  659 
Cisterns  and  reservoirs,  660 
Citium,  in  Cyprus,  founded  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 95 
Civilization  spreads  from  Bactria  to  India, 

China,  &c..  507,  508 
in  Europe  advanced  by  sages  travelling 

to  the  East,  514,  515 
Clearclius  is  sent  to  support  Cyrus,  204 
,  dispute   at   Carmandcc    between    the 

Greek  followers  of,  and  those  of  Menon, 

&c.,  214 
causes  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Cunaxa, 

218 
,  reply  to  Artaxerxes  when  summoned 

to  surrender,  218 
leads  the  Greeks  to  the  camp  of  Ariaeus, 

218 


728 


INDEX, 


Clearchus,  negotiations  with  the  Persians, 
and  their  failure,  -219,  220 

beheaded  by  Artaxerxes,  222 

Cleaveland,  Commander,  R.  N.,  Report  on 
the  navigation  of  the  Euphrates  (Ap- 
pendix I.) 

Clemens  and  other  Christian  fathers  from 
the  east,  542 

Cleopatra,  sister  of  Alexander,  murdered 
by  Antigonus,  392 

Cleopatris,  flotilla  for  ^lius  Callus,  expe- 
dition collected  at,  414 

Clibanarii  of  the  Persians,  or  Cataphractarii, 
423 

Climax,  Mount,  Alexander  marches  round, 
267 

Clitus  murdered  by  Alexander  at  Zariaspa, 
318 

Cloudy  Mountains,  or  Buliit  Tagh,  368 

Cnidus,  Lacedajmonian  lieet  defeated  by 
Phamabazus,  near,  246 

Codomanus  (see  Darius  Codomanus),  260 

Coense,  the  10,000  Greeks  halt  opposite  to 
this  city,  222 

,  position  of,  222 

Coenus  transports  vessels  from  Attock  to  the 
Indus,  324 

at  the  battle  of  the  Hydaspes,  328,  329 

,  his  reply  to  Alexander,  333 

Cogamus,  Cyrus  march  to  Chonos  paral- 
leled with,  205 

Cogoon,  town  of,  station  of  Nearchus'  fleet, 
353 

Colchis,  intercourse  between  Egypt  and, 
109 

,  voyage  of  the  Argonauts  to,  113 

,  murder  of  Phryxus  at,  the  cause  of 

the  voyage  of  the  Argonauts,  113 

,  Belus  expelled  the  Egyptian  colony 

left  by  Sesostris  in,  115 

Colchians  defeated  in  the  valley  of  Gurnish 
Khunah,  234 

Cologne,  archbishop  of,  552 

ColossjE,  Cyrus  arrives  at,  205 

Comagene,  or  Euphratesia,  Chosroes  I. 
marches  to,  444 

Comets,  &c.,  idea  of  the  Chaldeans  concern- 
ing the  appearance  of,  58 

Commerce  of  Egypt  promoted  by  Psanime- 
ticus,  153 

carried  on  with  the  East  from  Phoe- 
nicia, Tyre,  Egypt,  &c.,  340 

with  the  East  projected  by  Alexander, 

338,  339,  341 

,  great  projects  contemplated  by  Alex- 
ander for  the  advance  of.  366 

— —  fleet  collected  by  Alexaader  on  the 
Euphrates,  for,  368 

of  Egypt  extended  by  Ptolemy  II.,  399 

of  the  V^enetians  and  Genoese,  534 

with  Babylon  encouraged  by  Queen 

Elizabeth,  534 

with  India  by  the   Euphrates   route, 

535 

through    Egypt,    attempted    by    the 

French  under  Napoleou,  535 

of  the  Greeks  limited,  573 


Commerce  of  the  Rhodiansand  Carians,  574 

of  the  Romans  and  Arabs  to  India,  580 

a  study  in  Arabia,  581 

of  the  Arabs  by  barter,  &c.,  582,  583 

established  by  England  with  India  by 

sea,  589 

of  Britain   in    1354   compared  with 

1845,  591 

of  the  Levant,  in  1836,  592 

,  cause  of  its  decline,  592 

from  India  to  Arabia,  598 

an  object  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition, 

599 

from   the  Euphrates    to    India    and 

China,  584 

of  the  Arabs  and  Jews  to  China,  584 

between  Europe  and  the  East  carried 

on  by  Jews,  584,  585 

between  Constantinople  and  Asia,  585 

between    Rai,  Central  Asia,  Caspian 

Sea,  &c.,  582 
consequent  on  the  opening  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  its  extension  to  Arabia  and 
other  countries,  600-603  and  {Appendix 
N.) 
Commercial  voyages  undertaken  by  Marco 
Palo,  533-535 

routes  through  Asia  Minor.  587,  588 

duties  established  in  England,  58S 

treaties  established  by  England,  588 

openings  in  Mesopotamia,  600 

relations  of  France  with  Persia  (Ap- 
pendix G.) 

opening  and  calculation  of  expense 

(Appendix  A'.) 

Company   proposed  for   trade   in   Mesopo- 
tamia (Appendix  IV.) 
Confectionery  used  by  the  court  of  Al  Ma- 

miiu,  461 
Confusion  of  tongues,  and  the  dispersion  of 

mankind,  27 
Congoon,  bay  of,  the  station  of  Nearchus' 

fleet,  called  Apostani,  353 
Coniah,  term  of  contempt  applied  to  Jehoia- 

chin,  157 
Conrad  of  Montserrat  defends  Tyre,  480 
Constantine,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  was  in 

correspondence  with  Charlemagne,  547 

,  of  Africa,  358  ' 

,   his  works  published  at   Basle,   559, 

560 
Constantinople  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  484 
beleagured  by  'Osman,  498 

besieged    and    taken   by    the   Turks 

under   Miihammed   II.,   and   use  of  ar- 
tillery, 499 

,  threatened  by  the  British  fleet,  503 

,  speedy  armament  of  the  batteries,  503 

seat  of  Genoese  trade,  585 

,  cisterns  of  660 

,  exports   and    imports   to   and  from 

England,  1839-40  (Appendix  F.) 
exports  to  Persia  (Appendix  F.) 

and   Trebizond    steamers  {Appendix 

N.) 

Constantius,    wai^s   between  Sapor   II.  and, 
430-433 


INDEX. 


729 


Constantius  dies  when  proceeding  against 
Julian,  433 

Consuls,  French,  appointed  to  Persia  (Ap- 
peiidij:  G.) 

Contessa  Gulf  (Strymonicus  Sinus),  canal 
of  Xerxes  through  Mount  Athos,  to  con- 
nect the  gulf  of  Monte  Santo  with  the,  191 

Cool-band-creek  of  Nearchus"  voyage,  situa- 
tion of,  354 

Cot)mza  (see  Cape  Maceta) 

Copper,  ivory,  and  wood  used  in  writing,  G30 

Coprates,  the,  or  river  of  Dizfiil,  298 

Antigonus'  army  cross  the,  3'*4 

Coptos,  .'Elius  Gallus  at,  415 

,  canal  of,  579 

Coracles,  Irish  and  Welsh,  641 

Corduene  in  Assyria,  retreat  of  Julian  to- 
wards, 439 

Corbie,  university  of,  547 

Cordynas,  Mount,  the  highest  of  the  Gor- 
dya;an  chain,  418 

,  Trajan's  bridge  across  the  Tigris  at, 

418 

Coreatis,  Nearchus'  fleet  reaches,  345 

,  the  fleet  sails   from,  to  the  island  of 

Krokola,  345 

Corouea,  Agesilaus  defeats  the  Persians  at, 
246 

Corsote,  probably  represented  by  El  Erzi, 
reached  by  Cyrus,  214 

Coryeus  captured  by  the  Romans  under 
Balista,  426 

Cossoei,  the,  subdued  by  Alexander,  302 

,  Alexander  proceeds  against  and  sub- 
dues the,  305 

,  principal  seat  of  the,   at    Khorram- 

iibiid,  or  Kiih  Siyah,  365 

,  Antigonus'  army  cross  the  mountains 

of  the,  385 

Cotyora  (probably  Ordou),  inhospitable 
treatment  of  the  10,000  at,  237 

,  voyage  of  the  Greeks  from,  237,  238 

Cramians,  Ceramonum  Agora  the  market 
of  the,  206 

Crassus  appointed  governor  of  Sjria,  407 

first  invasion  of  Parthia  by,  407 

,  means  adopted  to  increase  the  revenue 

of  Syria  by,  407 

,    his    reception   of  the  envoys  from 

Orodes,  408 

crosses    the    Euphrates  to  meet  the 

Parthians,  409 

defeated   by  Surena   near   the   river 

Belik,  and  retreats,  410,  411 

probable  situation  of  the  battle-ground, 

412 

• ,  fate  of,  and  of  the  army,  411,  412 

,  Orodes'  treatment  of  tlie  head  of,  412 

Craterus,  a  general  of  Alexander,  303 

commands  a  division  of  the  army,  305 

carries  on  the  blockade  of  Cyropolis, 

313 
ordered  by  Alexander  to  rebuild  the 

Indian  city  of  Arigtcuni,  320 

at  the  battle  of  the  Ilydaspes,  326,  329 

commands  a  division  of  the  army  along 

the  Hydaspes,  334 


Craterus  is  despatched  to  Kirman  to  collect 

resources,  342 

,  route  of,  to  Kirmiin,  344 

returns  to  Macedonia  in  charge  of  in- 
valided soldiers,  363 
defeated  and  killed  by  Eumenes  after 

Alexander's  death,  381 
Croesus  visited  by  Solon,  520 
Cremona,  Gerhard  of,  555 
Crete  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians,  95 
,  the  point  of  departure  of  the  Tyrian 

Hercules,  95 

,  Phoenician  remains  found  in,  95  (note) 

Crimea,  the  golden  camp  of  the  Kiptshak, 

490 
,  origin  of  the  Golden  Horde  in  the, 

491 

,  added  to  Russia,  491,  503 

Critales  in  Cappadocia,  Xerxes  marches  to, 

192 
,  the  rendezvous  of  the  levies  from  the 

eastward  for  Xerxes'  army,  192 
Cronus  or  Ham,  called  by  the  Phoenicians 

II,  20 

,  and  by  the  Greeks  Saturn,  58 

Crusaders,  advantages  promised  to  the,  474 

,  under  Bohemuud,  take  Antioch,  474 

return  a  haughty  reply  to  the  ruler  of 

Egypt,  475 

take  Ramla,  Jerusalem,  'Akkii,  and 

Kaifa,  &c.,  475 

,  and  establishment  of  the  Latin  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem,  475 
,  their  unsuccessful  attempt  to  regain 

Egypt,  476 
,  their  fleets  on  the  Red  Sea  destroyed 

by  Salah-ed-di'n's  brother,  478 

,  the,  lose  Sinjiir,  Aleppo,  &c.,  479 

defeated  by  Salah-ed-din  at  Hattin  and 

consequences,  479 

,  the,  lose  Jerusalem,  479,  480 

,  the,  preserve  Tyre,  480 

besiege  'Akka,  and  are  enclosed  by 

Saltih-ed-din,  480 

,  battles  of  the,  before  'Akka,  480 

receive  reinforcements  under  Philip  II. 

of  France,  and  Richard  I.  of  England, 

482 
at  length  obtain  'Akka  by  capitulation, 

482 
under  Richard  I.  demolish  'AskuUin, 

&c.,  defeat  Sahih-ed-din  at  Arsiif,  483 

make  peace  with  the  Muslims,  and 

place  lialdwin  on  the  throne,  484 

fifth  armament  of,  land  at  'Akk;i  and 

advance  to  Niibulus,  484 
invade  Egypt,  4S4 

joined  by  the  emperor  Frederick  II., 

and  treaty  with  the  Muslims,  484 

,   discord  between   the  Templars  and 

Hospitalliers,  485 

,  under  Louis  IX.,  land  in  Africa,  485 

,  under  Prince  Edward,  enter  Palestine, 

486 

are  driven  out  of  Palestine,  486 

Crusades,  the,  lead   to    the   cultivation    of 

eastern  literature.  555 


730 


INDEX. 


Cruttenden,  Lieutenant,  and  Himyari  in- 
scriptions, 82,  83 

Ctesias'  Median  and  Assyrian  dynasties,  135 

Ctesias'  work  on  India,  341 

Ctesias'  intercourse  with  the  East,  521 

Ctesias,  Linus,  and  other  sages  connected 
■with  the  literature  of  the  east,  539 

Ctesiphon  taken  by  Trajan,  420 

,  Trajan's  return  to,  420 

captured  by  the    Romans   under  Se- 

verus,  421 

,  the  Persians  under  Sapor  defeated  by 

Odenatus  near,  426 
first  and  second  siege  of,  by  Odenatus, 

426 
,  retreat  of  the  Persians  to,  and  Julian 

from,  439 

,  Chosroes"  army  quartered  at,  443] 

,  Chosroes  II.  iiies  to,  and  is  murdered 

at,  445,  445 
Cufic  language  derived  from  the  Shemitic, 

84,  85 
Cunaxa,  the  distance  computed  from  Thap- 

sacus  to,  207 
,  the  country  about,  called  Abii  Jada, 

208  {note) 

,  distance  of,  from  Cotyora,  237 

Cuneatic  letters  probably  of  a  later  date  than 

the  Himyari  characters,  84 
Cuneiform  inscriptions  near  Lake  Van,  116 
Curia  Muria  islands,  language  spoken  in,  51 
Gush,  land  of,  allotted  to  Adam,  2 

one  of    the  three   principal   sons  of 

Ham,  born  in  Persia,  18 

or  Cutha,  was  king  of  the  territory 

called  Kusdi  Nirarild  or  Sinaar,  18 

,  his  descendants  migrated  into  Africa, 

Yemen,  &c.,  22 
,  the  acquisition  of  the  plain  of  Dura 

was  followed  by  an  increase  of  territory, 

24 

begat  Nimrud,  24 

,  spread  of   his  descendants  eastward, 

northward.and  westward,  32,  35 
,  the  Chaldeans  of  Babylonia  may  have 

been  derived   from  the  Cushites  in  the 

northern  part  of  Armenia,  3,  55 
,  countries  forming  the  territories  of 

the  Chaldeans  of  Cush,  3,  4,  37,  55 
,  Asiatic,  known  to  Job,  79 

applied  to  the  Arabian  as  well  as  to 

the  African  territory,  1 34 

Cusha-dwi'pa  in  Yemen,  possession  of  Ham's 

posterity  in  Asia,  45 
,  the  name  was  carried  by  them  into 

.\frica,  45 

,  extent  of  country  called,  46 

Cushan-Kishathaim  subjects  the    Hebrews, 

10(i 

Cushite  dominions  centre  in  Babylonia,  37, 

55 
,  Nimrud,  or  Evechius,  the  first  of  the 

Chaldean  kings  was  a,  55 

territory,  called  Chalded  (Chasdim),  55 

Chaldeans  or  Chasdim,  55 

dominion,  extent  of,  time  of  Abraham 

and  later,  133,  134 


Cushite,  Assyrian,  and  Median  dynasties, 
134,  135 

Cushites,  the  reputed  ancestors  of  the  Huns, 
32 

,   ancient  knowledge  introduced    into 

India,  &c,  33,  34 

names  by  which  they  were  known,  37 

— — ,  from  their  knowledge  called  god-like 
Cushites,  38 

,  sons  of,  from  whom  places  in  Arabia 

are  named,  50 

,  no  traces  remain  in  Arabia  of  the  de- 
scendants, 51 

Mas'iidfs  account  of  the,  52 

distinguishes    the  northern   Cushites 

who  entered   Babylonia    from    the   Na- 
batheans,  52,  53 

,  Sabean  followers  of,  were  called  Chal- 
deans, as  also  were  the  Shemites,  53,  55 

were  the  earliest  Chasdim,  55 

,  the  shepherd   race  which   conquered 

Egypt,  73 

colony  entered  Abyssinia  soon  after  the 

flood,  73 

settled  on  the  confines  of  Albara,  and 

lived  in  caves,  73 

founded  Axum  and  Meroe,  73 

considered  to  be  the  Hyksos,  73,  74 

called  shepherds  or  Berbers,  73 

,   according   to   Manetho    the   earliest 

shepherd  race,  75 

,  the,  territory  subject  to  the  Himyar- 

ites,  81 

the,  and  Shemites,  by  their  inter- 
course, gave  rise  to  the  Hebrews,  85 

,  the  spread  of,  prepared  the  way  for 

commerce,  92 
Cuth,  Cushasdan,  or  Kiish,  32 
Cyaneoe  rocks,  Darius    Hystaspes   at   the, 

181 
Cyaxares  (the  First),  Kei  Axares,  successor 

of  Astyages  over  Media,  162 
,  his  general,  Cyrus,  slays  Neriglissar, 

and  defeats  the  Babylonians,  163 

,  fidelity  of  Cyrus  to,  168 

,  visits  Babylon,  where  he  dies,  169 

,  his  empire  divided  into  120  provinces, 

169, 170 

(the   Second),  son  and  successor  of 

Phraortes  over  Media,  151 

recovers    Media    from  the  Assyrians, 

152 

,  the  Scythians  invade  and  defeat,  152 

recovers  his  territory,  and   forms  an 

alliance  with  tlie  Lydians,  152 

succeedv'd  by  Astyages, 

Cybiosactes,  the  last  of  the  Seleucidaj,  407 

,  fote  of,  407 

succeeded  by  Tigranes  the  younger, 

407 
Cycles  of  the  ancients,  11 
Cylinders,  antiquity  of,  628 

of  baked  clay,  629 

with  inscriptions  found  in  Babylon,  630 

Cynic   or  Canicular  year,  also  called  the 

Heliacal,  and  the  Eniautus,  or  the  year,  1 1 
Cyprian,  St.,  his  bones  brought  to  Europe, 


INDEX. 


731 


Cypnis,  and  Phoenician  colonies,  95 
Cyprus  taken  by  the  Greeks  from  the  Per- 
sians, 197 

,  Artuxerxes  sends  an  army  to  suppress 

the  rebellion  in,  247 

becomes   a    separate    dependency  of 

Persia,  247 

,  successes  of  Demetrius  over  Ptolemy , 

at,  &c.,  392 

submits  to  Demetrius,  392 

taken  by  he  Arabs  under  Othmiin,  455 

,  invaded  by  the  Arabs  under  Hiirun-el- 
Kashid,  459 

added  to  the  Turkish  dominions^  by 
Selim  II..  501 

and  Candia  reached  by  British  ves- 
sels, 590 

Cyropolis,  town,  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Cyrus  the  Great,  173 

Cyropolis,  now  Khojend,  taken  by  Alex- 
ander, 

Cyrus  the  Great,  son-in-law  of  Astyages, 
king  of  Media,  162 

,  successful  war  of,  against  Neriglissar 

and  the  Babylonians,  1G2,  163 

advances  from  Sardis  against  Babylon, 

163 

,    Isaiah's    prophecy    regarding,    164 

{note) 

drains  the  river  Gyndes,  1 64 

drives  Belshazzar  within  the  walls  of 

Babylon,  164 

blockades  Babylon,  164,  165 

,  stratagem    of,    to    divert    the    river 

Euphrates,  166 

,  assault  and  capture   of  Babylon  by, 

167 

,  humanity  during  the  assault,  167,  168 

,  fidelity  of,  to  Cyaxares,  168 

succeeds  to  the  Medo-P  ersian  empire, 

170 

is  induced  by  Daniel  to  order  the  re- 
building of  the  temple,  170 

restores  the  spoils  of  the  temple,  and 

prepares  to  rebuild  it,  171 

,  the  Persians  and  Mcdes  become  one 

people  under,  1 72 

,  various  accounts  of  his  death,  172 

,  his  tomb  on  the  plains  of  Murgh'-ab, 

172 

is  said  to  have  built  Cyropolis,  173 

succeeded  by  his  second  sou  Cambyses, 

173 

called  the  father  of  the  empire,  176 

,   his    decree    to     rebuild     Jerusalem 

searched  for,  177 

supposed  to  have  been  stamped 

upon  barrel-shaped  bricks,  177 

,  younger  son  of  Darius  Nothus,  ap- 
pointed satrap  of  Lesser  Asia,  200,  202 

,  extent  of  his  satrapy,  202 

,  the  claims  of,  to  the  throne  of  Persia, 

202 

,  influence  of,  in  Asia  Minor,  202 

is  recalled  by  the  king  to  Susa,  202 

.  on  the  death  of  Darius,  is  merely  con- 
tinued in  his  satrapy,  203 


Cyrus  (son  of  Nothus),  cause  of  the  rebel- 
lion of,  against  Artaxerxes,  203 
deceives  his  brother,  and  excites  the 

western  provinces  to  revolt,  203,  204 
,  the  subjects  of  Tissaphemes  transfer 

their  allegiance  to,  204 

,  large  promises  of,  to  the  Persians,  204 

,  modem  revolts  in  Asia  similar  to  that 

of,  204 
,  the  Ephori  of  Lacedsemon  send  their 

fleet  to,  204 

,  route  of.  from  Sardis  to  Chonos,  205 

,  reasons  for  the  halt  of,  at  Celaina;,  205, 

206 
,  marches  of,  from  Peltac  to  the  plain 

of  Caystrus,  206 

,  Queen  Epyaxa  visits,  208 

marches  to  Thrymbium  and  Tyriacum, 

where  he  reviews  the  army  before  Epyaxa, 

208,  209 
,  march  of  the  army  from  Tyriacum 

to  Icouium.  and  along  the  plains  of  Ly- 

caonia  to  Barathra,  where  Epyaxa  leaves 

him,  209 

,  supposed  object  of  her  visit,  209 

sends  Menar  to  turn  the  pass   of  the 

Taurus,  209 

,  his  march  from  Dana  to  Tarsus,  210 

,  halt  at  Tarsus,  210 

crosses  the  Saihiin  and  Ja'ihan,  210, 211 

carries  the  passes  of  Syria  and  Bei'lan, 

211 
,  his  march  to  the  Chalus  and  Baluk-su, 

212 
crosses  the  Kara-su,  &c.,  and  advances 

to  the  Daradax,  213 
destroys  the  palace  of  Belesis,  213 

reaches  the  Euphrates  at  Thapsacus, 

where  the  object  of  his  expedition  is  made 
known,  213 

crosses  the  Euphrates  and  reaches  the 

Araxes,  213,  214 

,  his  march  through  the  Mesopotamian 

desert  to  Corsote  and  the  Pylae,  214 

,  his  march  from  the  Pylaj  towards  Ba- 
bylon, 215 

.  his  review,  number  of  the  two  armies, 

215 

passes  Artaxerxes'  intrenchments  and 

advances  towards  Babylon.  216 

,  his  death,   and  loss   of  the  battle  of 

Canaxa,  217,  218 

,  his  achievements  led  to  those  of  Alex- 
ander, 251 

,  Alexander's  visit  to  the  tomb  of,  358 

diverts  the   waters  of  the   Eu[ihrates 

by  means  of  a  bund,  614 

,  tomb  of,  inscription  of  (Appendix  A.) 

Dabb  (Dhahab)  and  Daradax,  213 
Dacia  invaded  by  the  Sarmatians,  424,  425 
Dagasira,  Nearchus'  fleet  arrive  at,  350 
Diighestiin  subdued  by  the  Turks,  501 
Dagon,  the  fish-god  of  the  ancients,  15 
Daham  Ibn,  the  pliy.siciau.  550 
Dumaghan,  route  through,  572 
Damajula,  village,  situation  of,  &c.,  233 


732 


INDEX. 


Damajula,  passed  by  the  10,000  Greeks,  233 
Damascus,  Abraham  reigned  at,  64 

the  dwelling  of  Abraham.  G-t 

founded  by  Marsuphus,  64 

said  to  have  been  fomided  by  the  eldest 

son  of  Aram,  77 

taken  by  Artychas,  139 

captured  by  Parmenio,  276 

taken  by  the  Arabs  under  Abu  Bekr, 

454 
becomes  the  centre  of  Arabic  learning, 

&c,  464 

taken  by  the  Seljukides,  470 

successfully  resists  the  Crusaders,  475 

,  Salah-ad-din  dies  at,  483 

,  -wrested  from  Al  Assaal,  484 

taken  by  Taimur,  495 

,  commercial  depot  of  the  Ommaiyades, 

580 

,  its  port  and  trade,  592 

and  Aleppo  stuffs,  631 

Damask  named  from  Damascus,  583 
Damietta  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  and  again 

restored,  434 

,  and  Louis  IX.  of  France,  485 

Damoulee  valley,  the  10,000  march  along 

the,  234 
Dana,  now  Tyana,  and  Cyrus'  march,  209 
Danabe,  the  Persians    attack  Julian  near, 

439 
Danaus  leads  a  colony  from  Egypt  to  Greece, 

113 

,  flight  of,  from  Egjpt,  119 

,  the  common  father  of  the  Greeks  and 

Macedonians,  253 
Daniel  appointed   one  of  the  presidents  of 

the  Medo-Persian  empire,  170 
induces  Cyrus  to  order  the  rebuilding 

of  the  temple,  170 
• ,  a  cotemporary  of  Zerd-husht  (proba- 
bly Zoroaster),  183 
Danube,  or  Ister,  crossed  by  Alexander,  259 

,  Trajan's  bridge  over  the,  418 

Daphne,  the  pass  of,  427 
Danibjerd,  quicksilver  from,  583 
Daradax  probably  the  Dhahab  or  Dabb,  213 

,  Cyrus'  army  at  the.  213 

Dardanelles,  Xerxes'  fleet  sail  through  the, 

193 
,  Xenophon  leads  the  10,000  across  the, 

241 
Dardanians,  the,  supposed  descendants  of  the 

Trojans,  512 
Daric,  gold  piece  coined  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
rius Hystaspes,  189 
Darius  Hystaspes  obtains  the  Medo-Persian 

throne  by  stratagem,  175 

,  the  Gushtasp  of  the  Persians.  175 

,  his  account  of  his  accession,  175  (and 

note) 
,  his  organization  of  the  empire,  1 76, 

189 
,  called  the  Broker,  from  his  statistics, 

176 

,  his  firmans  on  barrel-shaped  bricks.l  77 

causes  the  building  of  the  temple  to  be 

resumed,  177 


Darius  Hystaspes,  expedition  to  Samos  to 
reinstate  Syloson,  178 

quells  the  rebellions  in  Susiana   and 

Babylonia,  178 

recaptures  and  repeoples  Babylon,  179 

partly  destroys  the  defences  of  Baby- 
lon, 179 

leaves  Babylon  to  quell  revolts  in  the 

upper  provinces,  179 

,  consolidation  and  extent  of  his  em- 
pire, 180 

despatches   Scylax    to   navigate    the 

Indus,  180 

,  his  invasion  and  .subjection  of  Scythia, 

ISO,  181 
,  his  passage  of  the  Bosphorus  and  Ister 

on  bridges  of  boats,  181 
,  his  forces  defeat  the  rebel  Athenians, 

&c.,  under  Aristagoras,  182 

defeats  the  lonians,  Samians.  &c.,  182 

,  his  son  avenges  the  death  of  the  Magi 

and  defeats  the  Scythians,  183-186 

assumes  the  title  of  Archimagus,  186 

,  his  invasions  of  Macedonia  and  Greece, 

186,  187 
defeated  at  Marathon,  and  returns  to 

Persia,  187,  188 

,  his  preparations  against  Greece,  188 

dies  when  ready  to  invade  Egj-pt,  188 

,  his  character  and  public  works,  188, 

189 

Nothus  deposes  Sogdianus,  200 

suppresses   revolts  of  the  Egyptians, 

Medes,  and  Lydians,  200 
conSdes  a  part  of  the  empire  to  his  son 

Cyrus,  200 

divides  his  government,  202 

,  the  project  of,  opposed  by  Parysatis, 

202 
appoints  Cyrus  satrap  of  Lesser  Asia, 

202 
is  succeeded   by  his   son   Artaxerxes 

(Arsaces),  203 

,  his  advice  to  Arsaces,  250 

,  eldest  son  of,  Artaxerxes  (Arsaces), 

nominated  as  his  successor,  249 

,  his  rebellion  and  death,  249 

,  inscriptions  at  Persepolis,  Hamadan, 

Bisutun  {Appendix  B.) 

and  his  conquests  (dilto) 

and  hall  of  Persepolis  (ditto) 

.   his  expedition   led    to   Alexander's 

knowledge  of  the  east,  340 
inscription  of  (Append ic  D.) 

Codomanus,  satrap  of  Armenia,  de- 
scendant of  Darius  II.,  260 

succeeds  Arses  on  the  throne  of  Persia, 

260 
prepares  for  the  invasion  of  Alexander, 

260,  261 

,  character  and  disposition  of,  261 

,  strength  of  the  army  of,  263,  264 

,  his  loss  at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus, 

264,  265 

,  his  army  augmented,  269 

was  assisted  by  many  talented  Greeks, 

269 


INDEX. 


733 


Darius,  Codomauus,  crosses  the  Euphrates, 
and  encamps  at  Sochi,  269 

executes    Charidemus    the    Athenian, 

2G9,  270 

prepares  for  battle,  270 

,  the  army  of,  passes  that  of  Alexander, 

270 

position  of  the  army  of,  271 

strengthens  his  right  wing,  272 

,  his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Issus, 

274,  275 

,  his  family  taken  by  Alexander,  275 

,  his  proposal  of  peace,  276,  277 

,  his  inactivity  during  the  siege  of  Tyre, 

279.  280 

,   his    forces  ordered  to  assemble  at 

Babylon,  280 

,  his  general,  Mazajus,  abandons  Thap- 

„  sacus,  285 

retreats  across  the  Tigris  and  Ziib  to 

Arbil,  286 

crosses  the  Great  Zab,  and  encamps  at 

Gangamela,  287 

,  his  offers  of  peace  are  again  rejected 

by  Alexander,  287 

-,  Alexander's  reply  to  the  deputies  of, 

288 

,  his  address  to  his  army,  289 

,  order  of  battle,  289 

is  defeated  at  Arbela,  294 

,  forces  retreat  towards  Babylon,  294 

,  his  route  to  the  Median  Ecbatana,  295, 

296 

,  furniture,  &c.,  of,  taken  at  Arbela, 

296 

,   his  general,    Mazseus,    delivers    up 

Babylon  to  Alexander,  296 

quits  Ecbatana,  302 

is  pursued  by  Alexander,  303 

is  carried  away  captive  by  Bessus,  303, 

304 

,  his  death,  and  remains  are  honourably 

interred  by  Alexander,  304 

,  his  character,  age,  and  period  of  his 

reign,  304 

,  Alexander's  generosity  to  the  faithful 

adherents  of,  305 

,  daughters  murdered  by  Roxana,  380 

Dascjlium  the  seat  of  Pharnabazus'  govern- 
ment, 243 

,  and  defeat  of  the  Lacedsemonians,  243 

Dastagcrd  taken  by  Heraclius  445 

,  flight  of  Chosroes  TI.  from,  44C 

Dataphernes  delivers  up   Bessus  to   Alex- 
ander, 311 
Datis,  Darius'  general  at  Marathon,  187 
David  chosen  king  of  the  Hebrews,  120 
opposed  by  Ishbosheth,  and  acknow- 
ledged by  the  twelve  tribes,  120 

makes  Jehus  his  capital,  120 

■ ,  extent  of  the  kingdom  of,  120 

,  brass  brought  from  Mesopotamia  by, 

120,121 
,  his  death,  and  is  succeeded  by  Solo- 
mon, 121 
Dead  Sea  produced  by  the  destruction  of  the 
cities  of  the  plain,  67,  68 


Dead  Sea,  scriptural  and  profane  accounts 

of.  68 
Dehilja  commercial  depot  of  the  Arabs,  581 
Deirii,  remains  at,  607 
Dejoces  is  raised  to  the   throne  of  Media, 

146 

succeeded  by  his  son  Phraortes,  146 

Dekel,  or  Dijlath,  the  third  river  of  Eden,  2 
Delem  (Bander),  the,  probably  the  Brizana 

river  of  Nearchus,  354 
Delhi,  defeat  of  Mahmiid  by  Tai'mur,  494 

,  route  through,  572 

Deli-chai",  the,  formerly  the  Pinarus,  271 

,  Darius'  army  posted  along,  271 

Deloaspis,  or  viceroy  of  Egypt,  284 
Delphos,  temple,  plundered  by  Xerxes,  195 
Deluge,  traces  of  the,  2,  3 

,  Berossus'  account  of  the,  6 

,  the,  commenced  in  the  month  of  Jear 

or  Jar,  corresponding  with  part  of  April 

and  May,  6 
.  depth  of  water  of  the.  above  the  cul- 
minating point  of  Mount  Ararat,  6 
,  supposed  population  of  the  old  world 

at  the  time  of  the,  6 
.  the  surface  of  the  earth  not  materially 

changed  by  the,  16 
Demetrius  conducts  the  siege  of  Tyre,  389 

,  his  army  routed  by  Ptolemy,  390 

defeats  Cilles,  390 

,  expedition    against    Petra    and    the 

Nabatheansfail,  391 

■ retreats  towards  lake  Asphaltites,  391 

recalled  from  Babylon,  391 

,  his  successes  in  Greece,  Cyprus,  &c., 

and  victory  over  Ptolemy,  392 

assumes  regal  dignity,  392 

and  Antigonus  are  repulsed  in  Egypt, 

393 

proceeds  against  Rhodes,  393 

generalissimo  of  the  Greeks,  397 

defeated  by  Seleucus  at  the  battle  of 

Ipsus,  397 

retreats  to  Ephesus,  &c.,  398 

,  the  possessions  of,  398 

is  expelled  from  Macedonia  by  Pyr- 

rhus,  398 
,   his    attempt    to    surprise    Seleucus, 

failure  of,  and  treatment  by,  398 

,  death  of,  399 

Demetrius  Nicator's   wars    when  king    of 

Syria,  404 

made  prisoner  by  the  Parthians,  405 

,  attempted  liberation  of,  by  Antiochus 

Sidetes,  405 
Democritus   acquired  knowledge  from  the 

Magi  and  Chaldeans,  527 

travelled  to  India,  Ethiopia,  &c.,  527 

,  is  supposed  instructed  by  the  command 

of  Xerxes  in  Persian  philosophy  and  re- 
ligion, 527 
,  and  other  sages  connected  with  the 

literature  of  the  east,  539 
Dendrobosa,  Nearchus'  fleet  reach,  349 
Denis,  St.,  university  of,  547 
Denon's  work  on  Egypt,  536 
Dera  Isniaol  Khan,  on  the  Indus,  370 


734 


INDEX. 


Derah  island,  the  Margastan  of  Nearchiis, 

354,  355 
Derapoor,    Alexander  crossed  the   Jailum, 

near,  324 
Dercyllidas  frees  the  Ionian  and   iEolian 

colonies,  244 
,   his   treaty    with    Tissaphernes    and 

Pharnabazus,  244 
Deryeth  a  king  of  the  Himyarites,  80 
Devanagari  letters  prove  the  derivation  of 

Indian  literature  from  the  Assyrians,  34 
Sanscrit,  character  like  the  Himyari, 

82,  84 
Dhafar.  or  Zhafar,  the  Himyaritic  Thafar, 

49,  50 

,  Himyari  inscriptions  at,  81 

,  probably  Idaphar,  82 

Dhahab.  or  Dabb,  the  presumed  Daradax, 

Cyrus'  army  arrives  at  the.  213 
Dhakhan,  Bern'  'Abd,  lost  tribe,  45 
Dhamahan,  Darius  murdered  near,  304 
Diacera  pillaged  by  Julian's  soldiery,  436 

,  probable  situation  of,  436,  note 

Dinars  and  dirhems,  with  Arabic  inscrip- 
tions, 457 
Diocletian,  the  general  of  Galerius,  defeats 

the  Persians,  430 
enters  into  a  treaty  with  the  Persians, 

430 
Dioscorides,  physician  of  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra, and  work  on  medicinal  herbs,  531 
Diospolitan  kings  of  Egypt,  107 

76  _ 
,  in  connexion  with  Eliphaz  the  Teman- 

ite,  76 
advanced  state  of  civilization  during 

the  exodus,  100 

• .  and  their  capital  Durhaba,  100 

princes  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  100 

Dirfiil,  caves  at,  607 

Diridotis  (Teredon),  Nearchus'  fleet  reaches, 

355 
,   supposed    to    have    been    at    Jebel 

Sanam,  355 
Discoveries  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese 

in  the  fifteenth  century,  589 
Dispersion  of  mankind,  and  confusion  of 

tongues,  4,  27 
,  territory  of  the  sons  of  Ham  at  the 

time  of  the,  4 

into  seven  different  nations,  27    . 

,  three   divisions  of  mankind   existed 

under  Noah's  sons,  30 

,  Shemitic  possessions  after  the,  31 

Diu  attacked  by  the  Turks,  501 

Divisions,  &c.,  by  Ilispanus,  554 

Diyalah,  the,  former  course  of,  and  probable 

cause  of  the  change,  1 64 
the,  probably  the  Durus  river,  reached 

by  Julian's  army,  439 
Diyar  Bekr^opposes  Ta'imiir,  and  is  plun- 
dered, 492,  493 

,  trade  of,  589,  594 

,  proposed  trade,  601  {Appendix  N.     ( 

Djani,  or  Chaldeans  of  Colchis,  afterwards 

Chamitoe,  35 
Dje'nasdan,  or  China,  33 


Djerash  discovered  by  Seetzen,  81 

Dohak,   father  of   Seljuk,   establishes   the 

Seljukian  djmasty,  469 
Domas,  Nearchus  reaches  the  island  of,  346 
Dorats,  of  the  book  of  Judith,  the  land  of 

dates,  151 
Doriscus,  plain  of,  Xerxes  numbers  his  army 

on  the,  193 
Drangsc,  or  Zarauga;i,  route  of  Alexander 

against  the,  306 
Drangiana,  Alexander  marches  against  Bar- 

zaentes,  the  satrap  of,  306 
Drepano,  Cape,  formerly  the  Ampelae  pro- 
montory, 252 
Drepsa.  or  Drapsaca,  probably  Inderab,  319 
,  Alexander  marches  from  Zariaspa  by, 

319 
Drillse,    excursions    made    by   the    10,000 

Greeks  against  the,  "^35 
Druids,  the,  probably  Arkites,  14 
,  primeval    structures,  and   system   of 

religion  of  the,  14,  15 
Drypetis,  the  daughter  of  Darius,  murdered 

by  Eoxana,  380 
Duaa,    probably    Sidoddne,    a    station    of 

Nearchus'  fleet,  352 
Dub'hu,  one  of  the  six  mouths  of  the 

branch  of  the  Indus,  372 
Dues  heavily  exacted  in  Mosul,  593,  (and 

Appendix  E.) 
Dujeil  canal,  511 

Diindi,  a  boat  used  on  the  Indus,  375 
Dura,  on  the  plain  of  the  Golden  Colossi's, 

made  of  the  spoils  taken  at  Jerusalem,  158 
Dura,  besieged  by  Molo,  is  relieved  by  An- 

tiochus  the  Great,  403 
,    near  Zaitha,  monument    erected  to 

Gordian  at,  424,  435 

,  Julian's  army  reach,  435 

,  the  Eomans  under  Jovian  reach,  440 

ceded  by  treaty  to  the  Eomans,  443 

,    Chosroes   I.    defeated  by    Justinian 

near,  444 

,  plains'of,  and  remains,  603,  631 

Durus  river  (probably  the  Diyalah),  Julian's 

army  reach,  439 
Duties  on   goods   first  levied  in  England, 

583 
Dyrta,  the  capital  of  the  Assakeni,  323 
,  Alexander  marches  to  quell  a  revolt 

at,  323 

Easterlings,  the  Moors  and  other  Arabs  so 

called,  456 
Eastern  governments,  nature  of,  201 
East  Indies,  trade  with  by  sea,  589 
India  Company,  established  for  trade 

by  sea,  591 
India  Company's  factories,  removal  of, 

592 
Ecbatana(Atropatcnian),  see  Shi'z  ;  Phraata 

,  fortified  by  Phraortes,  146 

,  description  of  the  Median,  147 

• (Median),  represented  by  the  ruins  of 

Takhti  Soleimiin,  147 
,  the  summer  residence  of  Cyrus  the 

Great,  172 


INDEX. 


735 


Ecbatana    (Atropateuian),   Cyrus's    decree 

regarding  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 

at,  177 

,  Darius  proceeds  to,  295,  290 

,  Darius'  preparations  for  war  at,  302 

is  taken  by  Alexander,  ;J(i2 

,  Alexander's  army  is  reinforced  at,  302 

,  Bessus  put  to  death  at,  315 

,  the     Median    Hamadiin,    visited    by 

Alexander,  3G5 

,  Hephaestion  dies  at,  3G5 

Eckhung-choo,   or  Siugzing-kampa,  names 

of  the  Indus,  3ti9 
Eclipses,  the  Chaldeans  understood  the  cause 

of,  57 

registered  in  Babylonia,  57 

Eden,  land  of,  and  rivers,  noticed,  1,  2 
Edessa,  Valerian  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 

at,  424 

,  Sapor  retreats  from,  426 

,  captured  by  the  Persians  under  Chos- 

roes  II.,  445 

takeu  by  Taimur,  493 

Edgar  (king),  commences  trade  in  England, 

586 
Edom,  dukes  of,  76 

Edomites.  &c.,  afterwards  named  Saracens, 
Edrisi's  work  on  geography,  534 
Edward's,  Prince,  campaign  in  Palestine,  486 
Edward   III.    establishes    the    Merchants' 

Company,  588 
Egg  or  tanka  boat  of  China,  647 
Egypt,  Mizraim    or  iEgyptus   the  first  to 

settle  in,  45 
,  Osiris  led  a  colony  from  Ethiopia  into, 

47 
,  the  earliest  seat    of   civilization    in 

Africa,  47 
,  architecture  introduced  from  Assyria 

into,  48 

■      carried  into  Greece,  from,  48 
,  arithmetic,  &c.,  imparted  to,  by  Abra- 
ham, G4 
,    social    and    religious    state    of,    in 

Joseph's  time,  71,  72 

,  caravan  trade  of,  72,  92,  569 

,  government  of,  when  Jacob  settled  in 

the  country,  72 
,  her  early  civilization  and  knowledge 

derived  from  the  first  people,  72 

,  and  the  shepherd  race,  72,  73 

,  and  inroad  of  the  shepherds  one 

of  the  most  remarkable   events  connected 

with  her  history,  74 

,  expulsion  of  the  shepherds  from,  74,  75 

,  and  departure  of  the  shepherds  and 

Israelites,  75 
,   receives    successive     colonies    from 

Arabia  to,  87,  88 
,  commerce  maintained  principally  by 

land,  88 

,  architecture,  sculpture,  &c.,  of,  88 

,  dyeing  and  manufactures,  88,  89 

,  and  three  different  written  characters, 

88 
— —,  warlike  implements    and  household 

utensils,  89 


Egypt,  pictorial  history  of  the  pyramids  in 

8S,  89 
,  and  occupations  of  the  people  depicted, 

90 
,  and  her  early  intercourse  with  Arabia, 

90,  91 
,  and  Phoenicians  settled  in  her  capital, 

92 
advanced  rapidly  after  the  expulsion 

of  the  shejiherds,  96 

,  state  of  the  Israelites  in,  97 

,  and  departure  of  the  Israelites  from,  97 

a  united  kingdom  under  the  Diospo- 

litan  kings,  107 

imder  Sesostris,  107 

,  public  works  raised  by  Sesostris  in, 

109 

,  intercourse  between,  and,  109 

,  knowledge  of  the  Colchians  derived 

from,  109 

,  Armenia,  a  dependency  of,  109,  110 

,  subdivision  of,  by  Sesostris,  into  thirty 

inferior  kingdoms,  110 

,  Sesostris'  government  of,  110  [ 

,  religion  and  philosophy  carried  into 

Greece  from,  112,  113 
,  the  Cadmonites  in  Boeotia,  probably  a 

colony  from,  112,  113 

,  early  colonies  in  Spain  from,  1 14 

,  Judea  invaded  by  Shishak,  king  of, 

132 
,  Sennacherib's  threatened  invasion  of, 

142,  143 
,  Psammeticus  promotes  the  commerce 

of,  153 
,  Pharaoh  Necho's  reign  over,  153, 154, 

155 
,  invaded   and  spoiled   by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 159 
,  Cambyses  invades  and  subdues,  173, 

174 

rebels  previous  to  Darius's  death,  188 

■  recovered  by  Xerxes,  191 

,  Achaemeues  governor  of,  191 

revolts  under  Inarus,  200 

again  reduced  by  Megabyzus,  200 

revolts  during  the  reign   of  Darius 

Nothus,  and  is  again  subdued,  200 
,  a  fresh  rebellion  in,  favours  the  cause 

of  Cyrus  against  Arta.xerxes,  203 
rebels  towards  the  close  of  Artaxerxes' 

reign,  249 
,  Alexander  marches  to  Pelusium  in, 

and  submission  of,  2S3 
,   Alexander  consolidates   the  govern- 
ment, 284 
.  sages  from  the  west  sought  instruction 

in,  310 
,  Ptolemy,    after   Alexander's   death, 

retains  the  government  of,  380,  381 
,  Ptolemy  repulses  Antigonus'  invasion 

of,  393 
,  Ptolemy  II.  extends  the  commercial 

relations  of,  399 

,  his  other  public  works  m,  399, 400 

,  Ptolemy  Euergetes  encourages  leam- 

insr  in,  402 


736 


INDEX. 


Egypt,  Tigranes'  campaign  in,  406 
,  subjected  by  Zenobia  queen  of  Pal- 
myra, 427 

■'  subdued  by  Chosroes  II.,  445 

invaded  by  Al  Mamun,  460 

retaken  from  the  Crusaders,  476 

,  retreat  of  the  Latins  from,  476 

,  termination  of  the  Fatimite  dynasty, 

476 

invaded  by  the  Crusaders,  484 

,  sultan  of,  defeated  by  Ta'imur,  495 

invaded  by  Napoleon,  503 

,  Grecian  mythology  derived  from,  516 

,  doctrines  of,  similar  to  the  Hindu,  527 

,  and  Napoleon's  plans  for  its  improve- 

meut,  535,  536 

,  Deuon's  great  work  on,  536 

,  well  situated  for  trade,  569 

,  its  early  trade  with  Asia,  Arabia,  and 

Africa,  569 

,  trade  through,  to  India,  588 

Egyptian  knowledge  less  advanced  than  in 
Babylonia,  (J5 

architecture  carried  to  Greece,  72 

astronomy,  110 

army  under  Tirhakah,  sent  to  assist 

the  Jews  against  the  Assyrians,  142 

account  of  the  destruction  of  Senna- 
cherib's army,  143 
race,  from  Shinar,  506 

and  Indian  monuments  denote  a  com- 
mon origin,  506,  509 

supposed  to  have  been  connected  with 

the  Scythians,  511 
• •  knowledge  derived  from  Asia  and  not 

Grecian,  515 

method  of  imparting  instruction,  529 

astronomy  reduced  to  a  system  in,  529 

study  of  mechanics,  geometry,  botany, 

and  medicine,  530,  531 
commerce  in  the  reigns  of  Sesostris  and 

Psammetichus,  569 

trade  with  distant  countries,  573 

,  fleets  in  the   Red  Sea  and  Mediter- 
ranean, 579 
Egyptians,  early  trade  of,  579 
,  encourage  trade  with  Palestine  and 

other  countries,  579 
Elanetic  gulf,  the,  and  settlement  of  the  sons 

of  Keturah,  70 
Elath  to   Khinocolura,  the  caravan    route 

from,  superseded  by  Ptolemy's  fleet,  4U0 
Elam,  territory  possessed  by  his  descendants 

after  the  dispersion,  2,  31 
Elburz,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Paropa- 

misus,  308 
El  Buttauf,  port  of  the  Crusaders,  479 
Elephant,  and  war  of  the,  450 
Elephanta,  Ellora,  and  Ajunta,  probably  of 

Assyrian  origin,  1)12 
Elephants  are  sent  to  Cliarleniagne,  459 
Elibus  slays  Meroduch-Baladan,  and  usurps 

the  throne  of  Babylon,  141 
is  defeated,  and  carried  captive  into 

Assyria,  141 
Elihn  connected  Avith  Job's  history,  and  pro- 
bably of  the  family  of  Buz,  79 


Elizabeth,  Queen,  keeps  a  fleet  of  boats  at 

.    Bir,  593 

grants  a  charter  to  the  Levant  Com- 
pany, 590 

establishes  consuls  in  the  east,  591 

El  Wathel  establishes  a  cartel  with  the 
Christians  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners, 
4G6 

succeeded  by  Mutawakkel,  466 

Embroidered  stuffs  of  the  Arabs,  and  trade 
in,  583 

Emessa  (Homs),  Zenobia's  forces  defeated  by 
Aurelian  at,  427 

visited  by  Julian,  433 

Emessa  taken  by  Taimur,  495 

Emim,  tribe  of,  descended  from  Ham,  21 

Zuzem,  &c.,  21 

Emims  expelled  by  the  Moabites  from  the 
river  Amom,  69 

Empires,  early,  spread  over  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia, Arabia,  and  Central  Asia,  &c.,  539 

Enemessar  (see  Shalmaneser),  140 

England  trades  in  woollens,  588 

exports  and  imports  from  Constanti- 
nople to,  in  1839  and  1840  {Appendix  F.) 

English  commerce  in  1354,  compared  with 
1845,  594 

Engraving  practised  before  the  flood,  19 

Eniautus,  or  Heliacal  year,  11 

Enmishpat,  or  Kadesh,  66 

Enoch  promoted  the  study  of  astronomy  and 
astrology,  9 

,  apochyphal  copy  of  a  work  by,  23 

Enoch,  or  Hanock,  the  first  walled  city,  8 

Ephesus,  Aristagoras  defeated  by  Darius's 
forces,  near,  182 

,  the  temple  of,  rebuilt  and  endowed 

by  Alexander,  265 

,  retreat  of  Demetrius  after  the  battle 

of  Ipsus,  to,  398 

taken  by  Taimur,  495 

Ephori  of  Lacedsemon  send  their  fleet  to 
join  Cyrus,  204 

Epialtes,  Xerxes'  army  gain  the  pass  of 
Thermopyla;  by  means  of,  195 

Epigoni,  Asiatic  corps  in  Alexander's  army, 
359-363 

Epiphanius'  account  of  Abraham's  conver- 
sion, &c.,  63 

Epirus,  the  place  of  Olympia's  banishment, 
383 

Epyaxa,  queen  of  Cilicia,  visits  Cyrus,  20^ 

,  the  army  reviewed  before,  at  Tyria- 

cum,  208 

leaves  Cyrus  at  Barathra,  209 

Erech,  now  the  mound  of  El  'Assayah,  24 
{note) 

,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Nimrild, 

24  {note) 

,  the  A'rcaa  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the 

city  of  the  Ark,  24  {note) 

,  a  temple  to  the  moon  existed  at,  ,25 

{note) 

,  Babel  was  built  to  eclipse,  26 

Erigyius.  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  305 
Ertoghrul,  father  of 'Osman,  the  founder  of 
the  Turkish  empire,  498 


INDEX. 


737 


Erythrcan  Sea,  or  Persian  Gulf,  S  {note) 
Erytlireans,  or  Phoeniciaus,  early  trade  of, 

57S 
Erzi,  Al,  ruins  probably  represent  Corsote, 

214 
Erziiigiin  besieged  by  Bajazet,  495 
Esal,  or  Osal,  once  the  capital  of  Ilavilah, 
51 

,  from  Usal,  the  sixth  son  of  Joktan,  51 

Esar-Huddou,  or  Asadanius,  son  of  Senna- 
cherib, 141 

,  appoiut(.'d  king  of  Babylon,  141 

ascends  the  throne  of  Assyria,  145 

,  probably  tlie  Artacus  of  Ctesias,  145 

reunites  Babylon  and  Assyria,  145 

invades  Syria,  Palestine,  aud  Egypt, 

145 

— — ,  his  son  carries  Manasseh,  khig  of 
Judah,  into  captivity,  14G 

,  supposed  to  be  Sardanapulus,  146 

,  succeeded  by  his  son  Saosduchinus, 

146 
Esau's  descendants  people  part  of  Arabia,  76 
were  the  last  addition  to  the  Ara- 
bian people,  70 
remove  to  Blount  Seir,  76 

intermix    with  the   Amalekites, 

Amorites,  Sec,  76 

Eschata,  or  Extreme  city,  built  by  Alex- 
ander, 314 

Esdras  permitted  by  Ahasuerus  to  return 
and  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem, 
199 

Esquimaux  boats,  641 

Estcourt,  Lieut.-Colonel,  M.P.,  report  on 
the  navigation  of  the  Euphrates  {Ap- 
pendix L.) 

Esther  raised  by  Ahasuerus  to  the  throne, 
199 

induces  Ahasuerus  to  permit  the  re- 
turn of  the  Jews  to  Jerusalem,  199 

Etymauder,  or  Helmand,  Alexander  at  the, 
307 

Ethiopia,  Asiatic,  position  of,  33 

,  called  the  country  of  the  straight- 
haired,  33 

,  derivation  of  the  word,  37,  38 

,  or  Habache,   Habesh,   spread  of  the 

Hamites  towards  Egypt  from,  47,  48 

,  Tirhakah,   king   of,    leads   an  army 

to  assist  the  Jews  against  Sennacherib,  142 

,  destruction  of  Cambyses'  army  when 

marching  towards,  174 

Ethiopic  language  of  Habasbj',  a  Shemitic 
language,  84 

Euaspla  (apparently  the  Lundye  river), 
Alexander  marches  towards  the,  320 

,  the,  bounded  the  country  of  the  Assa- 

kenes,  320 

,  the,  crossed  by  Alexander's  army,  320 

Eulfcus,  Alexanders  fleet  descends  the, 
from  Susa,  360,  361 

,  the,  considered  as  the  Kariin  Proper, 

361 

Eumenes,  secretary  of  Alexander,  arranges 
the  government  of  the  empire  after  Alex- 
ander's death,  380 

VOL.  II.  ,        J 


Eumenes    appointed  governor   of   Cappa- 

docia,  38 1 

defeats  Craterus  and  Neoptolemus,  381 

,  fidelity  of,  382 

is  defeated  by  Antigonus,  382 

retires  beyond  the  Euphrates,  382 

marches  against  the  satrap  of  Baby- 
lonia, 382 
,  his  army  nearly  destroyed  by  Seleucus, 

383 

defeats  Antigonus  in  Susiana,  383-,  384 

again  defeats  Antigonus,  and  marches 

through  the  Pyla;  Persica;  to  Persepolis, 

384-3SG 
is  delivered  up  to  Antigonus,  and  put 

to  death,  388 
Euphrates  of  Cumudoate,  45 

,  Cyrus  changes  the  course  of  the,  1C6 

,  facility  of  diverting  the  river,  166 

crossed  by  Cyrus'  army,  213 

,  or  Murad-chiii,  forded  by  the  10,000 

Greeks,  228,  229 
Euphrates,  the,  crossed  by   Alexander   at 

Thapsacus,  285 
,  Alexander's  fleet  reaches  Babylon  by 

the  river,  364 
Euphrates,  the  navigation  of  the,  projected 

by  Alexander,  366 
,  Alexander  descends  the,  and  ascends 

the  Pallacopas  to  Arabia,  367 

,  fleet  collected  by  Alexander  on  the,  386 

,  Eumenes  crosses  the,  382 

,  the,  crossed  by  Antiochus  the  Great, 

403 

,  the,  crossed  by  Crassus,  407,  409 

,  the  Trajan's  descent  of,  419 

,  Trajan  transports  his  vessels  to  the 

Tigi'is  from  the,  419 
,  the,  in  Adrian's  reign,  the  boundary 

of  the  Roman  empire,  421 
,  Sevcrus'  fleet  pass  along  the   Nahr 

Malka,  into  the  Tigris,  from  the,  421 
,  Julian's  army  and  fleet  descend  the 

Tigris  from  the,  434 
,  the,  probably  crossed  by  Julian,  near 

Jibbah,  436  (and  note) 

,  the  recrossed  by  Julian's  army,  436 

,   Julian's  fleet  sail  along   the  Nahr 

Slalka,  into  the  Tigris  from  the,  43S 

,  the  crossed  by  Chosroes  I.,  443,  444 

,  Chosroes  1..  in  retreating  from  the 

Komans,  on  an  elejihant,  crosses  the,  444 

visited  by  travellers  and  merchants,  535 

,  Napoleon's  proposed  descent  of  the, 

536 
,  early  trade  with  India,  China,  Arabia, 

and  Africa,  578 
,  reports  on  the  navigation  of,  599  (and 

Appendices  I.  to  iV.) 

,  ascent  of,  599  {Appendix  N.) 

Expedition  connected  with  commerce, 

600  {Preface,  also  Appendix  N.) 

,  mercantile  and  other  advantages  of,  600 

,  route  and  time,  to  England,  601  (and 

Appendices  I.  to  JV.) 
,  Tigris  and  Kerkhah  rivers,  naviga- 
tion of,  601 

3  c 


738 


INDEX. 


Euphratesia,    or    Comagenc,    Chosrocs   I. 

marches  to,  444 
Euphratesiaua,  tlu^  Persians  defeated  by  the 

Palmyreans  uuder  Odenatus  at,  42G 
Europe  peopled  by  Japhet's  posterity,  43  _ 
,  aud  intercourse  with  Arabia  and  Asia, 

459,  472 
,  civilization  based  on  that  of  Asia,  505, 

506 
.  and  colonies  to,  from  Asia,  511,  512, 

51*4 
European  trade  with  the  Arabs,  and  with 

Asia,  5S4,  585 
Eurydice  is  put  to  death  by  Olj-mpias,  383 
Eurymedon,  river,  the  Greeks  defeat  Arta- 

xerxes'  forces  at  the,' 200 
Euxine  Sea,  the,  is  discovered  by  the  10,000 

Greeks  from  Mount  Theches,  232 
Evagoi-as'  rebellion  in  Cyprus  suppressed  by 

Artaxerxes,  247 

,  continued  in  his  government,  247 

Evechius,  or  Nimrild  the  Cushite,  the  first 

of  the  Chaldean  kings,  55  | 

Evergeta;,  or  Ariaspaj,  situation  of  the  dis-   | 

trict  of  the,  307  1 

,  the,  so  called  by  Cyrus,  307 

,  the,  declared  free  by  Alexander,  307 

Evil-Merodach,  son  and  successor  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar,   releases    Jehoiachim    from 

captivity,  161 
caxises  hostilities  between  the  Medes 

and  Pei-sians,  161,  162 

assassinated  by  Neriglissar,  162 

,  his  character,  161 

,  the  Evil-iMaradach  of  Berossus,  and 

Iloarudun  of  Ptolemy,  161 
Exactions,  mercantile,  at  Mosul,  595  {Ap- 
pendix E.) 
Excavations  at  Beles  and  Bir,  610 

in  Assyria  and  Persia,  607 

,  one  class  of,  with  exterior  structures 

and  inscriptions,  617 
Exports  and  imports    from    1839  to  1840 

between     Constantinople    and    England 

{Appendix  F.) 
•  from  Constantinople  to  Persia  from 

1839  to  1840  (ditto.) 
and  imports  from  Bengal  to  the  gulfs 

of  Persia  and  Arabia  {Appendix  H.) 
_, from  and  to  ^ladras  and  Bombay 

{ditto) 
Ezekiel  carried  among  the  hostages  to  Ba- 
bylon, 157 

Factories  of  the  East  India  Company,  re- 
moval of,  594 

Farj-el-Hind,  or  Basrah,  trade  to  India, 
577 

Farouu,  Wadi,  on  the  route  of  the  Israelites, 
99 

,  position  of,  99 

Fars  invaded  by  Taimur,  493 

,  or  Persis  (see  Persis) 

,  trade  from,  to  India,  577 

,  a  commercial  country,  581 

Farsang,  or  farsakh  of  Persia,  value  of  the 
ancient  and  modern,  207 


Fateh  Jang,  vessel  found  near  the  village  of 
'Ali-dbiid,  373 

Fiitimah,  the  wife  of 'All,  456 

Fatimites,  and  termination  of  their  dynasty 
in  Egypt,  476,  477 

Fele'ili  branch  of  the  Indus,  372 

Feliijah,  remains  of  the  Median  wall  near, 
221 

Fe'nik  t^Phcsnica),  the  10,000  Greeks  reach 
the  village  of,  226 

Fergiiuah,  Alexander  wounded  by  the  moun- 
taineers of  the  district  of,  312 

,  the  Sogdians  retire  to  their  strong- 
holds in,  313 

,  commercial  route  through,  572 

Feridiin  or  Arbaces  subjects  India,  133 

Ferry-boat  of  the  Aras,  644 

of  Bi'r,  and  manner  of  crossing,  644 

Fililein  mountain,  near  Godol,  233 

Fire  not  an  object  of  worship  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, 171 

a  symbol  of  the  deity  among  the  Magi, 

185 

Fire  temple  near  Ispahan,  608,  609 

Firmans  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  on  bar- 
rel-shaped bricks,  177 

,  Cyrus's,  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jeru- 
salem, 177 

of  baked  clay,  629 

Finiusa  and  the  Scythians  emigrated  to 
Shinar,  510 

encourages  learning,  510 

Firhad,  chamber  of,- 607 

Firuz-Sapor,  or  Anbar,  probably  occupies 
the  site  of  Perisaboras,  438 

,  ruins  of  Tell  'Akhar  answer  the  situa- 

tionof,  438 

Fishing  in  China,  manner  of,  647 

Fitch,  voyage  of,  591-593 

Fitzjames,  Captain,  R.  N.,  Eeport  of  the 
navigation  of  the  Euphrates  Q599  and  Ap- 
pendix K.) 

Flood,  evidences  of  the,  2,  3 

,  account  of,  by  ancient  writers,  3 

,  astronomy  and  astrology  known  before 

the,  9,  10,  11,  19 

,  existence  of  Sabaism  before  the,  1 5 

Florus,  Gessius,  his  tyranny  over  the  Jews, 
416 

Fortresses,  sieges  in  ancient  and  modem 
times,  395,  396 

France,  and  invasion  of  the  Moors,  458 

Franks,  invasion  of  Italy  by  the,  424,  425 

repulsed  by  the  Eomans  under  Gallie- 

nus,  425 

settle  ou  the  Rhine,  511 

descended  from  the  Trojans,  512 

Frederic  II.  arrives  in  Palestine,  484 

,  his  treaty  with  the  Muslims,  484 

French  Levant  Company,  596 

Furduk,  the  10,000  Greeks  cross  the  high- 
lands of,  226 

Furrah,  probably  Phra,  situation  of,  &c.,  300 

Gaba;,  or  Baga;,  on  the  Oxus,  316 
Gabene,  district  of,  part  of  Parajtacene,  taken 
by  Eumenes,  386 


INDEX. 


739 


Gabriel,  Al    Mamiin's   physician,  and    his 

income,  4G2 
Gailaiiiolis,  or  Gadarlis,  in  Media,  Antigo- 

ims'  army  Miuter  at,  380 
Gadara  burnt  hy  Vespasian,  417 
Gadates,  the  Babylonian,  deserts  to  Cyrus, 

1G.5 
Gadelus,  successor  of  Niul,  511 
,  his  son  proceeds  to  Spain  and  Ireland, 

511 
Galatians  or  Gomercc  from  Gomer,  44 
Galen's  medical  system,  .').S2 
Galerius  defeats  the  I'ei-sians,  430 
Galilee,  the  campaign  of  the  Komans  under 

Vespasian  and  Titus  in,  417,  418 
Gallieniis  opposes  the  Goths  in  Italy,  425 
Gallipoli  taken  by  the  Turks  under  Urklan, 

4'.IS 
Gallus,  defeat  of  the  Romans  at,  414 

,  probable  situation  of,  414 

,  iElius,  his  expedition  into  southern 

Arabia,  414,  415 
,  C;estus,  sent  by  the  IJomans  against 

the  Jews,  41 G 
Gania,  Vasco  de,  rounds  the  Cape  of  Good 

Hope,  589 
Gamala  captured  by  Vespasian,  417 
Gambia  reached  by  the  Carthagians,  1 90 
Ganges,  or  Gogra,  source  of,  3uy 
Gangaridac,  Alexander  marches  to  conquer, 

331 
Garbia,  or  the  North,  and  countries  allotted 

to  Japhefs  descendants,  17 
Gardens,  hanging  of  Babylon,  substructure 

of,  G15 
Gargareis  of  Strabo  tlie   Armenians  from 

Themiscyra,  133 
Gauls  descended  from  Gomer,  44 

of  Duriorigum  trade  with  l?ritain,  576 

Gaur  Tdgh  (Infidel  Mountain),  supposed  to 

be  Theches,  233 

reached  by  the  10,000,  232 

Gaugamela,  village  on  the  ]5umadas,  287 
,    supposed    to    be   Karmelis,   on    the 

Khazi'r,  294 
Gaza  the  southern  limit  of  Canaan,  20 

,  the  peculiar  position  of,  281 

taken  by  storm,  282 

,  a  tovn  of  Sogdiana,  taken  by  Alex- 
ander, 313 

subjected  by  Antigonus,  389 

,  defeat  of  Demetrius  by  Ptolemy  near, 

390 

taken  by  Salah-ed-di'n,  47G 

Gebal  of  the  Ammonites,  now  Jubeil,  called 

Byblus,  IS 
Gedaliah,  governor  left  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's general  over  Judea,  159 
,  his  murder  caused  Judea  to  be  laid 

waste,  159 
Gedrosi  submit  to  Alexander,  307 
Gedrosia,  distress  of  Alexander's  army  when 

crossing  the  desert  of,  343,  344 

,  Nearchus'  fleet  reach,  347 

Gelam,  son  and  successor  of  Amassia,  42 

,  his  territories  and  migrations,  42 

succeeded  by  his  son  Harma,  42 


Gelod  or  Chilod,  Judith,  147  (rioted 
Gemeii  on  the  Kara  sii,  probably  the  Gym- 

nias  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  232 
Genghis  Khan,  origin  of  the  name  of,  488 

,early  history  and  confpiests  of,  487-489 

,  his  death  and  monument,  489, 490 

,  character  of,  490 

Genoa  and  her  commercial  prosperity,  59'/ 

Genoese  commerce  with  India,  534 

fleets  assist  the  Spaniards  against  the 

Moors  587 

trade,  58G-588 

England,  590 

vessels  import  Indian  spices,  590 

Genus   and   Genea,  supposed  to   represent 

Cain  and  his  wife,  4 
Geography,  Edrisi's,  and  other  works  on, 

534,  535 
Geometry   derived   from   Egypt  and    the 

east,  530 
Georgia,  nail-headed  letters  of,  and  Tibet, 

33,  34 

subjected  by  Mahmiid  Ghizni,  4G9 

,  Taimiir's  campaign  in,  494 

added  to  the  Turkish  dominions,  501 

Gergashites,   Jebusites,   &c.,  originate   the 

Berbers,  455 
Germa,  Beit,  or  house  of  bones,  supposed 

site  of  the  battle  of  Arbcla,  295 
Gerostratus,  king  of   Aradus,  submits   to 

Alexander,  27G 
Gerrhfeans,  rafts  used  by,  C35 
Ghara,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Satlcj,  370 

joins  the  Chinab,  371 

Ghassan,  Beni,  descended  from  Kaklan,  52 
,  the  kingdom  of,  added  to  the  llim- 

yari  territory,  81 

,  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of,  449 

Ghazan  rebels  against  the  Great  Khun,  and 

embraces  the  Muslim  faith,  491 
Ghizni,  or  Ghaznein,  corresponds  with  the 

territory  of  the  ludi,  308 

reduced  by  Genghis  Khan.  489 

,  commercial  route  through,  581 

Ghor,   El  Wiidi,  and  tribe  of  Araalekites, 

from  Amalek,  son  of  Ham,  21 
Ghonib,  Hisn,  and  Himyari  inscriptions,  82 
Giants'  Graves,  structui'es  called,  near  Sligo, 

15 
Gibraltar,  the  landing-place  of  the  Moors 

on  their  invasion  of  Spain,  457 
GihoQ   river,  name    changed   to   Araxes, 

2,  41 
(Jaxartes),  the,  crossed  by   Taimiir 

on  a  bridge  of  boats,  493 
Gingeni  and  others  prove  that  rhyme  came 

from  Arabia,  552 
Girchala  taken  by  Titus,  417 
Goa,  trade  to,  592 
Gobi  or  Kobi,  desert  of,  572 
Gobryas,  a  Babylonian  noble,  who  deserts 

to  Cyrus,  1G5 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  establishes  the  Latin 

kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  475 
Godol  Valley,  the  Greeks  march  along  the, 

234 
Gold  collected  in  Egypt,  CI 7 

3  c  2 


740 


INDEX. 


Gold  Coast,  and  Carthaginian  voyage  to  the, 

190 
Golden    Horde,    Tartar    dynasty     in    the 

Crimea,  491 
Goniates,  a  magician,  usurps  the  throne  of 

Cambyses.  174 
deposed  and  slain  by  Darius  Hystaspes, 

175,  176 
Gomerae,  or  Galatians,  from  Gomer,  44 
Comer's  followers,  38 

and  the  Sarmatians,  &c.,  44 

Gomorrah  and  Sodom,  Strabo's  account  of 

the  foi-mation,  the  lake,  &c.,  G7,  68 
Goods  suitable  for  Asia  Minor  (^Appendix 

K.) 
tracked  up  the  Tigris  {Appendix  A.) 

pass   through  several   hands   in  the 

East  595  (and  Appendix  N.) 

influx  of,  to  Persia,  597 

Goongroo  river  (see  Pinyari) 

Gopher  wood,  638 

Gora,  Bdr'i,  or  Bander  Vikkar,  372 

Gordian  III.  succeeds  Alexander  as  emperor, 

423 
,  his  campaign  against  the  Persians,  423, 

424 

is  put  to  death,  424 

,  his  monument  at  Dura,  424,  435 

Gordyse,  or  Gordjans,  a  tribe  of  Assyrians, 

31 
Goshen,  or  Geshen,  land  of,  now  Esh  Shur- 

keveh,  97 

',  fertility  of.  97,  98 

Goths,  or  Getge,  defeated  by  Alexander,  259 

invade  the  Roman  provinces  in  Eu- 
rope, 424 

invade  Asia  Minor,  42G 

Goukcha,  lake  of  Sevan,  so  called,  42 
inhabitants  called  Siakans  or  Seunics, 

42 
Gelam  descendant  of  Haik,  built  towns, 

&c.,  on  the  shores  of,  42 
Gounang-passaman,  a  mountain  in  Sumatra, 

called  Ophir,  126 
Granicus.  battle  of  the,  2G4,  265 
Granis  river,  station  of  Nearchus'  fleet  near, 

3.54 
Gra;cia  Magna,  the  seat  of  philosophy,  540 
Greece,  the  antediluvian  idolatry,  renewed 

by  Ham,  16 

architecture  from  Egj'pt,  48 

,  religion  and  philosophy  of,   carried 

from  Egjpt  to,  112,  515,  519,  526 

,  voyage  of  the  Argonauts,  113,  114 

,  intercourse  between,  and  the   Black 

Sea,  &c.,  119 

,  Darius'  first  war  with.  182 

,  result  of  the  expedition  sent  under 

Mardonius,  186,  187 
,  Darius  sends  heralds  to  demand  earth 

and  water,  187 
, dies  when  about  to  march  against, 

188 
prepares  for  war  against  Xerxes,  191, 

197 

,  Artaxerxes'  campaign  in,  199,  200 

assists  the  revolted  Egyptians,  200 


Greece  sends  a  force  to  support  Cyrus,  204 

,  disunion  among  the  states  of,  246,  247 

,  first  and   second  rescripts  of  Ai"ta- 

xerxes  to,  247,  248 

sends  reinforcements  to  Alexander,  334 

acquires  a  knowledge  of  the  east  by 

Alexander's  conquests,  379 
connected  with  Central  Asia  through 

Asia  Minor,  514,  515 
,  philosophy  and  the  sciences  obtained 

from  the  east,  515 

,  sabaism  the  ancient  religion  of,  517 

,  Orpheus  the  supposed  founder  of  the 

religion  and  poetry  of,  517 
,  knowledge  from  the  east  introduced 

by  Thales  into,  519 

,  magism  makes  progress  in,  527 
Greek,  Sanscrit,  &c.,  from  same  primitive 

tongue,  86 

colonies  in  Lesser  Asia,  540 

or  Pelasgian  navigators,  573 

trade  with  central  Asia,  but  commerce 

by  sea  restricted,  573 
colonies  in  the  archipelago,  574 

commerce    chiefly    confined    to    the 

Mediterranean  and  Euxine,  574 

commerce  very  limited  before  the  time 

of  Xerxes,  574 
Greeks,  their  origin  from  Javan,  44 

,  their  first  landing  in  Asia,  119 

overthrown  by  Sennacherib,  141 

(the  Ten  Thousand)  after  the  death  of 

Cyrus  offer  the  crown  to  Aria-us,  2 1 S 
resolve  on  fighting  their  way  home, 

218,  219 

,  route  of,  by  the  Tigris,  219 

commence  their  retreat  without  sup- 
plies, 219 

negociations  with  the  Persians,  219, 220 

arrive  at  the  Median  wall,  220 

cross  the  Tigris,  and  reach  the  rivers 

Physcus  and  Opis,  221 
— —  pass  the  Lesser  Zab,  and  arrive  at  the 

villages  of  Parysatis,  222 

halt  opposite  Csenac,  222 

at  the  Zab  lose  their  principal  leaders 

by  treachery,  222 
destroy  their  minecessary  baggage,  222 

cross  the  river   Zabatus,  and  reach 

Larissa,  222 

reach  Mespila  and  Tel  Keif,  223 

force  the  heights  and,  reach  a  village, 

probably  Zakhu,  223,  224 

forced  march  to  elude  the  Persians.  224 

turn  the  heights  and  reach  the  Tigris, 

225 

,  critical  position  of,  225 

,  they  make  a  flank  movement,  and 

change  their  line  of  march,  225 
reach  the  Centrites  and  Teleboas,  226- 

228 
break  their  treaty  with  Teribazus,  228 

cross  the  Euphrates  or  Muriid  Chdi, 

228 

difiicnlties   and    privations  in   their 

march,  228-230 

pass  the  river  Phasis,  229,  230 


INDEX. 


741 


Greeks  march  through  the  countries  of  the 
Taochians  and  Chalyl)oans,  230,  231 

cross  tho  Harpasus,  and  march  through 

the  Scythian  territory,  231,  232 

advance    to    Gyinuias,    and    Mount 

Thechcs,  232 

march  along  the  valleys  of  Damoulee, 

Godol,  and  Giimisii  Khuuali,  and  defeat 
the  Colchians,  234 

sulfer  froiu  eating  honey,  234 

halt  at  Tarabuzu'u,  and  embark  the 

aged,  235 

defeat    the    Drilhr,    and    march  to 

Cerasus,  where  prize-money  is  distributed, 
235 

march  through  the  Moschian  and  Cha- 

lybean  territories,  23(!,  237 

(10,001)),  inhospitality  of  the  Cotyo- 

rians  to  the,  237 

,  voyage  of,  from  Cotyoria  to  Heraclea, 

237,  238 
,  defeat  of  the  Persians  and  Bithynians 

by  the,  23'J,  240 
,  their  metliod  of  dividing  the  booty, 

240 
,  .the  Bithynians  solicit  alliance  with 

the,  240,  241 
■ proceed  to  Chrysopolis  and  Byzantium, 

241 
assist  Seuthes,  and  take  service  under 

the  Laceda-moniaus,  241 
cross  the  Dardanelles  and  campaign  in 

Mysia,  241,  242 

capture  the  wife  and  family  of  Asi- 

dates,  242 

,  Xeuophon  resigns  the  command  of  the, 

242 
,  military  organization  and   tactics  of 

the,  242,  243 
,  campaigns  against  Pharnabazus  and 

Tissaphernes,  245,  246 

defeat  the  Persians  at  Coronea,  246 

,   the,   had  the   same  ^common   origin 

as  the  Macedonians,  253 
refugees  iu  the  pay  of  Darius  sus- 
pected, 269,  270 
send  deputies  to  Alexander  at  Tyre, 

284 
,  the  khaliph   Al   Mutawakkel's  war 

against  the,  4C6 
defeated  by  the  Seljukides  under  Alp 

Arslau,  470 
,  their  territory   divided    among    the 

princes  of  the  Crusaders,  484 
empire   overthrowu    in   the    reign  of 

Miihammed  II.  over  Turkey,  499 
,  the,  rebel  against  Turkey,  504 

serving  on  both  sides  of  contending 

armies,  540 

trade  with  Central  Asia  in  the  time  of 

the  Argonauts,  573 

acquainted  with  Britain,  575 

Gregory  VII.  supports  the  Crusades,  474 
Groined  arches  without  cement,  626 
Guebers,  the   principal   factors  of  Persia, 

581 
Guish,  Arab  cement,  326 


Giimish  Kh^nah  valley,  and  march  of  the 

10,000  along  it,  234 
,  and  pass  of  Zigani,  where  the  Greeks 

were  opposed  by  the  Colchians,  234 
Gunpowder,  iS:t'.,  knowledge  of,  possessed  by 

tlie  Cliinese  (Jushites,  .34 

,  early  use  of  by  the  Turks,  500 

Gunthaniansdescended  from  Canaanidas,  106 

Gurini,  town  and  district  of,  13 

Guslitasp  of  the  Persians,  Darius  Ilystaspes, 

175 
Guzffius,  or   Euaspla  (the  Lundye),  river, 

crossed  by  Alexander,  320 
Gwadel,  liius,  near  the  haven  of  Kophanta 

of  Nearchus,  349 
Gwutter  Bay,  visited  by  Nearchus,  345 
Gynmias  city,  and  the  10,(J00  Greeks,  232 

,  probably  Gemeris,  232 

Gymiiosophists,  or  Brahmins,  of  India,  508 
Gyndes  river,  drained  by  Cyrus,  164 

Habash,  Habache,  or  Ethiopia,  47 

Habashi,  the  Hamites  in  Africa,  47 

,  the  Ethiopic  of,  a  Shemitic  language, 

84 
Hadoram  or  Jurham,  brother  of  Ya'rab  ben 

Kahtau,  and  ruler  of  the  Hijaz,  51 
both  names  preserved    by   the    Beni 

Jurham,  or  Beni  Jerfih,  51 
Hadhr,  El,  probably  Atra  (see  Atra),  421 
Hadramtiut,  and  remains  of  the  Amalekites, 

22 

possessed  by  the  Hamites,  44 

,  exports  of,  49 

,  tomb,  of  Kahtiin  and  his  father  in,  51 

,  probably  the  territory  of  Hazarma- 

veth,  52 
Hafar  canal,  by  which  part  of  Alexander's 

tieet  passed  into  the  Tigris,  361 
Haggai  the  prophet,  and  rebuilding  of  the 

temple,  177 
Hagar  and  her  son  Ishmail  expelled,  70 
llagarenes,  descendeil  from  Hagar,  70 

afterwards  called  Saracens,  76 

■ ,   or  Saracens,    expedition   of  Trajan 

against,  420 
Hai,  Eumencs  encamps  near  the,  382,  383 
Hiii,  Shatt  el,  canal  of,  61 
Haider-abdd,  the  apex  of  the  Delta  of  the 

Indus,  374 
,  present  mode  of  conveying  troops  to, 

376 
Haider-abad,  bund  of,  614 
Haiganians  (see  Armenians) 
Haik  or  Haicus,  representative  of  Japhet's 

line,  38 

,  father  of  the  Armenians,  33 

,  account  of  the  migrations  of,  38 

,  his  followers  commingle  with  those  of 

Ham,  38 

leaves  his  son  Cadums  at  Ararat,  39 

reaches  the  plain  ,of  Hare,  and  builds 

Haicasheu,  39 
,  his  followers  again  commingle  with 

those  of  Ham  and  Shem,  39 
,  battle  of,   with  Niuus  or  Bclus  II.  at 

Lake  Vau,  and  slays  him,  40 


742 


INDEX. 


Haik,  assumes  sovereignty  of  Armenin,  and 

death,  40 

succeeded  by  bis  son  Armenac,  40 

,  his  descendants,  41 

,  the  original  country  of,  was  Armenia, 

Major,  43 
Haikaniaus  (see  Armenians) 
Haines,  Captain,  I.  N.,  and  inscriptions,  82 
Hai'ts-d-sor  (see  Hare),  country  of,  30 
Hajdman',  or  Si'yaban,  estuary  of  the  Indus, 

course,  &c.,  of  the,  372,  373 
Hajar,  Nakb-el,  and  Himyari  inscriptions,  82 

,  inscriptions  found  at,  83 

Hajr  El ,  the  country  of  the  lost  tribe  of 

Thamud,  21 
Halegiin,  the  pass  taken  from  the  Uxii  by 

Alexander,  299 
Halicarnassus,  now  Boudrun,  besieged  and 

taken  by  Alexander,  266-269; 

,  the  birthplace  of  Hei'odotus,  528 

Halys  or  Kizil  Irmak,  the  10,000  sail  past, 

237 

,  Xenophon's  mistake  regarding,  238 

Ham,  roniaius  near  Mount  Ararat,  13 

,  idolatry  of,  15,  16  {note) 

— — ,  the  father  of  Canaan,  15 

,  first  possessions  of,  descendants,  &c., 

16-18 

,  three  principal  sons  of,  18 

,  or  Manes,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  founds 

the  Lydian  monarchy,  18 
renews    his    idolatrous    customs    at 

B-jblus,  19 

.  his  Cainite  wife,  19 

,  his  knowledge  of  astronomy  before 

the  flood,  19 
called  the  Patriarch  of  the  Deluge, 

19 
,  the  origin  of  the  worship  of  the  moon 

ascribed  to,  19 
,  also  called  Cronus,  and  worshipped 

by  the  Phoenicians  as  Beelsamen,  or  Lord 

of  Heaven,  19,  20 

,  the  migration  of  the  children  of,  20 

,  his  descendants  inhabited  the  country 

east  of  the  Jordan  and  the   Dead  Sea, 

21 
,  the  tribes  of  Emim,  Zuzim,  Kephaim, 

and  Zamzummim  were  descended  from, 

21 
Ramadan  (the  Median  Ecbatana),  reached 

by  Alexanders  army,  365 

,  Hephffistion  dies  at,  365 

taken  by  the  Arabs  under  'Othman,  455 

,  a  commercial  city,  581 

,   inscription    at,    relating    to   Darius 

Hystaspes  {Appendix  B.  and  1>.) 
,  inscription  at,  relating  to  Xerxes  {Ap- 
pendix C.) 
Hamath,  Solomon  built  the  store  cities  of, 

122 
Hamburgh  a  commercial  city,  580 
Hamilcon's  voyage  to  ]5ritain,  190 
Hamites,  principal  branch  of,  23 

eleven  generations  from  Adam  to,  23 

——  territory  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  about 

the  time  of  the  dispersion,  4,  23 


Hamites,  his  descendants  spread  to  Syria, 
Khuzistan,  Media,  Persia,  and  Central 
Asia,  32 

,  his  knowledge  introduced  into  India, 

China,  and  Tibet,  33,  34 

,  his  son  Phut  supposed  to  be  the  same 

with  Budd,  33 

.  commixture  of  the  sons  of  Japhet  with 

those  of,  35,  38,  39,  43 

,  his  sons  proceed  to  Africa,  45 

Indian  account  of  the  curse  of,  45 

,  his  territorj^  called  Cnsha-dwi'pa,  45 

,  his  descendants  were  called  Hasyasilas 

in  Sanscrit,  also  Hasyas  and   Habashi, 
46 

,  his  descendants  the  African  negroes 

or  Sukkims  of  Scripture,  46 

some  of,  remained  in  Arabia,  50 

,  traces  of  the  descendants  of,  found  in 

Arabia,  52 

Hanno's  exploratory  expedition  to  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  190 

Hanse  Towns  become  commercial,  586 

Haran,  called  after  Arphaxad's  son,  31 

,  and  Zobah  (Nisibis)  formed  the  Chal- 
dean kingdom  of  U'r,  48 

,  and  Abraham's  departure  for,  62,  63 

,  period  of  Abraham's  departure  for,  62, 

63 

,  Surena's  victory  over  Crassus  pro- 
bably near,  412 

f  march  of  Julian's  army  through  the 

plain  of,  434 

Harb,  nomad  tribe  of  Arabia,  448 

Hare,  plain  of,  39 

,  afterwards  called  Haits-d-sor,  39 

,  city  of,  40 

,  Mauavaz  remained  at,  41 

Harem  fortress  taken  by  Niir-ed-din  from 
the  Crusaders,  476 

Hareth-al-Eai'sh,  the  Himyarite,  and  his 
conquests,  SO 

Haripa,  the  ruins  of,  supposed  to  represent 
Sakala,  331 

Harirad,  or  mountain  of  descent,  7 

Harma,  son  and  successor  of  Gelam,  42 

fortified  Armavir,  42 

defeats  the  Madai  and  Babylonians, 

42 

Harmene  or  Armene,  the  10,000  Greeks  land 
at,  237 

Harmosia,  visited  by  Nearchus,  351 

Harpasus  and  the  10,000  Greeks,  231 

,  or  Tchuriik-sii,  or  Acampsis,  231 

Hartniott,  abbot  of  St.  Gallen,  encourages 
the  study  of  Arabic,  548 

Haruu-el-Kasliid,  general  of  Khaliph,  458 

,  conquests,  &c.,  of,  459 

,  his  pilgrimage  to  Mekkah  on  foot, 

459 

establishes  a  friendly  and  literary  in- 
tercourse with  Charlemagne  and  other 
European  princes,  459 

presented  Charlemagne  with  the  keys 

of  Jerusalem,  473 

receives  ambassadors  from  Charle- 
magne, 586 


INDEX. 


743 


Hasawin  river,  running  into  the  Pallacopas, 
3G7 

Ilasyasilas,  also  Ilasyas  and  Ilabashi',  Ham's 
dcscenthints,  4(i 

Jlattni,  the  Cliristians  defeated  by  Sahih-cd- 
din  at,  47'J 

Hnura,  El  (the  wliite  town),  formerly  the 
port  of  Leuce  Komi,  4 1 4 

Ilavilali,  the  gnuidsou  of  Ham,  his  posses- 
sions, 2,  18 

■ ,  or  Gjawilah,  a  leader  among    the 

Joktanites,  4'J 

,  from  wliom  the  district  of  Kaulun  is 

supposed  to  be  named,  50 

,  the  capital  of,  once  called  Esal  or  Osal, 

51 

Hazarraaveth,  Joktan's  tliird  son,  Hadra- 
raaiit,  was  probably  the  territory  of,  52 

Heber,  or  Houd,  father  of  Kahtiiu,  tomb  of, 
51 

,  children  of,  85 

Hebrew  mixed  language,  and  Syi'ian  cha- 
racter of,  84,  85 

derived  from  the  Chaldee  and  Arabic, 

85 

connected  with  the  Himyaritic, 

and  its  cognates,  85,  86 

Hebrews,  their  number  on  going  to  Egypt, 
71  ;  their  increase  causes  jealousy,  96,  97 

,  the  Pharaoh  who  oppressed  the,  97 

become  the  working  people  of  Egypt, 

97 

were    superintended   by    their    own 

officers,  97 

allowed  to  depart  from  Egjpt,  97 

,  their  probable  route,  98 

,  their  passage  of  the  Red   Sea  con- 
sidered, and  traditional  account  of,  99, 100 
,  the,  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  were 

not  so  advanced  iu  civilization  as  the 

Arabs,  100 
,  Jethro  imparts  to  them  the  civil  polity 

of  the  IMidianites,  100,  101 
,   system  of   government  adopted  by 

Moses  for,  101,  102 
,  appointment  of  the   priesthood,  and 

construction  of  the  tabernacle  by  the,  103 
,  route   of  the,   after   quitting  Mount 

Sinai,  lo.J 

the  JMekkah  caravan  partly   follows 

the  route  of  the,  104 

,  the,  rebel  against  Moses,  104 

defeated  by  the  Amaleldtes,  and  retreat 

to  Eziou-Geber  and  Mount  Hor,  104 

advance  to  the  foot  of  Pisgah,  104, 

105 

cross  the  Jordan,  105,  106 

,  extent  and  produce  of  the  country 

traversed  by  the,  105 
,   during  the  Exodus,  lived  like  the 

Arabs,  103 
expel  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan,  lOG 

are  subjected  by  Cushau-liishathaim, 

106 

,  termination  of  their  theocracy,  119 

,  David  chosen  king  of  the,  120 

,  Solomon's  reign  over  the,  121,  122 


Hebrews,  early  intercourse  of  the,  with  the 
Abyssinians,  123,  124 

,  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the,  132 

,  idolatry  adopted  by  tlie,  132 

,  wars  of  the  Assyrians  with  the,  138, 

139 

carried  captive  to  Assyria,  139-141  ' 

and   Zerd-husht's   (Zoroaster)   know- 
ledge, 183 
Hecatirus  studies  in  Egypt  and  Persia,  521 

,  the  first  Greek  historian,  522 

Hecatompylos,  the  ancient  capital  of  Parthia, 
305 

,  Alexander  concentrates  his  forces  at, 

305 

,  Alexander  marches  to  invade  Hyr- 

cania  from,  305 
Hedypuus,  erroneously  called  the  Hydaspes 
by  Herodotus,  147 

.  supposed  to  be  one  branch   of  the 

Kiiruu,  147  {note) 
Heddekel,  the  third  river  of  Paradise,  2 
Helepolis,  a  machine  used  at  ancient  sieges, 

394-396 
Heliacal,  or  Cynic  or  Canicular  year,  &c.,  1 1 
Heliogabalus,  invasion  of  the  lioman  terri- 
tories by  the  Persians  in  the  reign  of,  422 
Hellanicus  visits  Egypt,  &c.,  522 

,  v.orks  of,  522 

Hellespont,  named  after  Helle,  who  died  iu 
the  straits,  113 

and  Xerxes'  bridge,  191,  192 

,  recrossed  by  Xerxes'  army,  196 

,  Alexander's  army  crosses  the,  263 

Hellespoutiue  or  Bythynian,  the  satraps  of 

Pharuabazus,  243 
He'lmund,  or  Etymander  river,  Alexander 

at  the,  307 
Hema>us,  Mount,  where  Alexander  I.  de- 
feated the  lllyrians  and  Thraeians,  258 
Hephajstiou,  one  of  Alexander's  generals, 
323 

ordered  to  build  a  city  on  the  Akesines, 

334 

dies  at  Hamadan,  365 

Heraclea,  the  10,000  Greeks  disembark  at, 
their  discord  and  separation  at,  238 

,  Odeuatus  murdered  at,  426 

Heraclianus  defeated  by  Zenobia,  427 
Heraclius'   campaigns  v.ith  the    Persians, 

445,  446 
Herat  conquered  by  the  Siljukides,  470 

taken  by  Genghis  Kluui,  489 

stormed  by  Taimur,  492 

,  commercial  route  tlirough,  581 

Heratemis    canal    (probably    the     present 
Bander  Reicht),  and  Nuarchus'  lleet,  351 
Hercules'  (the  Tyrian)  route  from  Crete  to 
Spain,  96  (see  Arcles) 

cities  founded  by,  95,  96 

,  Alexander  consecrates  an  altar  to,  276 

,  son  of  Alexander  by  Barsine,  mur- 
dered by  Polysperchon,  391 
Hereford's  astronomical  tables,  561 
Hermanns'  Arabic  translations,  558 
Herodotus  born  at  Halicarnassus,  191 
,  travels  and  works  of,  528 


744 


INDEX. 


Herodotus,  aiid  the  fertility  of  Bahylonia, 

602 
Hertebe,  one  of  Miihammed's  instructors, 

452 
Heykab,  king  of  Armenia,  106 

subdued  the  Assyrians,  106,  107 

defeated  and  killed  by  Belock,  107 

Hesbun,  cistern  of,  6o9 

Hesidnis  (see  Sutlej) 

Hierapolis,  or  Eatnesis,  position  of,  98 

,  Julian's  forces  halt  at,  433 

,  Chosrocs  I.  levies  a  tribute  on,  443 

Hierates,  and  its  canal  Ileratemis,  station  of 

Nearchus'  fleet,  354 
Hieroglyphics,  general  use  of,  630 
Ilijdz,  Jurhani  or  Hadoram,  iniled  in  the, 

and  remains  of  the  lost  tribes  in,  51 
,  expedition  of  the  Tobbai  against  the 

Jews  of  the,  449 
Hillah,  trade  of,  G02 
Hillii,  defeat  of  the  Romans  by  the  Persians 

near,  431 
Himalaya,  a  part  of  the  Paropamisian  chain, 

309 

,  or  Indian  Caucasus,  369 

Himyar,  the  fourth   descendant  of  Peleg, 

52 

,  the  cotemporary  of  Abraham,  52 

,  his  posterity,  the  Bern'  Himyar,  52 

.  or  El  'Arfej,  succeeds  his  father  Saba, 

his  dynastj-,  80 

,  the  first  who  wore  a  diadem,  SO 

,  conquests  of  his  successors,  SO 

Himyari',  government  of  the,  SO 

,  conquests  of  the,  80,  81 

,  uuder  Abii  Kurinib,  founded  an  empire 

in  I'actria,  81 

kingdoms  of  Ghassan  and  Ili'rah,  81 

,  the,  possessed  almost  all  the  territory 

once  subject  to  the  Cushites,  81 

inscriptions  found  in  Arabia,  81,  82 

inscriptions  at  Mareb  and  'Aden,  &c., 

83 

,  and  character,  antiquity  of,  S3,  84 

character  probably  in  use  before  the 

Cuneatic,  84 
,  written  character,  and  its  affinity  to 

the  Devaniigari  Sanscrit,  82-84 

inscription  in  Yemen,  90 

character  in  use  among  the  Arabs  in 

Joseph's  time,  90,  91 

,  the,  powerful  in  Yemen,  449 

,  kingdoms  of    Ghassau   aud   Hirah, 

foundation  of,  449 

,  subdued  by  the  Abyssinians,  450 

Himyarites,  included  a  part  of  the  tribe  of 

Imlik  or  Amalek,  22 

,  seat  of  the,  50,  52 

,  the  Thafar  of  the,  49,  50 

,  Himyi'ir  progenitor  of,  52 

■ ,  and  extent  of  their  power,  81 

,  and  inscriptions,  81-84 

,  traces  of,  in  distant  countries,  84,  85 

,  probably  a  mixed  race,  pai'tly  shep- 
herds, 73 

and  Saban  the  same  people,  73 

Hiniyaritic  inscriptions,  028 


Hinderabi,  or  Indent bia  island,  Nearchus 

fleet  at,  353 
Hindiyeh  canal,  367 
,  new  cut  made  by  Alexander,  probably 

near  the,  367 
Hindu   Kush,  a  part  of  the  chain  of  the 

Paropamisus,  3U9 
,  Taimiir's  march  along  the,  494 

nation,  the    descendants  of  Mizraira 

founded  the,  30 

Hindus,    supposed    to    have   spread     into 

America,  508 
,    supposed    common    origin     of    the 

Egyptians  and  Persians,  509-51 1 

,  origin  of  Egyptian  doctrines,  527 

,  the,  a  trading  people  in  early  times, 

570 

,  manufactures  of  the,  571 

,  the  favourable  position  of,  for  general 

trade,  576 
Hingol   river,   probably    the    Tomerus    of 

Nearchus,  347 
Hinjiim,  or  Hanjam  island  (see  Angar,  or 

Angam) 
Hippalus  discovers  the  periodical  winds,  579 
Hippocrates'  medical   system  and  theories, 

532 
and  other  sages  connected   with  the 

literature  of  the  east,  539 
Hi'rah  added  to  the  Ilimyarite  territor}',  81 

,  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of,  449 

Hiram's  father,  also  called  Abii  Ba'al,  129 

,  the  acts  of,  129 

Hispal,  son  of  Arcles,  the  Tyrian  Hercules, 

128 
entrusted  M-ith  the  Phoenician  colony 

planted  in  Spain,  128 
Hispanus,  Joseph,  gives  the  Indian  notation 

and  algebra,  554,  555 
Hit,  Julian's  army  reach,  436 
boats,  and  tlieir  construction,  probably 

like  Noah's^ark,  636-639 
Hobab,  son  t>f  liuguel,  or  Jethro,  103 

becomes  the  guide  of  the  Israelites, 

103 

Holofemes,  general  of  Nabuchodonosor,  148 

,  derivation  of  the  name,  149  {note) 

,  his  army  organized,  149 

,  his  army  progress  to  Cilicia,  150,  151 

dies  before  Bethuliah  (Safet),  151 

Homerita;  and  Saba^i,  the  same  people,  46, 

47 
Horns,  (see  Emessa) 
Hor,  Mount,  retreat  of  the  Israelites  to,  104 

,  Aaron  died  at,  104 

Horeb,  departure  of  the  Israelites  from,  103 

Horites,  time  of  Abraham,  76 

,  now  the  Urhu,  and    once  the  Oritaj 

country,  343 
,  Alexander's  army  march  through  the 

desert  tract  of  the,  343 

,  in-oductions  of  the  country  of  the,  343 

Hormalr,  the  Israelites  are  defeated  at,  104 
Ilormiirah  (see  Malana) 

,  or  'Arabah  bay,  347 

Hormisdas,  successor  of  Sapor  over  Persia, 

430 


INDEX. 


745 


Hormisdas  sends  presents  to  the  Romans, 

430 
,  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  his  brother, 

and  takes  service  nnder  Constantius,  434 
commands  the  Koinaii  cavalry  on  the 

invasion  of  IVrsia  by  Julian,  484 

,  son  and  successor  of  Ciiosroes  I.,  444 

,  wars  between  the  Romans  and  Per- 
sians under,  444 

,  Veraues'  rebellion  against,  444 

Iloshea,  king  of  Israel,  140 

,  captivity  of  the  ten  tril^'S  of  Israel 

during  the  reign  of,  140,  141 
— —  endeavours  to  resist  the   Assyrians, 

140 
llospitalliers,  the,  defeat  the  Templars,  4S5 
lluiakii  governs  Persia,  491 
Hungary  partly  conquered    by  the    Turks 

under  Sultan  Sulei'mun,  500 
Hungarian    army   of    Crusaders    land    at 

'Akkii,  484 

,  expeditions  of  the,  against  Egypt,  484 

Hungarians  settle  in  Europe,  514 

Huns,  descendants  from  the  Cushites,  32 

,  origin  and  extension  of  the,  4(J8  i 

,  Tartar  branch  of  the,  called  Mongols, 

487 

,  the,  settle  in  Europe,  514 

Hurrekee,  junction  of  the  Hyphasis  with 

the  Sutlej  at.  370 

,  with  the  Chimib  near,  370 

Hnseiu,   chief   of  Khorasan,   defeated   by 

Tairaiir,  492 
Hydaspes,  erroneously  called  Hedypnus  by 

Herodotus,  147 

,  the  Bidaspes  of  Ptolemy,  324 

,  Alexander  crosses  the,  325-327 

,  Alexander  returns  from  the  Hyphasis 

to  the,  334 
,  fleet  prepared  by  Alexander  on  the, 

334 
,  source,  course,  and  tributaries  of  the, 

370,  371 

,  the  present  Jailum,  or  Behnt,  370 

Hydraotes,  tlie  fleet  of  Alexander  descend 

the  Akesiues  to  the  confluence  of  these 

two  rivers,  335 

,  source  and  course  of  the,  371 

,  -or    Hyarotes    (the    modern   Iraotu, 

Iravatr,  or  Ravi),  330,371 
Hyksos,  people  of  the,  73,  74 
,  probable  time  of  their   inroad  into 

Egypt,  Ike,  74 

,  Manetho's  account  of  the,  74,  75 

Hyparua  taken  by  Alexander,  200 

Hyphasis,  course  of  the,  370 

-^ — ,  the  upper  part  of  the  river  Beas  falls 

into  the  Sutlej,  370 
of  Alexander,  represented  by  the  Beas, 

370 

,  junction  of  the  Chinab  with  the,  370 

Ilyrcania,  now  Mazanderan,  305 

,  Alexanders  invasion  of,  305 

Hystaspes,  Xerxes'  second   son,   satrap  of 

Bactriana,  198 
defeated  by  his  younger  brother  Arta- 

xerxes,  l'i8 


Iberia  an  important  Phcenician  colony,  9(". 
Iberians,  the  descended  from  Japhet,  38 
lehthyophagi   teiTitory   reached    by   Near- 

chus,  347,  350 

,  food  used  by  the,  350 

,  length  of  their  coast,  350 

Iconium  reached  by  Cyrus'  army,  209 
Idaphar  Dhafar,  a  royal  residence  of  the 

Hiniyarites,  81,  82 
Idolaters  of  Babel,  27 
Idolatry  in  the  time  of  Enos,  15 
'  in  Noah's  family,  15 

of  Ham  explained,  15  (note) 

,  Ham  renews;the  ante-diluvian,l5,l  G,19 

,  spread  of,  over  Syria,  Greece,  Baby- 
lonia, and  Arabia,  IG 

of  Ninirnd  prevails,  25 

towards  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign,  32 

became  established  in    Syria,  "when 

colonists  were  sent  from  Babylon,  141 

Idumea,  and  its  state  of  civilization,  time  of 

Job,  79 
Idumeans,  their  conduct  at  the  defence  of 

Jerusalem  agaiast  Titus,  417 
II,  a  name  given  to  Cronus  or  Ham  by  the 

Phecniciaiis,  20 
lias,   now  Chiroo,   on   the  Persian  shore, 

passed  by  Nearchus's  fleet,  353 
righiin  probably  represents  Tyriacum,  208 
lUyrians  subjected  by  Philip,  254 

and  Thracians  defeated  by  Philip,  255 

.Alexander's  first  campaign  against 

the,  258 
• ,   vain  attempt  to  overcome  the 

Macedonian  phalanx  by  means  of  wag- 
gons. 258 

cause    Alexander's    return  from 


the  campaign  against  the  Goths,  &c.,  259 

defeated  near  their  capital,  259 

,  Alexander  dictates  peace  to  the,  259 

Iloarudun  of  Ptolemy,  or  Evil-Merodach, 

161 
Imlik  (see  Amalek) 

Irama,  Zenobia  defeated  by  Aurelian  at,  427 
Imports  of  Mosul  in  1835  and  1841,  595 

{Appendix  JS.) 
and  exports  to  England  from  Constan- 
tinople, 595  {Appendix  F.) 
from  the    Indian    presidencies  to  the 

gxdfs   of  Persia,   Arabia,   &c.,  588,  589 

{Appendix  If.) 
Inachus  came  from  Egypt,  and  founded  a 

kingdom  at  Argos,  112 
luderab,  or  Anderab,  probal)ly  Drepsa,  and 

Alexander's  march  to  the  Indus,  319 
Indi,  the  Magi,  Brahmins,  &c.,  descended 

from  the,  33 
,    their    territory    corresponded    with 

Ghi'zni,  308 
,  the,  send  back  Barzajntes,  the  mur- 
derer of  Darius,  306,  308 
India  under  the  Himyarites,  81 
■ ,   Ophir  considered  to  have  been  in, 

123-127 
,  ships  depicted  in  the  temples  of  Egypt, 

124,  125 
Sophir,  the  Egyptian  name  for,  120 


746 


INDEX. 


India  composed  of  three  provinces  tinder  the 

Assyrians,  133 

paid  tribute  to  I'ran,  133 

subjected  by  Feri'diin  or  Arbaces,  1 33 

partly  subdued  by  Darius,  ISO 

,  Alexander's    conquests    between  the 

Indus  and  Hyphasis,  320-331 

,  Alexander's  route  towards,  319,  320 

campaign  against  the  Aspii,  &c., 

<    319,  320 

,  cattle  sent  to  ^Macedonia  by  Alexander 

from,  320 

,  Alexander's  advance  into  central,  331 

,  its  early  trade  with  Tyre,  Phceuicia, 

Egypt,  See,  340 
,  sources  from  whence  Alexander  de- 
rived his  knowledge  of,  340 

,  Alexander's  original  project  included 

commerce  as  well  as  the  conquest  of,  338, 
339,  341 

,  Seleucus  invasion  of,  and  treaty  with 

Sandrocottus,  396,  397 

,  JIahmiJd  Ghi'zni's  campaigns  in,  469 

subdued  by  Taimur,  494 

invaded  by  the  Persians  under  Nadir 

Shah,  497 

,  expedition  of  the  Turks  to,  501 

,  spread  of  religion,  &c.,  from  Bactria 

to,  50  7 

,   Marco  Polo  and  Vasco  de  Gama's 

travels  to,  534 

,    Genoese    and    Venetian    commerce 

with,  534 

,  Jenkinson's  overland  journey  to,  534 

,  trade  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  with, 

534 

,  Benjamin  of  Tudela's  travels  to,  534, 

535 

,    Napoleon's      proposed      expedition 

against,  535-537 
,  direct  voyage  to,  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, 580 

first  reached  by  sea,  589 

,  route  to,  through  the  Persian  Gulf, 

589 

overland  trade,  decline  of,  599 

Presidencies,  and  trade  to  the  Persian 

and  Arabian  Gulfs,  588,  599  (^Appendix 
H.) 

trade  with,  from  Constantinople,  595 

Indian  literature,  &c.,  from  Assyria,  34 

account  pf  the  curse  of  Ham,  45 

language  had  a  common  origin  with 

European  languages,  86 

caravan  trade,  125 

. philosophy,     &c.,     introduced    into 

Europe,  309,  310,  and  Chap.  XVII. 

' people  spread  eastward,  571 

trade  with  Ceylon,  576 

vessel  found  on  the  coast  of  Arabia,  576 

trade  with  Persia,  57(5-578 

tea  trade  in  the  time  of  Semiramis,  576 

fleet  from  ^Nlyos  Ilormos,  580 

and  Arab  trade  by  sea  and  land,  584 

trade  to,  through  the  Euxiuc,  586 

commerce  by  sea,  501 

temples  pyramidical,  G07 


Indians,  Cushites  called  the  ancestors  of,  33 
,  the,  derived   their  knowledge  from 

Iran,  507 
Indus,  Scylax's  voyage  down  the,  180 
,  vessels  on  the,  in  the  time  of  Semira- 
mis and  Alexander,  576 
,  route  of  Alexander  from  Zariaspa  to 

the,  319-323 
,  Alexander  crosses  by  a  bridge  of  boats 

built  by  his  generals,  323,  324 
,    Alexander  postpones  its    descent  to 

march  against  Poms,  324 
f  Alexander  marches  through  the  coun- 
try of  the  Oxydracaj  to  the,  338 
.   town    built  on   the,  with   docks   by 

Alexander,    at   the    confluence    of   the 

Akesines,  338 
,   Alexander   halts  at  the   upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  Delta  of  the,  338 
,  the  descent  of  the,  one  of  the  objects 

of  Alexander's  expedition,  341 
,  Alexander  builds  a  haven  and  docks 

at  Pattala,  on  the,  342 
,  Nearchus  acquires  a  knowledge  of  its 

sources,  &c.,  344 
,  the  fleet  leave  Pattala  and  descend  the 

Coreatis,  345 
,  also  called  the  Singzing-kampa,  or 

Eckhung-choo,  369 
,  its  magnitude  after  receiving  the  rivers 

of  the  Panj-ab,  371 

,  enters  the  sea  by  six  mouths,  372,  373 

,  proofs  that  great  changes  have   oc- 
curred, as  regards  the  estuaries  of  the,  373 
,  time  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  river, 

and  best  seascm  to  enter  its  estuaries,  374 
,  description  of  the  boats  used  on  the, 

375 
,  present  mode  of  conveying  troops  to 

Haider-abad,  on  the,  376 
,  how  the  difficultjjof  crossing  the  bar 

could  be  overcome,  376 
,  the  apex  of  the  Delta  of,  possibly  near 

Haider-abad,  374 

,  the,  passed  by  Taimwr,  494 

Indian  trade  through  Egypt,  5S8 
Indigitation  of  the  Arabs,  546 
Indo-Chinese  settlements  from  I'ran,  506, 

507 

philosophy,  that  of  Plato,  526 

Inscriptions  in  the  Himyari  character  found 

in  Yemen,  &c.,  81 
in  the  Himyari  character  discovered  on 

the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  82 

,  &c.,  found  at  Khorasbad,  136,  137 

in  the  tomb  of  Cyras  {Appendix  A.) 

at  Persepolis  andllamadun,  regarding 

Darius  Hystaspes  {Appendix  B.) 

at  Bisutuu  {Appendix  IJ.) 

relating  to  Xerxes   and  the  building 

of  Persepolis  {Appendix  C.) 
Ionia  added  to  the  satrapy  of  Cyrus,  203 
Ionian  invasion  of  Darius'  territory,  182 

cities   freed   from   the  Persian  yoke, 

197 

colonies  freed  from  the  rule  of  Phar- 

uabazus,  244 


INDEX. 


747 


lonians,  the,  descended  from  Javan,  44 

Iphigenia  of  Taiiris,  573 

Ipsiis,  defeat  and  death  of  Aiitigonus  at  the, 

y'J7 

.  result  of  the  battle  of,  398 

'Inik  Arabi,  inhabited  by  the  Syrians  or  As- 
syrians, 31 
subdued   by   the    Arabs  under  Abii 

l?ekr,  454 

under  'Abd-el-M;Uik,  457 

the  Seljukides  under  Togrul  Bci,  470 

Ajeiui  a  conunorcial  country,  581 

I'nin,  called  Kusdi  Khor;is;in  or  Kiish,  32 
,  situation  of,  convenient  for  intercourse 

M  ith  India,  China,  &c.,  33 
,  the  Assyrian  or  Cushite  dominion  in, 

133 
occupied  by  Afrisiab,  king  of  Turan, 

who  is  expelled  by  Zal,  133 

,  I.oo,  or  [>oah,  succeeded  Zal,  over,  134 

,  sages  from  the  west  came  to  acquire 

philosophy  in,  310,  and  Chap.  XVII, 

,  early  trade  with,  310 

,  Seleucus'  march  to,  397 

and  Persia,  Seljukian  government  of, 

473 
,  Indian  and  Chinese  knowledge  derived 

from,  507 

architecture,  sculpture,  &c.,  of,  GO! 

Iravati,  Iratou,  or  Ravi,  or  Hydraotes,  335 

Irbid,  cistern  of,  fJIJO 

Ireland  colonized  from  Carthage,  190 

called  Holy  Island,  190 
,  Sree  and  his  followers  proceed  from 

Egypt  to,  511 

colonized  from  Asia,  513 

,  colonies'from  Spain  and  Barbary  settle 

in,  514 
•,  the   Tuatha   De   Daniinn  connected 

with,  514 
Iris  (Yechil  Irmak),  the  10,000  Greeks  sail 

past,  237 
,  the  mysteries  of,  founded  on  those  of 

Egypt,  518 
Irish  and  Welsh  coracles,  C41 
Irka,  Irke,  or  Irka,  the  temple  to  the  moon 

at  Erech,  25,  20 
Iron,  early  use  of  this  and  other  metals,  129 
I'sa  canal,  ditch  cut  by  Artaxerxes  between 

the  Median  wall  and  the,  210 
Isaura,   fortress  in   Cappadocia,  taken  by 

Perdiccas,  381 
Isauria    invaded     by     the    Arabs    under 

'Othm'in,  455 
Is-haki  canal,  012 
Ishuiael,  and  time  of  his  birth,  67-69 

and  Hagar  sent  away,  70 

,  his  marriage  with  Jlozauz,  or  Mod- 

haudh,  70 
,  bis  descendants  and  EI  Arab  Mos- 

tearibe,  70 
,  his  name,  and  thatof  Ilagar,  preserved 

among  the  people,  70-7(5 
,  his   daughter,    Bashemath,    marries 

Esau,  70 
Ishmaiilites,  and  other  Arabs,  76 
,  since  called  Saracens,  76 


Iskender  Acbar,  passage  of  thc^  Euphrates 

at  Thapsacus,  285 
Iskenderiin,  port  of,  Aleppo,  595 
Isniu'i'l  Shiih,  first  of  the  Sophi  dynasty  of 

Persia,  497 
establishes  the  Shi' ah  faith  in  Persia, 

497 
Ispahan  revolts,  and  massacre  of  the  people 

by  Taimiir,  492 
Israel  separated  from  Judah  during  Reho- 

boam's  reign,  and  Shechera  the  capital, 

132 
purchased  peace  from  the  Assyrians, 

and  wars  against  Judah,  138 
invaded  by  Shalmaneser,  or  Arbiancs, 

in  Hoshea's  time,  140 
,  So,  or  Sabacus,  becomes  the  ally  of, 

140 
,  the  remaining  seven  tribes  of,  carried 

captive  to  Assyria,  14ti,  141 
Israelites,  the,  exodus  of,  confounded  with 

the  departure  of  the  shepherds,  75 
Issus,  Cyrus'  army  reach,  and  fleet  at,  211 
,  city  of,  taken  by  Alexander's  general, 

Parmenio,  269 
Ister,  or  Danube,  crossed  by  Darius'  army, 

181 
,    crossed    by    Alexander   below 

Widdin,  259 
Italy  renowned  for  schools  in  the  time  of 

Charlemagne,  547 
Italy,  Rhodean  trade  with,  573 
,  Greek  colonies  trade  with,  574 

Jabbah,  a  Moorish  cement,  027 
Ja'ber  castle  taken  from  the  Crusaders,  476 
.Jaihtin  (Pyramus)  crossed  by  Cyrus,  211 
Jiimash,  brother  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  his 

knowledge  of  astrology,  &c.,  189 
Janizaries,  Urklau  organizes  the  corps  of, 

498 
Japhet    occupied    the     western    side    of 

Armenia,  13 
-,  his     descendants    spread    the    ante- 
diluvian idolatry  over  Greece,  16 
,  commixture  of  the  sons  of  Ham  with 

those  of,  35-38 

,  his  possessions  and  descendants,  38-44 

,  Haik,  representative  of  the  line  of,  38 

,  his  descendants,  the  Madai,  defeated, 

42 

migrate  from  Armenia  Major,  43 

people  Europe,  43,  44 

Japhetians,  another  name  for  the  Haika- 

nians,  41 
Jask,  town   of,   probabl)'  represents  Badis, 

where  Nearchus  found  stores  of  com,  wine, 

&c.,  for  his  fleet,  350 
Javan,  progenitor  of  the  lonians  and  Greeks, 

44 
Jaxartes  river,  various  names  of,  312 
,  Alexander  wounded  in  an  action  near 

the,  312 

,  mistaken  for  the  Tanais,  312 

,  the  Sogdians,  &c.,  revolt  on  hearing 

of  Alexander  s  intention  to  build  a  city  on 

the,  313 


748 


INDEX. 


Jaxartes  river,  Alexander  crosses  and  de- 
feats the  [Scythians  drawn  up  on  the 
bauksof  the,  314 

,  battle  between  Miihammed  Kothbed-  | 

din  and  Genghis  Ivhiin,  near  the,  489  { 

,  or  Gihon,  crossed  by  Taimur,  493 

,  civilization  spread  from  the  banks  of  ] 

the,  507  j 

Jear,  or  Jar,  the  second  Chaldean  month,  6    I 
Jebel  Jiidi',  critical  position  of  the  10,000  \ 
Greeks  near,  225 

Imariyeh,  416 

Jebus,  Jerusalem.David  besieges,  and  makes 

it  his  capital,  120 
Jebusitcs,&c.,  originators  of  a  branch  of  the 

Berbers,  455 
Jehoiakim  ransoms  Jerusalem  from  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 155 

rebels  against   Nebuchadnezzar,   and 

death,  157 
Jehoiakin,  Jehoiachin,  or  Jechoniah,  son  of 
Jehoiakim,   carried  captive  to  Babylon, 
157 

released  by  Evil-Merodach,  161 

Joktan,  migration  of  the  sons  of,  49 

,  leaders  selected  by  his  descendants, 

49 

,  places  named  after  the  sons  of,  51 

Jelalpoor,Alexander  crosses  the  Jailum,  pro- 
bably between  Derapoor  and,  324 < 
Jeukinsou's  overland  journey  to  India,  534 
Jerah,  probably  Yarab  ben  Kahtan,  51 

,  possessions  of,  51 

Jerd,  Eas,  or  Cape  Certes,  the  headland  of 

Tarsias  passed  by  Nearchus's  fleet,  353 
Jerid,  a  lance  used  by  the  Arabs,  455 
Jen'm  and  Himyari  inscriptions,  SI,  82 
Jeroboam,  on  the  division,  rules  over  Israel, 
132 

induced  the  Egyptians  to  invade  the 

kingdom  of  Judah,  132 
Jerum,  a  town  near  the  landing  place  of 

Alexander,  on  the  Hydaspes,  330 
Jerusalem,  once  Solyma,  66 

,  the  capital  of  Judah,  132 

plundered  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egyyt, 

132,  133 

,  destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army 

before,  142,  143 

ransomed      from      Nebuchadnezzar, 

155 

,  Pharaoh  Necho  levies  a  contribution 

upon,  155 
,  first  and  second  siege  of,  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 157 

again  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 

spoiled,  158 

,  city  and  temple  of,  destroyed  by  Ne- 

buzar-adan,  158 

,  Cyrus'  decree  to  rebuild  the  temple  of, 

170 

,  the  fire  of  the  temple  of,  compared 

with  that  of  the  Magi,  170 

,  Cyrus  restores  the  spoils  taken  from 

the  temple,  171 

,  foundation  of  the  second  temple   of, 

172 


Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans  attempt  to  stop 
the  building  of  the  temple  of,  172 

,  completion  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 

temple,  177,  178 
,  Esdras  permitted  by  Ahasuerus  to  re- 
turn to,  199 

,  Alexander's  visit  to,  280,  281 

,   knowledge   of  the  east,   Alexander 

must  have  acquired  from  the  archives  of, 
340 

,  Ptolemy  Philopater's  visit  to,  403 

,  Temple  of,  plundered  by  Crassus,  408 

,  the  siege  and  capture  of,  byTitus,  417, 

418 
,  or  Al  Kuds,  'Omar's    conquests  'ex- 
tend to,  455 

,  facilities  given  to  pilgrims  visiting, 

472 

,   Harun-el-Eashid     presents    Charle- 

magne^ith  the  keys  of,  473 

,   treatment  of  the  Christians  by   the 

emir  Ortok,  473 

becomes  subject    to    the  khaliph    of 

Egj-pt,  475 

captured  by  the  Crusaders,  475 

establishment  of  the  Latin  kingdom 

of,  475 

taken  by  Saluh-ed-di'n,  479 

.  Saliih-ed-di'n  improves  the  condition 

of,  480 

retained  by  Sahih-ed-diii  on  the  peace 

with  Richard  I.,  483 

taken  from  Al  Assaal  by  Al  Malik  Al 

'Adel,  484 
,  conditions  on  which  the  Franks  occu- 
pied, 484 

entered  by  the  Karismians,  485 

,  the  Muslims  get  possession  of,  4SG 

Jesus  Christ,  advent  of,  in  ^the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, 416 
Jethro,  or  Eaguel,  instructs  Moses  in  Ara- 
bian polity,  100,  101 

,  his  son  Hobab  guides  the  Israelites,  103 

Jews,  Cyrus'  decree  concerning  the,  170 
who  return  with  Zerubbabel  to  Jeru- 
salem from  Babylonia  and  Susiana,  171 

during  the  reign  of  Darius  complete 

the  building  of  the  temple,  177,  178 

permitted   by  Ahasuerus  to  return  to 

Jerusalem,  199 
,  their  intended  punishment  by  Alex- 
ander averted,  and  how,  280 
,  gi'anted  certain  privileges  by  Alex- 
ander, 281 

,  the,  rebel  against  the  Romans,  416 

,  Cucstus  GalTus  sent  against  the,  416 

,  final  dispersion    of  the,  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  417,  418 

employed  in  Arabic  translations,  555- 

557 

,  black  of,  Malabar,  578 

Jibbah,  or   Pombeditha,   probably  Barax- 

malkii,  436  (note) 
Job  (and  thejdukes  of  Edom  in  connexion 
with,  76,  77 
— ,  and  probable  situation  of  the  land  of 


INDEX. 


749 


Job,   his  friends,  and   tlioir  journey  from 

Iduniea,  77 

,  Ills  trial,  and  its  probable  epoch,  78 

,  his  jirobablo  age  at  the  time  of  his 

trial,  78 
and  the  localities  connected  with  his 

history,  78,  71) 

,  and  period  of  his  death,  79 

,  and  advanced  civilization  in  his  time, 

79,  80 
Jonas'  pillar,  SakdlTiitan  (Beard  Catcher), 

Cyrus  at,  211 
Joppa  and  Gaza  subjected  by  Antigonus, 

389 

taken  by  Vespasian,  417 

Jorak  (see  Tchdriik-sii) 

Jordan,  the  river,  passed  by  the  Israelites, 

105,  106 
Jorham,   or  Jurham  tribe,  and  Ishmael's 

marriage,  70 
Joroft,   a  mercantile  depot   in   Khordsan, 

582 
Joseph  carried  into  Egypt,  71 

,  time  of,  and  social  state  of  Egypt,  7 1 

Josephus  relates   the  cause   of  Abraham's 

departure  from  U'r,  C2 
and  other  writers  give  the  period  of 

Abraham's  departure  for  Haran,  f'3 
Jotapata,  or  Safet,  the  Bethulia  in  the  book 

of  Judith,  151 
besieged   and  taken    by  Vespasian, 

417 

Jovian,  chosen  by  the  Romans  to  succeed 

Julian,  440 

continues  the  retreat,  440 

makes  peace  with  Persia,  440,  441 

Jailum,  or  Behut,  formerly  the  Hydaspes,  or 

Bidaspes  (see  Hydaspes),  324,  370 

,  town,  supposed  site  of  Bucephala,  371 

,  branch  of  the  Hydaspes,  source,  course, 

and  tributaries  of  the,  371 
Jubeil,  once  Byblus,  more  recently  Gebal 

of  the  Ammonites,  IS  (note) 
Juda,  kingdom  of,  formed  of  the  tribes  of 

Judah  and  Benjamin,  132 
,  invaded  by  Pul,  or  Sosarmus,  king  of 

Assyria,  138 
,  purchase   money    paid    to    Pul    by 

Mcnahem,  king  of,  138 
■ ,  Polyhistor's  account  of  Pul's  invasion 

of,  13B 

,  Tiglath-Pileser's  conquest  of,  138, 139 

,  the  inhabitants   carried  captive  into 

Assyria  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  139 
calls  on  Assyria  for  assistance  against 

Israel  and  Syria,  139 
is  invadird   by   the  Assyrians    under 

Sennacherib    during    Hezekiah's    reign, 

142 
,  sum  paid  to  Sennacherib  by,  as  the 

price  of  peace.  1 42 
almost  subdued,  and  the  capital  in- 
vested. 142 

aided  by  an  Egyptian  army,  142 

Juda;us,  the  king  who  succeeded  Porus,  140 
was  succeeded  by  Merodach  Baladan, 

140 


Judah,  tribe  of,  returns  to  rebuild  Jerusa- 
lem, 171 
Judea,  called  Khananea,  C4 

separated  from   Israel  during   Iveho- 

boam's  reign,  132 

,  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  invades  and 

plunders  it,  132 

invaded  by  the  Assyrians,  148 

invaded  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  1 55 

again  invaded  and  laid  waste,  158,  159 

Judith,  book  of,  supplies  parts  of  the  history 

of  Assyria,  148 
Julian  appointed  by  Constantius  governor  of 

Gaul,  432 

declared  emperor  by  the  soldiers   at 

Paris,  433 

his  preparations  for  the  invasion  of 

Persia,  433 

,  his  march  to  Edessa  and   Carrha?, 

433,  434 
crosses  the  Khabiir,  434 

encounters  a  hurricane  near  Anatho, 

435 

defeats  the  Persians,  437 

besieges  and  captures  Perisaboras,  437 

advances  through  Mesopotamia,  438 

,  his  fleet  pass  along  the  Nahr  Malka  to 

the  Tigi-is,  438 
,  his  retreat  from  Ctesiphon  and  death, 

439 
Junk,  the   Chinese,  suited 'for  trade,  C50, 

651 
Jupiter  Belus,  the  temple  on  the  summit  of 

the  Tower  of  Babel  dedicated  to  him,  26 
,  Alexander  consecrates   an  |altar  on 

the  battle-ground  of  the  Issus,  276 

,  temple  in  Tyre  to  the  OljTnpian.  278 

Jurham,  or  Hadoram,  brother  of  Ya'rab  ben 

Kahtan,  and  ruler  of  the  Ilijiiz,  51 
Justinian's   campaigns  with   the  Persians, 

442,  443,  444 
Juwah,  one  of  the  six  mouths  of  the  Bayar 

branch  of  the  Indus,  372 

Ka'ba,  veneration  for  the,  retained  in  the 

Koran,  453 

,  the  fair  at,  and  centre  of  trade,  581 

Kabana,  Nearchus'  fleet  encountered  a  storm 

at,  347 
Kabul  river,  its  junction   with  the  Indus, 

369 

,  trade  to,  from  Orenburg,  596 

,  commercial  route  through,  581 

river  crossed  by  rafts,  636 

Kaderd,  first  Seljukian  prince  of  Kinnan, 

473 
Kadesh,  once  Enmishpat,  66 
Kadhani,    or    Kel.^ni,    the    Chaldeans"    or 

Syrians'  name,  derived  from  their  capital 

Calwadha,  2 

,  probably  the  Nabatheans,  31 

Kadisiyeh,  remains  of  the  Median  wall  near, 

221 

,  battle  won  by  Omar  at,  455 

Ktidun  Khan,  Cyrus'  army  pass,  209 
Kaffa,  ancient  Thcodosia,  on  the  Black  Sea, 

587 


750 


INDEX. 


Kahtiin,  migrations  from  Babylonia  of  the 

sous  of,  49 
,  intermixture  of  the  lost  tribes  with 

the  descendants  of,  51 
,  tribes  still  bearing  the  name  of,  and 

where  located,  51 
,  tomb  of  the  patriarch,  51 

his  father  was  Heber,  or  Houd,  51 

'  his  descendant  'Abd-el  Shems,  52 

>  his  descendants  civilize  Arabia,  85 

Kahtan,  Beit-el,  dwelling  of  Kahtiin,  51 
,  El,  nomad  tribe  of  Arabia,  448 

,  a  part  of  the  fixed  inhabitants  of 

Arabia  from,  449 
Kahtanites,  designated  by  their  descendants 

pure  Arabs,  5 1 

,  Yarab  ben  Kahtan  ruled  over  the,  51 

.  the,  possess  Arabia,  49,  50 

Ka'ifa  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475 
Kaisan'yeh,  a  proposed  depot  of  trade,  601 
Kajah,  an  ancient  mouth  of  the  Indus,  373 
Kajar,  dynasty  of  Persia,  497 
Kaklan,  successor  of  'Abd-el  Shems,  52 

,  tribes  descended  from,  52 

,  the  Himyaritic  government  founded 

by  a  descendant  of,  52 
Kakuree,  on  the  Indus,  370 
Kal'ah,  ruins  of,  (i06 

Sherkat,  or  U'r, 

Kalama,  a  station  of  Nearchus'  fleet,  348 

Kaldai,  or  Kelani  Chaldeans,  31 

Kal'eh  Erig  ruins  represent  Ragau,  or  Rha- 

ges,  148 
Kalneh,  excavations  of,  GIO 
Kama,  or  Kooner  river,  probably  the  Khoes, 

reached  by  Alexander,  319 
Kanasis  and  Kanates,  stations  of  Nearchus' 

fleet,  349 
Kanat  or  Kahreez,  655,  656 
Kandahar,  or  Alexandropolis,  307 
reduced  by  Genghis  Khiin,  489 

conquered    by    the    Persians    under 

Nadir  Shiih,  497 

Kangiiwar,  or  Chaone,  365 
Kaptshak  (see  Kiptshak),  490 
Kariichee,  passed  by  Alexander,  342 
,  situation,  trade,  productions,  &c.,  of, 

345 
,  the  island  opposite  to,  probably  Kro- 

kala  of  Nearchus,  345 

,  proposed  canal  to  the  Indus,  376 

Karaftu,  Mithraic  caves  of,  (i08 

Karagul  mountain,  from  which  the  Euxine 

is  visible,  233 
Kara  Hisar,  formerly  Melangona,  498 
,  opening  for  British  manufactures  at 

(^Appendix  JV.) 

Kapvi,  pass  secured    by   Alexander, 

269 

Kilisa,  the  10,000  Greeks,  230 

Korum  mountains  in  Tibet,  309 

Kara-si,  district  of  the  Seljukiau  dynatfty  in 

Anaduli,  497 
Karii-sii,  crossed  by  Cyrus'  army,  213 
,  or  Teleboas,  falls  into  the  Murad-su, 

227 
Kara-suma  passed  by  Taimur,  493 


Kardkaban,  the  Colchians  oppose  the  Greeks 

near,  234 
Karbis,  place  visited  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  348 
Karej,  a  kind  of  cement,  626 
Karismians  enter  Jerusalem,  485 
Karkh  of  Samarrah,  station  for  Mu'tasem's 

army,  465 
Karnine,  island  visited  by  Nearchus,  re- 
presented by  Ashtola,  348 

,  a  resort  of  the  Jawasi'mi  pirates,  348 

Karroon  (see  Neoptana) 

Karshi  (see  Nautaka) 

Kariin,  the  Pasitigris,  probably  the  river, 

356 
,  Nearchus'  fleet  ascends  the  Pasitigris 

or,  356 

,  former  bed  of  the,  356 

,  crossed  by  Alexander  on  his  return 

to  Susa,  358 

river  and  its  trade,  601  (Appendix  IV.) 

I  Proper,  probably   represents  the  Eu- 

Iseus,  361 
Karura,  or  Kabura,  the  Ortospana  of  Strabo, 

Alexander  marches  to,  in  pursuit  of  Bessus, 

308 
Kashgar  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457 
Kaspatyrus,  town  on  the  Indus,  369 
Kasr,  of  Babylon,  its  substructure  and  orna- 
ments, 615 
Kataderbis,  lake,   a   station   of  Nearchus' 

fleet,  354 

,  represented  by  Khor  Musa,  354 

Kattias,  formerly  the  Catha;i,  331 

,  the  origin  of,  331 

Katiil,  Al  Mutasem  forms  a  camp,  and  builds 

a  palace  at,  465 
Kaulan,  Khaulan,    or    Khaalan,    probably 

named  from  Havi'lah  (see  Ilavilah)  50, 

51 
Kayf,  origination  of  the  'Osmauli  Turks, 

497 
Kazd(see  Kelani),  2 
Kebbiiu  Ma'den  and  the  mines,  79 
Kedje,  or  Chodda,  Alexander  marched  from 

the  borders  of  the  Orita;  by,  343 
Kefiyeh,  the  headdress  of  the  Arab,  454 
Keif,  Tel,  the  10,000  Greeks  reach,  223 
Keiliiu,  or  Sirwiin  (see  Celonae) 
Kefs  (see  Kenn),  353 

Kelani,  Kadhani,  or  Kazd,  the  Chaldeans,  2 
,  the  Cushite  Chaldeans,  or  Chastlim 

amalgamated  in  Babylonia  with  the,  55 
Kelishi'n,  pass  of,  612 
Kenn,  or  Keis,  probably  Catsca  passed  by 

Nearchus'  fleet,  353 
Kera'i'tes,  Genghis  Khan  seeks  protection 

from  the,  487 
Kerasiin  Dereh-sii,  235 
Kerasunt,    formerly   Cerasus,    the    10,000 

Greeks  arrive  at,  235 
,  position  of  the  ancient  city  of  Cerasus, 

235 
Kerghis   Kazaks,  primitive  astronomy   of 

the,  10 
Kerkiik,   the   city   of  Memuis,  passed  liy 

Alexander,  29(i 
Kerim  Khaia  of  Persia,  497 


INDEX. 


751 


Kermdnshdh,  remains  at,  filS 

Kersus,  or  IMcrkcz-sii'i,  211 

Kc-tura,  or  Tour,  wife  of  Abraham,  70 

,  liis  sons  and  their  territory,  70 

Khiibu'r,  river  of  Mesopotamia,  probably  the 

Arbonai  of  the  book  of  Judith,  151 
,  the  Persians  first  defeated  by  the 

Ixoniaus  on  the,  424 

-,  crossed  by  Julian's  army,  near 


Circesium,  434 
Khadijeh,  wife  of  Muhammed,  451 
Khai,  ancient  mouth  of  the  Indus,  373 
Khaled  Beni',  or  the  Chaldeans,  55 

,  Bern',  nomad  tril)e  of  Arabia,  448 

,  Yezi'd  Ibn,  khaliph  of  Arabia,  458 

Khalis  canal,  612 

Khan,  one  of  the  six  mouths  of  the  Bagar 

branch  of  the  Indus,  372 
Khan  of  Khans,  title  of  Genghis  Khiin,  488 
,  or  Tangiis,  title  given  to  the  chief  of 

the  Huus,  4G8 
Khananea,  now  Judea,  64 
Kharir-su  (see  Bumadus) 
Kharism  subdued  by  Genghis  Khan,  4S9 
Khiwah  and  Ah'shtai  pasture  grounds,  pro- 
bably the  Nisaean  plains,  365 
Khazars  and  their  commerce,  582 
K'he'di'wuri,  estuary  of  the  Indus,  373 
Khezail  and  Qualem  tribes  have  the  boats 

at  Lamliim,  642 
Khinda,  Taimur's  war  against  the  Khan  of, 

492 
Khitan,    or  Khitay,  original  seat  of  the 

Mongols,  4C8 
Khiva  and  Tashkend,  trade  to,  596 
Khoes,  the,  probably  the  Kama,  or  Kooner, 

river,  319  (jwte) 
Khogend  (see  Cyropolis) 
Khordsan,  the  Arabs  under 'Othmau  advance 

to,  455 

' subjected  by  the  Arabs.  457 

subdued  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

subdued  by  Taimur,  492 

,  Taimur's  descendants  expelled  from, 

by  the  Uzbecks,  496 

,  commerce  of,  581 

and  Damascus  steel,  621 

Khoriaba,  battle  of,  456 

Khorram-abiid,  once   Diz    Siyah,   or  Kiih 

Siydh,  the  derivation  of  Cosscean,  3G5 

,  the  principal  seat  of  the  Cossceans,  365 

Khorsabdd,   Mr.  Hector's  account   of   the 

remains  found  at,  136  {note) 
was  evidently  destroyed  by  fire,   137 

{note) 
Khuryan  Muryan,  or  Kartdu  and  Martan, 

language  of  the  Beni  'Ad  spoken  at,  50,  51 
Khusi,  Beit  el  50 
Kiepe,   or  Ke'fken  'Adasi,  formerly   Port 

CalpnD,  239 
Kimmerians,  the,   came  from  Mseotis,  and 

settled  in  Europe,  511 

,  the,  succeeded  by  the  Scythians,  511 

Kin,  province  of  China,  invaded  by  Genghis 

Khdn,  489 
Kinghan,  or  Siolki  mountains,  a  part  of  the 

Paropamisian  chain,  309 


Kinnisrin  retaken  from  the  Crusaders  by 

Niir-ed-dm,  476 
Kiptshak,  names  of  princes  who  ruled  over, 

490 
,  and  the  dynasty  of  the  White  Horde, 

490,  491 
,  defeat  of  the  Khdn  of  the   Golden 

Horde,  and  subjection  by  Eussia  of  the 

kingdom  of  the,  491 

■ ,  Taimiir's  campaign  against  the,  493 

defeated  by  Taimiir,  494 

Kiptshaks,  or  Tartars,  from   Oghur  Khdn, 

the  descendant  of  Japhet,  469 

conquered  by  Genghis  Khdn,  488 

,  or  Kaptshak,  territory  conquered  by 

Batii,  490 
Crimea,  or  the  Golden  Camp,  the  seat 

of  government  of  the,  490 
Kir,  the  Israelites  carried  captive  to,  by  the 

Assyrians,  139 
,  Kur,  or  Cyrus,  and  a  tributary  of  the 

Araxes,  139  (note) 
Kirghis  Kazaks,  and  their  trade  with  liussia 

and  China,  596 
Kirmdn,  Alexander  marches  to,  and  is  joined 

by  Craterus,  344 
,  commencement  of  the  Seljukian  go- 
vernment of,  473 
Kizil  Irmdk,  or  Halys,  the  10,000  Greeks 

sail  past,  237 
Kobi,  or  Gobi,  desert  of,  572 
Koha  and  Yarkund,  trade  to  Russia,  596 
Kohhtan,  town  of,  51 
Kohik  (see  Polytimetus  river),  314 
Kokala,  probably  Mahee  Makacc,  the  capital 

of  the  Oi-itaj  country,  reached  by  I^Jear- 

chus'  fleet,  347 
Kolta,  a  station  of  Nearchus'  fleet,  348 
Ku'niyeh,  victory  of  the  Turks  over  'Ald-ed- 

drn,  near,  498 

,  proposed  depot  for  trade,  601 

Kophas,  or  Kophanta,  the  fleet  of  Nearchus 

reach,  349 
Kophen,    probably   the   Kabiil,    passed  by 

Alexander,  319 
,  Taxiles  brings  presents  to  Alexander 

at  the,  319 
Kopri  Keni,  the  10,000  Greeks  cross  the 

Phasis,  probably  near,  230 
Korah  and  his  companions  destroyed,  104 
Koran,  tenets  inculcated  in  the,  451-453 
,  the  diffusion,  beneficial  effects  of  the, 

454 

,  the,"and  its  study,  543 

,  ti-anslated,  557 

— — ,  the,  encourages  commerce,  596 
Koreish,  expedition  of  Abrahah  against  the, 

450 
,  the,  then  the  guardians  of  the  Ka'ba, 

450 
,  the,  Muhammcd's  tribe  averse  to  the 

new  faith,  453 
Kothbeddin    ruler    of   Kharism,    Genghis 

Khan's  campaign  against,  4S9 
Koushan,    Alexander's   army    entered   the 

Paropamisian  mountains  by  the  pass  of, 

311 


752 


INDEX. 


Krokola  island,  reached  by  Ncarchus'  fleet, 

345 
Kuchuk-Kainargf,  treaty  of,  503 
Kuds,  Al  (see  Jerusalem),  455 
Kiifah,  the  khaliph  'All,  retires  to,  and  is 

murdered  at,  456 

,  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Muslims,  4G4 

Kiikewari,  estuary  of  a  branch  of  the  Indus, 

373 
Kumiirhan.  and  inscriptions  at,  G29 
Kurdistan,  the  10,000  Greeks  enter,  224 
,  description  of  their  march  through, 

225-227 

,  gall  nuts  from.  {Appendix  iV.) 

Kurghan-Tippa,   probably  the   hill  fort  of 

Oxyarta,  317 
Kurrub,  Ahii,  king  of  the  Himyarites,  81 

founds  an  empire  in  Bactria,  81 

,  Asaad  Abii,  king  of  the  Tobbai,  449 

,  conquests  of,  449 

Kusdi  Khorasiin,  derived  from  Khous,   or 

Ham,  IS 
,  Phut,  a  son  of  Ham,  the  sovereign  of, 

18 
Kusdi  Kabgokh,  or  Chus,  of  the  Caucasus, 

35 

,"  territory  of  the  Chasdim,  35 

,  position,  &c.,  and  other  names  for,  35 

Kusdi,  ancient  Albania  was  once  called,  35 
Kiish,    Shus,   or  Kushasdau  (laud  of  the 

sun),  5 
,    the     name   of,    was    carried    into 

Khiizistan  on  the  spread  of  the  Cushites 

eastward.  32 

,  once  the  name  for  Persia,  32 

,  countries  to  which  the  name  of,  was 

applied,  32 
Kushanians,  the  people  of  Persia,  32 
Kusi,  Beni  50 
Kuzari,  naU-headed  characters  of  Georgia, 

33 
Kwan-Yiin,  the  temples  in  China  dedicated 

to,  15 
Kyiza,  fleet  of  Nearchus  anchors  near,  349 

Laborosoarchodns,  son  and  successor  of  Neri- 

glissar,  163,  assassination  of,  163 

,  succeeded  by  Belshazzar,  163 

Labynetus,  of  Herodotus,  Belshazzar,  103 
Lacedajmonians,  fleet  sent  to  assist  Cyrus, 

204 
,   engage  the  services  of  the   10,000 

Greeks  against  Tissaphemes,  241 
,   send    a    force    under   Agesilaus   to 

Ephesus,  245 
,  preparation  of  Tissaphemes  against 

the,  245 
,  plunder  Pharnabaziis'  territory,  and 

defeat  Tissaphemes  on  the  river  Pactolus, 

245 
enter  into   a  truce  with  Tithraustes, 

245 
,   campaign   against    Phamabazus    in 

IVilhynia,  246 

,  army  recalled  to  Lacedajmon,  246 

tieet  defeated  by  Phamabazus    near 

Cnidus,  246; 


Lacsedemonians   defeat  Phamabazus   near 

Coronea,  246 
proposals  of  alliance  to  Artaxerxes, 

246 
furnished  with  money  by  Teribazus, 

247 

rescript  of  Artaxerxes  to  the  Greeks, 

■    247 

Lachish,  a  fortified  city  of  Judea,  142 

Ladik,  Cyrus'  army  pass,  209 

Lakhim,  Beni,  descended  from  Kaklan,  52 

Lamlu'm  canal,  612 

Language,  Hebrew,  from  the  Chaldee  and 

Ai-abic,  85.' 
,  the,  of  the  Asiatic  races  had  a  com- 
mon origin,  506  » 
of  tht  Indians  and  Mongolians  have  an 

affinity  to  those  of  America,  509 
resemblance  of  the,   of   Europe  and 

Asia,  511 
Languages,  various,  derived  from  the  Him- 

3"aritic,  84 
,  the  Hebrew  connected  with  the  Him- 

yaritic,  85 

,  Sanscrit,  Pehlavi,  and  Greek,  85 

,  from  a  primitive  source,  and  modified 

in  various  climates,  S3 
Laranda,  stronghold  in  Cappadocia  taken 

by  Perdiccas,  381 
Laristan,  route  of  Alexander's  army  from 
.'   Kermdn  to,  557,  558 
Larissa,  the  10,000  Greeks  arrive  at,  222 
,  probably  represented  by  Ashur,   or 

Nimriid,  and  the  Kesen,  or  Al  Resen  of 

Scripture,  222 
Latin,  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  established, 

475 
Lazian  territory  invaded  by  the   Persians 

under  Veranes,  444 
Learned  men  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 

centuries,  565 
Learning,  &c.,  introduced  into  Europe  from 

the  east,  545 

,  Arabic,  cultivated  in  Andalusia,  552 

Lebanon,  its  name  supposed  to  be  derived 

fi'om  a  descendant  of  Cain,  4 
Leh,  or  Li,  town  on  the  Indus,  369 
Lelex,  who  came  from  Egypt,  settled  on  the 

river  Eurotas,  112 

,  the  Spartans  the  descendants  of,  112 

Leonidas,  Alexander's  present  of  spice  to, 

282,  283 
Letters,    Chaldaic,    Indian,   Arabian,    and 

PhccniciaUj  appear  to  have  had  a  common 

origin,  86 
Leuee  Komi  (see  El  Haura)  ' 

Leuco-Syrians,  also  called  Chrysor,  36 

,  territory  and  arts  of  the,  36 

Levant  Company,  charter  to  trade  to  Baby- 
lon, 534 
,  or  Turkey  Company  established,'590- 

593 
,  and  countries  to  which  they  used  to 

trade.  592,  593  {note) 

,  decline  of,  594 

Company,  French,  decline  of,  594 

Libnah,  a  fortified  city  of  Judea,  142 


INDEX. 


'53 


Liiiptec,  or  Seechoo,  triltutary  of  the  Indus, 

Limis  worshipped  in  Scjthia,  518 

,  his  philobopliy,  the  sphere  iuvented  by 

him,  518 
Lisliiin  becomes  the  commercial   depot  of 

Indiii,  589 
Literature,  advancement  of,  under  Hariinei- 

Kashi'd,  459 
and    pliilosophy    encouraged    by    AI 

Miinnin,  4G0,  4()1 
,  &c.,  of  the  Greeks,  derived  from  the 

east,  515-517 

becomes  the  pursuit  of  the  Arabs,  543 

Loan  to  the  Levant  Company  from  Queen 

Elizabeth  to  be  repaid  in  goods,  592,  593 

{iwte) 
Logs  and  rafts,  C33 
Longinus  executed  by  Aurelian,  429 
Loo,  or  Loah,  ruled  over  SeisUin,  134 
,  probably  Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  who 

invaded  Judea,  134 
Lot  separates  from  Abraham,  G5 

rescued  by  Abraham,  Mi 

,  his  flight  from  Sodom  to  Bela,  and 

intended  "sons-in-law,"  (j8,  09 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  leader  of  the  sixth 

Crusade,   is  defeated   in  Egypt,  and  re- 
turns to  France,  485 
leads  another  Crusade,  lands  in  Africa, 

and  dies  at  Tunis,  485 
Lucilianus's  brave  defence  of  Nisibis  against 

Sapor  II.,  431,  432 
LucuUus's  campaign  in  Armenia,  40G 
Lulua,  city  of,  taken  by  Al  Mamiui,  4C0 
Lundye,    river,   probably    the   Guzseus,  or 

Euaspla,  320 
Lycaonia,  Cyrus'  army  marches  along  the 

plains  of,  209 
Lyeia,  Alexander's  conquest  of,  207 
Lvcus,  or  Great  Zab,  Darius  crosses  the, 

"287 
Lydia,  rise  and  progress  of  the  kingdom  of, 

114,115 
,  Assyria  subdued  by  i?elus,  a  king  of, 

115 
,  Ninus  succeeds  Belus  as  king  of  As- 
syria, and,  115 
,  about  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  be- 
comes a  uiaiitime  power,  and  Jissisted   to 

spread  knowledge  westward,  119 
,  Teribazus  restored  to  the  government 

of,  248 
Lydian  monarchy  founded  by  Jupiter  Am- 

mon  or  Ham,  18 
Lydians,  the,  defeated  by  Cyaxares,  152 
— — ,    the,   are    besieged    in  JMiueveh    by 

Nebuchadnezzar,  156 
and  Babylonians  defeated  by  Cyrus, 

163 
Lysimachns  proclaims  himself  king,  392 

,  his  victories  over  Autigonus,  397 

,  extent  of  territory  of,  after  Autigonus' 

death,  393 

Macedonia    more    advantageously    placed 
than  Greece,  252 

VOL.  II. 


Macedonia,  geographical  position  and  advan- 
tages of,  252 

,  patriarchal  government  and  limited 

power  of  the  monarch  of,  252,  253 

,    Philip,   son  of  Amyntas,  gains  the 

government  of,  253,  254 

,    civil    and  military   state    of,   under 

Alexander,  257,  25S 

invaded  by  the   Illyrians  and  Tau- 

lantians,  259 

Macedonian  kingdom,  rise  of,  251 
frontier,  provinces  and  outposts,  253 

phalanx  organized  by  iPhilip,  254 

■ conquests,  time  of  Philip.  2.^4-250 

power,  compared  with  that  of  Persia, 

257 
Macedonians,    like  the    Greeks,   were   de- 
scended from  Danaus.  253 
,  manners  and  religion  similar  to  the 

Greeks,  253 
Maceta,  now  Coomza,  and  Nearchus'  fleet, 

3.50 
Macharis.  son  of  Mitbridatcs  II.,  as.MSts  the 

Romans  in  the  invasion  of  Armenia,  407 
Machrochir,  or  Longimanus,  and  see  Arta- 

xerxes,  or  Ahasuerus,  198 
Macrones   were  Cushites,  and  probably  a 

portion  of  the  Chasdim,  36 
Macronians,   the,  treats    with    the    10,000 

Greeks,  233 
Madai,  a  section  of  Japhet's  descendants, 

defeated  by  Aram,  42 
Madates,  the  Uxian,  opposed  Alexander,'299 
Madu-i-Solei'nu'in,  tomb  of  Cyrus  visited  by 

Alexander,  and  ordered  to  be  repaired, 

358 
Mseauder  crossed  by  Cyrus  on  a  bridge  of 

boats,  205 
Magi,  the  origin  of,  33 
,  the,  spread  eastward,  and  from  them 

came  the  Brahmins  of  India,  503 
slaughtered  by  the  Scythians  at  Balkh, 

183 

.  religious  tenets  of,  183,  184 

Magia,  Julian's  army  at,  43o 
Magian  fire,  and  that  in  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, 170        •■ 
Magisra  makes  progress  in  Greece,  527 
Magog,  the  progenitor  of  the  Scythians,  44 
Magnesia,  and  lo.^s  of  Xerxes'  fleet,  1 0  1 
Mahee  Makace.  probably  Kokala,  •".47 
Mahmiid  Ghizui,  his  conquests,  469 

defeated  by  Togrul  Bei,  470 
and  the  Seljukian   territory  divided, 

473 

II.  of  Turkey,  and  the  Russian  in- 
vasion, 503 

secedes  teiTitory  to  Russia,  and  changes 

adopted  by,  503,  504 
Mah-Sabadan,  modern  name  of  the  plain  of 

Arioch,  147  {note) 
Majorca  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457 
Makri,  once  Telmissus,  267 
Maktiiah    Shatt  el  (cut   river),    by   which 

Nearchus'  fieet  reached  Susa,  357 
.  once   connected    the  rivers  Kukhah 

and  Kariiu,  357 

3  D 


754 


INDEX. 


Malacca,     coast    of,    probably    represents 
Ophir,  126 

,  distances,  and  time  required  for  the 

voyage,  126.  127 

Malana    or    Honnarah    (Ras    Malm),    the 
western  limits  of  the  Oritae,  347 

,  reached  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  347 

Malatiyah,   districts  of,  comparatively  un- 
known till  1831,  12 

,  specimens  of  the  arts  in  the  time  of 

Semiramis  found  near,  115 

burnt  by  Chosroes  I.,  444 

,  inscriptions  at,  629 

Malazkerd,  battle  gained  by   Alp   Arslan 
near,  470 

Malik,  Ahd-el,  conquests  of,  457 

■ '  Shiih,  son  and  successor  of  Alp  Ar- 
slan, 470 

,  separation  of  the  empire  on  the  death 

of,  473 

Malka,  Nahr,  canal  attributed  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  object  in  cutting  the,  160 

Malka,  Nahr,  crossed  by  the  10,000  Greeks, 
219 

,  Trajan  commenced  the,  419 

,  why  abandoned  by  Trajan,  420 

• i ,   Severus'   tleet  passes  from   the 

Euphrates  into  the  Tigris,  by  the,  421 

Julian's  fleet  passes  by  the,  into 


the  Tigris,  438 

— ,  canal,  612 


Malm  Malana,  Ras  347 

Mall,  one  of  the  six  mouths  of  the  Indus, 

372 
Malli,  and  Alexander's  march  against  the, 

330 
Malli,  situation  of  the,  335 

,  remains  of  the  race  at  Multan,  335 

,  Alexander's  campaign    against   the, 

335-337 
,  Alexander  wounded  by,  when  assault- 
ing their  city,  337 

,  the,  submit  to  Alexander,  338,  341 

Mallithiin,  or  Multan,  335 
Mallus  (see  Misis),  211 
Malothas,  ^lius  Gallus  at,  415 
Mamre,  plains  of,  chosen  by  Abraham,  65 
Mamiin,  Al,  second  son  of  Hariln-el-Rashi'd, 
portion  of  the  empire  allotted  to,  459 

succeeds  his  brother  Amin,  460 

encourages   literature  and  philosphy, 

460 

,  his  liberality  to  his  physician,  462 

succeeded  by  Al  Mu'tasem,  462 

,  his  attempt  to  reconcile  the  Sunnies 

and  Shi'ahs,  464 

employed  Turks  in  his  army,  464 

Mamu'n,  Al,  encourages  Arabic  literature, 

550 
Manas  Sorowar  lake,  or  Mepang,  369 
Manasseh  carried  captive  to  Habylon,  146 
Manavaz,    brother    of   Armenac,   and   the 

Manavazerans,  41 
Manawi'yah  and  remains  of  a  canal,  pro- 
bably that  cut  by  Alexander,  368 
Mandrocles  prepare  a   bridge  of  boats  for 
Darius  to  cross  the  13osphorus,  181 


Manes,  son  of  Jupiter,  supposed  to  be  Jupiter 

Ammon,   or    Ham,    founds  the    Lydian 

monarchy,  18  {note) 

,  or  Menes,  possibly  Noah,  114,  115 

Mangalore  Muzeris,  port  of,  576 

Manijd,  branch  and  estuary  of  the  Indus, 

373 
Manikjala,  or  Taxila,  324 
Manister  Grange,  (near  Limerick),  suppo- 
sition concerning  the  primeval  structures 

at,  15 
Mankat  and  Himyari  inscriptions,  80 
Mansourah,  defeat  of  the  Crusaders  at,  485 
Mansur's,   Ibn,   work  on  precious   stones, 

531 
Mantinea,  battle  of,  248 
Manufactures,  British,  sought   in  Western 

Asia,  630 
Maozar  Malka,  town  on  the  Nahr  Malka, 

taken  by  Julian,  438 
Marah,  'Ain,  and  the  route  of  the  Israelites, 

99 
Maracanda,  or  Samarkand,  capital  of  Sog- 

diana,  312 

,  Alexander  halts  at,  312 

,  and  the  siege  of,  314,  315 

Marant,  or  Maranta,  tombs  of  Noah  and  his 

wife  at,  40,  41 
Mar'ash,  the  third  Armenia,  comprised  the 

present  piishalik  of,  43 
,  and  Napoleon's  proposed  expedition 

against  India,  536 
Marathon,  defeat  of  Darius'  army  at,  187, 

188 
Marathus,  or  Mariamc,  a  Phoenician  port  in 

the  government  of  Aradus,  276 
Marco" Polo  travels  to  India,  533,  534,  587 
Mardi  subdued  by  Alexander,  302-305 
,  territory  added  to  the  satrapy  of  the 

Tapuri,  305 
Miirdin  submits  to  Taimur,  494 
,  proposed  place  of  trade,  594,  601  {Ap- 
pendix i\'l) 
Mardonius    sent  with    a   fleet   to   subdae 

Greece,  result  of  the  expedition  of,  186, 

187 
left  in  Thessaly  by  Xerxes  to  complete 

the  war,  196 
,  his  march  through  Bceotia  and  Attica, 

196 

killed  at  the  battle  of  Plataea,  196 

Mareb,  Mariaba  (see  Meroe),  47-50 

the  ancient  Sab;i,  called  Ard-es-Saba, 

inscriptions  found  at,  and  bund  at,  83 
,  probably    the    Marsyaba    of   iElius 

Gallus,  415 
,  the  Sabean  city,  a  great  mercantile 

depot,  124,  570 
Maree  village,  on  the  Indus,  369 
Margastana,  near  Dcrah,  island  of,  met  by 

Nearchus,  354.  355 
Margiana,  and  Alexander's  advance  into,  317 
,  Antiochia  Margiana  built  in  by  Alex- 
ander, 317,' 
Marseilles  receives  tin  from  Britain,  57G 
Marsyaba,  also  Marsabii,  probably  Mareb, 

or  Saba,  taken  by  the  Komane,  415 


INDEX. 


755 


Marsnphus,  or   El  Mnrophus,  the  rcpntcd 

founder  of  Damascus,  fit 
Martel,  Charles,  defeats  the  Moore  in  Franc*, 

4oS 
MartyroiH)lis  (MjatUrekiu)  submits   to  the 

Koniaus,  444 
M:isabadan,  whose  capital  was  Samarrah, 

3G4 
Masca,  river,  crossed  by  Cyrus,  214 
Masis  and  Mesezousar,  or  mountain  of  the 

Ark,  7 
,  district  around  Ararat  called  "  foot 

of  Masis,"  41,  42 

,  named  the  country  of,  42 

Masula,  name  of  the  Paropamisos,  309 
Massabatice,  of  Sti'abo,  the  plain  of  Arioch, 

&c.,  147  {note) 
Massageta?,  Cyrus   the   Great   slain   when 

lighting  against  the,  173 

invade  the  Persian  territory   in  the 

time  of  Sapor  II.,  432 

Massageta%  trade  with,  573 

Materials  for  writing  of  various  kinds,  630 

Mattaniah  (see  Zedekiah),  157 

Mauri,  or  Moors,  45G 

,  expedition  of  against  Spain,  457 

Maurousa,  Manausa,  or  Macauja,  and  battle 

at,  between  the  liomansand  Persians,  439 
Mu-wera-1-nahr,  or  Sogdiana,  312 

conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457-467 

Mazaca.  city  built  by  Meshak,  43 

,  afterwards  Csesarea,  or  Gaysarey,  43 

,  probably  represents  Moloj'us,  150 

Mazaeus,  a  general  of  Darius  at  Arbela,  2SS, 

292-294 

delivers  up  Babylon  to  Alexander,  296 

appointed  satrap  of  Babylon  by  Alex- 
ander, 298 
Mazaga,  or  Mazoga,  people  of,  defeated  by 

Alexander,  and  treacherously  treated  by 

him,  321 
Mazanderan,  once  Hyrcauia,  305 

subjected  by  Taimur,  492 

Mazanes,  governor  of  Oaracta,  352 
Mazigh  and  Moorish  dialect,  456 
Mechanics  and  geometry  derived  from  the 

east,  530 
Medes,  the,  descended  from  Japhet,  38 
,  Aram,  the  descendant  of  Haik,  wars 

with  the,  42,  43 

,  the,  occupy  part  of  Cappadocia,  43 

Media  only  a  satrapy  of  Assyria,  135,  141 

,  Dejoces  raised  to  the  throne  of,  146 

,  rebellion,  defeat,  and  death  of  Phra- 

ortes,  the  successor  of  Dejoces,  146-148 

again  revolts  on  the  death  of  Nabu- 

chodonosor,  151,  152 

,  and  the  Scythian  inroad  into,  152 

recovered  by  Cyaxares,  1 52 

,   and    hostilities    with    the   Persians 

caused  by  Evil-Merodach,  161,  162 
and  Persia  become  the  Medo-Persian 

empire  under  Cyrus,  172 
,   Alexander's   route    to,    from    Susa, 

364,  365 
,  route  of  Antigonus'  retreating  from 

Babylonia,  385 


Media,  and  Antony's  harassing  retreat,  414 

vavagetl  by  the  Pereians  under  Arta- 

xerxes,  423 

Median  and  Assyrian  dynasties,  according 
to  Ctesias,  135 

,  historical  difficulties  of  the,  135 

wall,  the,  reached  by  the  ten  tliousand 

Greeks,  220 

,  discussions  regarding  the,  220  {note) 

,  remains  of  tlie,  221 

Medical  theories  of  Galen,  Hippocrates,  and 
the  Chinese,  &c.,  531,  532 

Medici,    Lorenzo   de,    encourages    eastern 
literature,  565 

Medicine,  Dioscorides'  knowledge  of,  531 

introduced  from  Arabia  into  Spain  by 

Constantiuus,  558 

Jledina,  and  settlement  of  Jews  at,  449 

Medjd-el-'Aridh,  probably  tlae  Ararence  of 
Strabo,  415 

Megabyzus,  a  general  of  Darius,  181 

,  during  the  reign  of  Artiixerxes,  sent 

against  Egypt,  200 

Megasthenes,  another  name  for  Evil-Mero- 
dach, 161 

Megiddo,  and  defeat  of  Josiah  by  Pharoah 
Necho,  155 

Meiddn  Alie  bank  met  by  Nearchus,  355 

INIekkah,  the,  caravan,  partly   passes  over 
the  route  of  the  Israelites,  104,  105 

,  and  war  of  the  elephant,  450 

,  pilgrimage  to,  by  Hariiu-el-Rashid,  459 

,  commerce  of,  581 

Melangena  (now  Kara  Hisar),  captured  by 
'Osman,  498 

Melchizedek  supposed  to  be  Shem,  66 

Melchizedek's  early  settlement  at  Salem,  17 

,  the  great  high  priest  at  Salem,  and 

ruler  of  the  Shemites  considered  as  Shem, 
27 

Memnis,  or  Kerkiik,  and  Alexander's  march, 
296 

Memnon  served  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  119 

,  general  of  Darius  Codomanus,  263 

,  and  his  command  under  Darius,  265 

defends  Halicarnassus  against  Alex- 
ander, 265, 266 

retreats  to  Cos,  266 

,  his]'  project  to  cut  off  Alexander,  and 

places  taken  by,  268 

dies  before  Mitylene,  and  is  succeeded 

by  Pharnabazus.  268 

,  his  widow  Barsine.  and  Alexander's 

son,  murdered  by  Polysperchon,  391 

Memnonia  at  Thebes  erected  by  Ameuophis, 
107 

Memphis,  seat  of  government  of  the  shep- 
herds, 73 

,  one  quarter  of,  occupied  by  the  Tyrian 

merchants,  92 

Memphis,  Psammeticus.  king  of  Egypt,  sub- 
mits to  Cambyses  at,  1 74 

Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  138 

,  purchases  peace  of  Pul,  138 

,  liis  warwitli  Judah,  138 

Menes  introduced  reliuement  iiito  Egypt,  89, 
90 

3  d2 


756 


INDEX. 


Menon  turns  the  Cilician  gates  and  plunders 
Tarsus,  209 

induces  the  Greeks  to  cross  the  Eu- 
phrates, 213 

and  others  beheaded  by  Artaxerxes, 

222 

Mentz,    archbishop  of,   goes  to  the   Holy 

Land,  473 
Mepang.  or  Manas  Sorowar,  lake  and  sources 

of  four  noble  rivers,  309 
Mercantile  establishments  in  London,  58S 

iu  France,  589 

Merchants  settle  in  Constantinople,  586 
Merkez,  castle  near  the  Syrian  gates,  211 
Merkez-siii',  or  ancient  Kersus,  211 
Meroe,  Miireb  and  Mariaba,  once  Saba,  47 
,  probably  named  Saba,  from  Seba,  son 

of  Cush,  50 
,  or  Saba,  probably  the  Sheba,  whose 

queen  visited  Solomon,  123 
Meroe  founded  by  the  Cushites,  73 
Meru  conqiaered  by  the  Seljukides,  470 
Merv,  route  through,  572,  581 
Merw-el-Bud,  ou  the  Murgh-ab,  formerly 

Alexandria,  &c„  317,  318 
Mesambria,  peninsula   of  Nearchus,    near 

Sous  Poshoor,  or  Cape  Bang,  354 
Mesha,  probably  Mekkah,  49 
Meshak  built  Meshok,  afterwards  Mazaca 

and  Caesarea,  or  Gaysarey,  43 
Meshech,  posterity  of,  in  Cappadocia,  43 
,  from  whom  the  Muscovites  are  de- 
scended, 44 
Mesjid-i-Madreh  Suleiman,  possibly  Pasar- 

gada,  301 
— — ,  translation  of  the   inscriptions,    301 

(note,  and  Appendix  A.') 
Mesjid  'Ah'.  613 

Mesjid-i-maderi-Suleiman,  607,  618,  619 
Mesopotamia,  the  principal  seat  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Shem,  17,  48 
,  the  Shemitic  Chaldeans  on  the  steppes 

of,  53 
— — ,  language  of  the  Chaldeans  used  in,  53 

,  Abraham's  departure  from,  63 

,  Upper,  probably  the  principal  seat  of 

the  Shemitic  people,  77 

and   friendly   intercourse    with    the 

Shemites  of  Arabia,  &c.,  77 

,  a  separate  government  from  Assyria, 

under  Cushan-Uishathaim,  106 

,  purity  of  worship  in  the  time  of  Ba- 
laam in,  186 

,  Cyrus'  march  across  the  desert  of,  214 

,  and  Alexander's  march,  284,  285 

■ ,  Xenactas  carries  the  war  into,  4U3 

,  Mithridates,  obtains  possession  of,  405 

invaded  by  Crassus,  407 

declared  a  Roman  province  by  Trajan, 

420 

invaded  by  the  Parthians,  and  cam- 
paign of  the  lionians  under  Severus,  421 

ravaged  by  the  Persians  under  Sapor, 

423-425 

subjected  by  Zenobia,  427 

,  Upper,  Persians  defeated  in,  by  Gale- 

rius,  430 


Mesopotamia  invaded  by  Sapor  IL,  431,  433 

,  and  march  of  Julian's  forces  through, 

438 

,  and  retreat  of  the  Romans  through , 

441 

,  and  its  trade.  454 

,  and  Salah-ed-dm's  campaign,  478 

subjected  by  Genghis  Khiin,  489 

Upper,  subjected  by  Tainiu'r,  493 

,  its  advantages  equal  to  Egjpt,  602 

Mesopotamian  commerce,  582 

and  Assyrian  remains,  604 

canals,  antiquity  of,  612 

wool  {Appendix  N.) 

Mespila,  or  IVIessila  (the  site  of  Nineveh), 
the  Greeks  reach,  223 

Messene,  island  in  the  Tigris,  taken  by  Tra- 
jan, 420 

Messila,  or  Mespila,  of  Zenophon,  222 

Messomordacus,  king  of  Babylon,  145 

Metals,  use  of,  by  the  ancients,  617 

Methrines,  satrap  of  Armenia,  under  Alex- 
ander, 297 

Mexican  pyramids,  607 

Midianites  and  other  Arabs,  since  called 
Saracens,  76 

,  advanced  state  of  their  civilization  at 

the  time  of  the  exodus,  100 

Midianitish  polity  imparted  to  the  Israelites 
by  Jethro,  100,  101 

Milan,  Chaldean  district,  near  the  Centrites, 
226  (note) 

Milesian  commerce  and  colonies,  574 

Miletus  taken  by  Alexander,  and  escape  of 
the  Persian  fleet,  265 

Miltocythes,  desertion  of  the  Thracians  to 
Artaxerxes,  under,  218 

Minara,  formerly  Pinara,  267 

Mineralogy,  the  eastern  knowledge  of,  531 

Minerva,  and  altar  consecrated  by  Alex- 
ander, 276 

Mines  and  excavations  of  the  Chalybes 
and  Egyptians,  615,  617 

Mines,  explosive,  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes 
by  Suleiman  IL.  396 

Minnow,  or  Anamis  river,  351 

Minorca  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457 

Misr,  city  and  castle  of,  fortified  by  Salah- 
ed-dih,  477 

Misi's,  the  Jaihan  crossed  by  Cyrus,  pro- 
bably near  Mallus,  or,  21 1 

Mithraic  cave  and  other  idolatry,  20 

Mitliras,  or  Mudross,  caves  of,  607 

Mithridates,  brother  of  Phroatcs,  and  king 
of  Parthia,  404 

destroys  the  army  of  Demetrius  Nica- 

tor,  405 

,  Parthian  dominions,  405 

,  succeeded  by  his  son  Phroates,  405 

adds  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia  to 

the  Parthian  empire,  405 

Mitylene,  and  death  of  Memnon,  268 

Mixed  tribes  of  Arabia,  70 

Miyandab,  and  defeat  of  the  Romans  by  the 
Parthians,  414 

,  and   Autony's    route    into    Parthia, 

413 


index; 


757 


Mizraim,  son  of  Ham,  was  bom  in  Persia,  1 P 

. ,  Ills  kingdom  was  the  region  south- 
ward of  Canaan,  20 

,  his  descendants  migrated  into  Africa, 

Yemen,  &c.,  ■'•2 

,  extent  of  the  territory  of  his  descend- 
ants, and  spread  of  one  branch  towards  Eu- 
rope, the  other  to  Asia,  30 

,  countries  peopled  by  the  descendants 

of,  30 

,  also  called  /Egyptus,  45 

and  Thoth  carry   the    Hamites  into 

Africa,  46 

give  the  name  of  Sanc'ha-dwipa  to  the 

country  about  the  Nile,  46 

,  followers  of,  remain  in  Arabia,  50 

,  spread  of  the  sous  of,  506,  507 

Mnemon,  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to 
Artaxerxes,  203 

Moabites,  and  explanation  of  their  origin, 
68,  69 

,  the  territory  occupied  by,  69 

expelled  the  Emims  from  the   river 

Aruon,  69 

,  the,  were  chiefly  Cushite,  69 

,  the,  continued  separate  from  the  Am- 
monites, 69 

Moawiyah  contends  for  the  khaliphat  with 
'Ah;  456 

causes  translations  of  foreign  works 

to  be  made,  544 

Moctadi,  Ivhaliph  of  Egypt,  offers  a  hospi- 
table reception  to  the  Crusaders,  475 

Moctasi,  Al,  Mohtadi,  Al,  Mo'tadid,  Al, 
Mo'tamed,  Al,  khaliphs  of  Arabia,  467 

Moeris,  king  of  Egypt,  digs  the  lake  bearing 
his  name,  108 

Mogos,  or  Sidodone,  a  station  of  Nearchus, 
352 

Moguls,  great,  of  India,  the  descendants  of 
Taimiir,  496 

Mohamniurah  and  its  trade  (Appendix  A'.) 

Mokateb,  inscription  at,  629 

Moktader  Bi'llah,  khaliph  of  Arabia,  and 
learned  men  of  his  reign,  467 

,  and  decline  of  the  empire,  467,  468 

Molo,  brother  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  satrap 
of  Media,  402 

,  his  rebellions,  and  defeat  and  death, 

403 

Molopos,  city,  probably  represented  by 
Mazaca,  150 

Moneidera  Castle  taken  fi-om  the  Crusaders, 
476 

Mongishlak,  trade  through,  502 

Mongol  nation  founded  by  Mizraim's  de- 
scendants, 30 

Mongolia,  limits  and  superficies  of,  487 

Mongolian  Huns,  early  history  of,  487 

Mongolians  resemble  the  Kirghis  Kazaks, 
487 

Mongols,  or  Southern  Huns,  origin  of,  468 

,  territory  and  early  history  of  the,  468, 

487,  488 

,  the  Scythians  of  Herodotus,  487 

territory  in  Kussia,  named  Kiptshak, 

490 


Mongols,  Tamerlane  descended  from  the,  491 

and  Tartars  under  Taimiir,  4'J  1-495 

supposed  to  have  spread  into  America, 

508,  509 
Monsaly,  Ras,  and  bay,  a  station  of  Near- 
chus' fleet,  353 
Monsoons  discovered  by  Hippalus.  579 
Monte  Santo,  gulf,  Xerxes  canal,  through 

Mount  Atlios,  to  connect  the  gulf  of  Con- 

tessa  with  the,  191 
Moola,  or  Alinde.  266 
Moon,  the  (see  Baaltis),  20 
Moors,  or  Mauri,  and  commencement  of 

their  dynasty  in  Afric;i,  456 
invade  and  conquer  a  part  of  Spain, 

457 
,  commencement  of  their  dynasty  in 

Spain,  457 
overran  a  part  of  France,  but  at  length 

are  obliged  to  retreat  into  Spain,  458 
,  attempt  of  the  Normans  to  expel  them 

from  Spain,  465 
Mophis,  or  Taxiles,  323 
Moral  law  given  to  the  Israelites,  1 02 
Morgh'-ab,  plains  of,  607 
Morontobara,  a  haven  of  Nearchus'  fleet,  346 
Mosambique,  not  Ophir,  products  brought 

from,  125 
,  distance  and  time  consumed  in  a  voy- 
age to,  125 
Mosarna,  where  Nearchus  obtains  a  Gedro- 

sian  pilot,  348 
Moschus  founds  colonies  in  Greece,  94 
Moscow,  Taimiir  advances  to,  494 
Moses  receives  instruction   in  government 

from  Jethro,  100,  101 
Mosul,    Eski,    and    Alexander's    advance 

against  Darius.  286 
,  bridge  by  Taimiir  over  the  Tigris  at, 

495 

,  a  commercial  city.  581 

,  Pdshii  of,  his  exactions  on  trade,  595 

(and  Appendix  E.) 
,  as  a  vice-consulate  for  trade,  607  (and 

Appendix  JV.) 
,  comparative  exports  and   imports  in 

1835  and  1841  (Appendix  E.) 
Mossynseci,  the,  Cusbites,  and  probably  a 

portion  of  the  Chaxdim,  36 
.  or  Moschi,  the  march  of  the  10,000 

through  the  tcrntory  of  the,  236 
,  situation  of  their  territory,  manners 

of  the,  and  derivation  of  the  name  of,  236 
Motason  obtains  a  portion  of  the  empire,  459 
Mo'tazz,  Al,  and  decline  of  the  empire,  467 
Mounds  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  606 
Mozauz,  or  Modhaudli,  chief  of  the  tribe 

Jorham,  his  daughter  marries  Ishnaiil,  70 
Mubarrack,  Kove,  or  Bambiirak,  350 
Mugharebeh,  or  body-guard,  raised  by  Al 

Mu'tasem,  463,  464 
Mugiris,  or  Mangalare,   part  of,  580 
Miihammed,  Abii  Kasem,  birth  and  early 

youth  of.  450,  451 
,  the  state  of  Arabia  favourable  to  the 

ministry  of,  450,  451 
,  tenets  of  the  religion  of,  451-453 


758 


INDEX. 


Miihammed,  his  respect  for  the  prejudices 

of  the  Arabs,  and  enjoins  toleration,  453 

,  death,  and  character  of,  453,  454 

succeeded  by  Abii  Bekr,  454 

(see  Togrul  Bei),  470 

,  Al  Saleh  Isma'il,  son  and  successor  of 

Niir-ed-din,  477 

',  defeated  by  Salahed-din,  477 

I.,  expels  the  Seljukians  from  Kai-a- 

mania,  499 

II.,  his  reign  over  Turkey,  499 

takes  Constantinople,  499 

,  artillery  used  by,  499.  500 

III.,   extent  of  the  Turkish  empire 

under,  502 
Miihammedan  account  of  Abraham's  exile,  62 
Miihammedanism,  Sunnie  and  Shi'ah,  sects 

of,  456,  457 
Mujayah,  mound  of,   identical   with   Aur, 

Our.  or  U'r  of  the  Chaldees,  37 
Mujellibeh,  at  Babylon,  its  construction,  606 

,  probably  the  citadel  of  Babylon,  167 

Multan,  or  INIallithan  (place  of  the  Malli), 

335 

reduced  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

Multan,  commerce  of,  5S1 

Munoara  point,  rounded  by  Nearchus'  fleet, 

346 
Murad  I.,  or  Amurad,  successor  of  Urklan, 

498 
takes  Adrianople  and  most  of  European 

Turkey,  498 
Murad  II.,  successes  of,  499 
Murad  III.,  his  reign  over  Turkey,  501 
Murad  IV.,  reign  over  Turkey,  502 
Murad-cha'f,  or  Euph.  crossed  by  the  10,000 

Greeks  near  its  springs,  228,  229 
5Iurgh'-ab,  plains  of,  and  tomb  of  Cyrus, 

301  (and  Appendix  A.) 
Miisa  Khiir,  a  station  of   Nearchus'  fleet 

called  Kataxerbi's,  354 

Al  Iladi,  khaliph  of  Arabia,  459 

Muscovites,  descendant  from  Meshech.  44 
Musendom,  lids,  and  Nearchus'  fleet,  350 
Music  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  545 
Musicanus  submits  to  Alexander,  33S 

again  revolts,  and  is  crucified,  341 

,  probable  position  of  the  capital  of,  341 

{note) 

■ and  the  Brahmins,  341 

Musk,  from  Thibet,  582 

Muslim  wars  with  the  Christians,  473-486 

separated  into  two  empires,  487 

Muslims,   the,    encourage   pilgi-ims   to  the 

Holy  Land  previous  to  the  Crusades,  473 
,  and  the  difTerences  between  the  Sumue 

and  Shi'ah,  475 
Muslin,  named  from  Mosul,  583 
Musuad  iuscriptious  on  the  dyke  of  Mareb, 

S3 
Mutaseni,   Al,    terminates    the    war    with 

Theophilus,  462,  463 

encourages  architecture,  &c.,  4G3 

founds  the  city  of  Sammarrah,  465 

Mutawakkel,  Jaascr  Ahii-1-Kadl,  Al,  succes- 
sor  of  the  khaliph   Kl   Wathck    Ui'lloL, 

wars  with  the  Greeks,  466 


Mutawakkel  encourages  learning,  and  palace 

built  by,  466 

,  his  death  and  character,  466 

,  progress  of  civilization  and  literature 

under,  467 

encourages  commerce,  581 

Mutawakkellan  cloth,  581 

Myafareki'n  (Martyropolis)  submits  to  the 

Romans,  444 
Mycale,  destruction  of  Xerxes'  army  and 

fleet  near,  197 
Mygdonian  and  other  mercenaries  oppose 

the  10,000  Greeks  at  the  Centrites,  226 
Mygdonius,  river,    turned   by    Sapor    II., 

when  besieging  Nisibis,  432 
,  bunds  used  by  Sapor  to  inundate  Nisi- 
bis, 432 
Myos  Hormos,  jElius  Gallus  crosses  to,  41 5 
Myriandrus,  Cyrus  arrives  at,  212 

,  desertion  of  Xenias  and  Pasion  at,  212 

Mysia,  and  campaign  of  the  10,000  under 

the  Lacedfemonians  in,  241,  242 

invaded  by  the  Turks  under  Urklan,  498 

Mythology  of  Ahrimau  probably  that  of  the 

Celts,  513 
of  Greece  borrowed  from  Egypt,  .516- 

518' 

Nabathean  laws,  customs,  &e.,  390,  391 
Nabatheans  of  'Irak,  or  Nabt  el  'Irak,  a 

tribe  of  Syrians  or  Assyrians,  2,  31 
distinguished  from  the  northern  Cash- 

ites,  52 
and  the  northern  Cushites  amalgamate, 

53 
,  the  people  to  whom  the  name  of  was 

applied,  76 
,  and  Antigonus'  expeditions,  against 

the,  390,  391 
Nabathians,  a  branch  of  the  Syro- Arabians, 

509 
Nabend,  Eas,  or  Ochus,  where  Nearchus' 

fleet  anchored,  353 
Nabochodrosssr,  name  assumed  by  the  rebel 

Naditabirus,  178 
Nabonassar,  son  of  Pul,  and  viceroy  at  Ba- 
bylon, destroyed  the  records  of  his  country, 

139 
,  Babylon  imdcr  Semiramis  II.,  and, 

139,  140 

,  successors  of,  140 

Nabonnedus   and    Habonneditch  (see  Bel- 

shazzar) 
Nabojiolasar   assumes    the    sovereignty    of 

Babylonia,  revolts  from  Saracus,  152 
,   also    named    Bus;«lossorus,    besieges 

Nineveh,   and  on  the  death  of  Saracus, 

ascends  the  throne  of  Assyria,   removing 

the  seat  of  government  from  Nineveh  to 

Babylon,  153 
,  Pharaoli  Necho  advances  against  him, 

but  is  defeated,  155 
Nabopolasarus,  son  of  Nabopolasar,  marries 

the  daughter  of  Astvagos,  153 
Nabuchodouosor  (see  S.iosduchiuusX  146 
,  better  known  as;  Nebuchaduesi^ar  (sei; 

Nebucbaduczzar),  155 


INDEX. 


759 


Nabnclioilorosorn?,  1 53  (see  Nabopolasarus) 
Niihulus,  discord  among  the  Crusaders  at, 

4S4 
Nacumbra  (see  Symbra) 
Nadir  Slnlh's  early  history  aud  conquests, 

■107 
Naditabirus',  or  Nabacliodrossor,  rebellion 

in  Babylonia,  (luellod  by  Uarius,  178 
Nadius  usurps  tiie  govcrnuu'nt  of  ]3abylon, 

and  is  succeeded  by  Chinzius  and  Porus, 

140 
Naliavend,  victory  gained  by  'Omar  at.  455 
NahraAvtin  canal,  one  portion  attributed  to 

Nebuchadnezzar,  IGii,  fill 
Nahr-el-Kell,  sculptures  at,  C30 
Nahr  I'sa  canal,  (')12 
Nahr  I'sa  canal,  Nahr  Kutea,  Nahr  Malka, 

and  Nahr  Sersar  canals,  G12 
Nahr,  Kutha,  canal,  GI2 

Susar,  crossed   by  the   ten  thousand 

Greeks,  220 

Naiads,  or  Shipmcn,  derivation  of,  14(noie) 
Naimans  subjected  by  Genghis  Khan,  488 
Nakhsivau,    probably  the   Aporateeion    of 

Josephus,  from  which   the  first  colonics 

emigrated,  8 
Nakhshab,  town,  captured  by  Taimur,  492 
Napoleon  invades  Egypt  and  besieges 'Akka, 

503,  535 

,  his  designs  against  India,  535,  536 

Naphtha,  how  collected,  and  use  of,  (i25,]626 

Narra,  bifurcation  of  the,  371 

Narses,  king  of  Persia,  sues  for  peace  from 

>:■  the  Komans,  430 

,  Roman    general,    defeats    the    rebel 

Veranes,  445 
Narsis  and  Charmalek  ruins  described,  610- 

612 
Nasreb,  El,  inscriptions,  629 
Nasir-ed-dm's    demonstrations    of    Euclid 

translated,  559 
Natalia  invaded  by  Hiirun-el-Eashid,  459 
Native  traders  in  the  east,  aud    disadvan- 
tages of,  593  (aud  Appendix  N.) 
Naucratis  on  the  Nile,  574 
Nautaka  in  Sogdiana,  now  Karshi,  316 
Navarino,  the  battle  of,  504 
Navigation  of  the  early  Phoenicians,    &c,, 

124,5(^9 
,  mercantile  fleets  of  the  ancients,  and 

vessels  used,  124.  125 

,  ships  depicted  in  the  grottoes  in,  124 

,  distance    and    time    consumed   in   a 

voyage  to  Mosambi<iue,  125 

promoted  by  i'haraoh  Necho,  154 

,  commercial   of  the   Euphrates  (^Ap- 

peiidi.T  A.) 

of  the  Euphrates,  reports  upon,  599 

(and  Appendices  I.  to  iV.) 

Naxos.  revolt  at,  causes  Darius  to  make  war 

on  Greece,  181,  182 
Nearchus  left  by  Alexander  to  watch  the 

Assakenes,  323 
appointed  to  conduct   the  fleet  down 

the  Hyd;ispes,  335 
■ acquires  a  knowledge  of  the  sources  of 

the  Indus,  344 


Nearchus,  his  fleetdcscends  the  Indus  to 
Careatus,  345 

avoids  the  bar  of  the  river  Indus,  and 

sails  to  the  island  of  Krokola,  345 

takes  shelter  at  Bibactu  from  the  mon- 
soon, 345,  346 

rounds  Munoora  point  to  the  Saranga 

country,  34G 

arrives  at  Morontobara,  and   enters 

Sonraeau}',  346 

sails  past  the  Orita;,  and  anchors  near 

Pagala,  347 

• ■  encounters  a  storm  off  Kabana,  347 

reaches  Kokala,  and  the  Port  of  Kam- 

bacia,  where  he  refits,  347 
reaches  the  Tomerus  river,  and  defeats 

the  natives,  347 
arrives  at  Hormurah(Ras  Mai  in),  and 

the  territory  of  the  Ichthyophagi  in  the 

bay  of  'Arabah,  347 
arrives  at  Kalama,  and  is  hospitably 

entertained  at  Karnine,  348 
puts  to  shore  on  the  coast  of  Karbis, 

and  obtains  a  pilot  at  Mosarua,  348 

reaches  the   coast  of    IJalomas   and 

Kopliauta,  349 

surprises  a  small  town  aud  obtains  a 

supply  of  corn,  349 

proceeds  to  the  island  of  Bagia,  and 

the  haven  of  Talmona,  349 
reaches  Kauasis,  aud  the  country  of 

the  TnEsi,  349 
arrives  at  Dagasira  and  quits  the  coast 

of  the  Ichthyophagi,  350 
reaches  Badis,  Bambarak,  and  Cape 

Maceta,  and  11a  Museiulom,  350 
enters  the  Persian  Gulf,  aud  reaches  the 

mouth  of  the  Anamis  river,  350 
danger  and  difficulty  of  the  voyage, 

350,  351 

,  his  voyage  partly  predatory,  351 

meets  Alexander  and  retains  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet,  352 

encounters  a  storm  at  Angar  Island 

and  Bassadore  bank,  352 

arrives  at  Sidodone,  352 

rounds  Cape  Certes  to  Catsea  and  Bu- 

cheab,  353 

passes  Ras   Nabend,  and   arrives    at 

Alsaleo  and  Apo^tani,  now  Congoon,  353 

reaches  Mousaly  and  Sitakus,  now  Abu 

Shehr,  where  he  refits,  353 

advances    to  Hierates,   Brizana,  and 

the  Arosis  or  Indian,  354 

,  his  fleet  reaches  Kataderbis  and  Di- 

ridotis  (Teredon),  355 
and  distances  of  his  voyage  from  the 

Indus  to  Babylon,  355 
sails  back  to  the  Pasitigris,  and  meets 

part  of  the  army  on  that  river,  356 

waits  upon  Alexander  at  Susa,  356, 

358 

,  his  account  of  the  distances  compared 

with  modern  surveys,  357 

was  to  be  entrusted  with  the  circum- 
navigation of  Africa  aud  Arabia,  &c., 
366 


760 


INDEX. 


Nearchus,  a  general  of  Antigonns'  army. 

385 
— — ,  his  march  across  the  Cosssean  moun- 
tains, 385 
Nebuchadnezzar,  or  Nabopolasarus,  son  of 
Nabopolasar,  sent  against  the  jEgyptians 
and  Syrians,  153,  155 
■         defeats  Pharoah  Necho,  and  imposes  a 
tribute  on  Judea,  155 

takes  Ezfkiel  and  others  as  hostages  to 

Babylon,  returns  to  Babylon,  ascends  the 
throne,  and  besieges  and  destroys  Nine- 
veh, 155,  156. 
invades  Judea,  and  carries  the  inha- 
bitants captive  to  Babylon,  156,  157 

■ besieges  Jerusalem    the  second  time, 

carrying  away  more  captives,  157 

adorns  and  enlarges  Babylon,  157, 160 

again  besieges  Jerusalem,  157,  15S 

carries  Zedekiah  and  others  captive  to 

Babylon,  158 

,  Tyre  besieged  and  Egypt  invaded  and 

despoiled  by,  r59 

,  Nahr  Malka,  Nahrawan,  and  Palla- 

copas  canals,  attributed  to,  1 60 
■ ,  Chaldean  tradition  concerning  a  pro- 
phecy of,  160 

,  temporary  insanity  of,  161 

,  his  trade  -with  China,  161 

,  death  and  character,  and  succeeded  by 

Evil-Merodach,  his  son,  161 
Nebuzar-adan,    Nebuchadnezzar's   general, 

158 
Necho,  or  Nechus(see  Pharaoh  Necho),  153, 

154,  155,  189 
Nelkynda,  port  of,  576 
Neon,  successor  of  Cheirisophus,  defeated  by 
Pharnabazus,  239 

and  Xenophon  defeat  the  Persians,  240 

Neoptana,  now  Karroon,  a  fishing  village, 

met  by  Nearchus'  tleet,  350 
NeoptolemiLS  defeated  by  Eumenes,  381 
Nera  Kane',  iElius  Gallus  at,  415 
Neriglissar,  or  Neriglissoorus,  murders  and 
succeeds  Evil-Merodach,  as  king  of  Baby- 
lon, 162 

defeated  by  Cyrus,  and  slain,  162, 163 

succeeded  by  his  son  Laborosoarchodus, 

163 
Newberrie's  voyage  to  Ormiiz,  590 

and  Fitch  proceed  to  India  overland, 

and  return  along  the  Tiaris,  59 1 
Nica:a,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  dominions 

under  Urklan.  498 
Nicator,  Mons  ('Ai'n-el-Bertha),  and  battle 

of  Arbela  fought,  295 
Nicephorium,  now  Kakkah,  built  by  Alex- 
ander, 285,  434 
Nice  taken  by  'Osman,  498 
Nicolo  di  Conti's  route  to  India,  590 
Niemaus,  the  wife  of  IIam,prol)ably  Naamah, 

the  sister  of  Tubal  Caiu,  19 
Nigritia,   the   Iliniyarites   under  Abrahah 

penetrate  to,  80 
Nika;a  reached  by  Alexander  iu  advauciug 

to  the  Indus,  ."(19 
,  site  of,  oii  the  Hydaspcs,  324 


Nikgea    commemorates    the    victorj-    over 
Poms,  330 

repaired  by  Alexander  on  his  return 

from  the  Hyphasis,  334 
Nile,  the  establishment  of  the  shepherds  on 
the  banks  of  the,  72,  73 

,  canal  cut  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 

from,  to  the  Ked  Sea,  599,  400 

,  route  by  the,  to  India,  580 

Nimriid,  the  son  of  Cush,  24  (and  note) 

,  his  wars  vrith  Syria,  24 

,  cities,  &,c.,  built  by,  24 

establishes  the  religion  of  Ham  through- 
out his  dominions,  25 

builds  the  tower  of  Babel,  25 

,  his  son  Ninus  reigns  at  Nineveh.  39 

■ ,   probably   built  Telane,  then   called 

Tunim,  36 

,  Ktisdi,  or  Sinaar,   the    kingdom  of 

Kush  or  Cutha,  IS 

,  after  the  dispersion,  called  Babel,  18 

,  his  death,  40 

,  or  Evechius,  the  first  of  the  Chaldean 

kings,  55 
,  probable  extent  of  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire founded  by,  65 
,    Cushan-Eashathaim     probably     de- 
scended from,  106 

,    Tell,  Mr.   Hector's    account    of   the 

remains  at,  137  {note) 

,  or  Ashur,  probably  Larissa,  and  Al 

Eesen  of  scripture,  222,  223 

Tiigh,  the  10,000  pass,  228 

,  Bi'rs,  mound  of,  OUo 

Nineveh,   after  the  dispersion,  one  of  the 
principal  settlements  of  the  Shemites,  2 

built  by  Nimriid,  24 

,  the  place  of  Tobit's  captivity,  141 

,  the  capital  of  Assyria,  141 

,  Nabuchodonosor's  rejoicings  at,  148 

,  taken  and  nearly  destroyed  by  Nabo- 
polasar, 153 
,  seat  of  government  removed  to  Baby- 
lon from,  153 
,  when  occupied  by  the  Lydians,  be- 
sieged and  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
156 

,  battle   between  the  Romans,  under 

Heraclius,  and  the  Persians,  near,  445 
Ninevites  (Ncnavi),  a  tribe  of  the  Chal- 
deans, 2,  31 
Ninus,  son  and  successor  of  Belus,  as  king 
of  Lydia,  probable  time  of  the  birth  of, 
115 

,  conquests  of,  marries  Semiramis,  and 
dies  in  Bactria,  115 
Ninus,  son  of  Ninirud,  reigns  at  Nineveh, 
and  enlarges  it,  &c.,  39 

succeeds  Nimriid,  40 

assumes  the  title  of  Belus  II. ;  invades 

Armenia,  and  is  killed,  40 

succeeded  by  Haik,  40 

Ninyas,  son  and   successor  of  Semiramis, 
organizes  the  kingdom,  118,  119 

,  the  first  to  raise  a  militia  corps,  119 

Nisa;an     plaius,     probably     Khawuh    and 
Alishtar,  365  ! 


INDEX 


70  1 


Nisbara  and  NiscJinnabo  on  thi>  Tip-vis,  '139 
Ni'sluipiir,  Tognil  IJci  crownod  at,  470 
Nisil)ni,|  or   Antiochns  of  IMygdoiiia,  An- 

tiochus  tlie  Great  winters  at,  4().'5 
,  or  Nisihis,  Trajan   transports   from, 

materials  for  a  fleet,  418 
besieged  by  the  Parthians,  and  relieved 

by  Severus,  421 
Nisibis,  or  Zobah,  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 

U'r,  48,  121 
Nisroeh,  Sennacherib   was  assassinated  by 

his  sons  in  the  temple  of,  142 
Nissa,  treaty   between    the   Kixssians    and 

Turks  at,  503 
Nitocris,  queen  of  Egypt,  108 
,  mother  of  Belshazzar,  works  ascribed 

to,  163 

prepares  for  the  siege  of  Babylon,  1G3 

,  Alexander's  winter  quarters,  316 

Niul,  son  of  Finiusa,  proceeds  to  Egypt,  and 

favours  the  escape  of  the  Israelites,  311 
,  his  descendants  proceed  to  Spain  and 

Ireland,  511 
Noah,  supposed  residence  of,  4,  039 

,  called  Oannes,  or  Xisuthrus,  5 

,  Miihammcdan  tradition  of,  6,  C38 

,  remarkable  places  called  after,  7,  8 

,  first  location  of  the  sons  of,  and  re- 
ligion of  his  family,  13 
,  his  altar  had  the  shape  of  a  crescent 

moon,  14 

,  dwellings  on  the  plain  of  Shinar,  17 

,  extent  of  the  territory  of  his  descend- 
ants, 30,  37 
,  sons  at  the  dispersion,  representatives 

of  the  three  divisions  of  mankind,  30 
,  grandchildren,  and  territorj-  possessed 

by  them,  37,  38 

and  his  -wife's  tomb  in  Aragaz,  40 

,  Menes,  or  Manes,  possibly,  141,  115 

Noora,  a  kind  of  cement,  627 
Noorda,  and  Julian's  retreat,  439 
Nora  castle  in  Phrygia,   successfully  de- 
fended by  Eumenes,  382 
Normans,  the,  fail  in  their  attempt  to  drive 

the  Moors  out  of  Spain,  466 
,  supposed  descendants  of  the  Trojans, 

512 
Nowakot,  town,  and  reunion  of  the  tribes, 

369 
Noyanzar,  or  Nemsar,  the  Armenian  name  of 

Noah's  wife,  41 

,  place  of  her  burial,  40,  41 

Nubia,   spread  of  the  Ilamites  from,  into 

Egypt,  48 
Nuhrawiin,  Alexander  passed  by  into  the 

Choaspes,  364 
Nu'man,  a  king  of  the  Ilimyarites,  SO 
Numerals,  Arabic,  and  common  use  of,  564 
Nur-ed-dui    unites    the    governments    of 

Aleppo  and  Damascus,  476 
,  his  successful  operations  against  the 

Crusaders,  and  his  death,  476,  477 
succeeded  by  Al  Saleh  Isma'il  Miiham- 

med,  477 
Nympha;uui  promontory,  now  Mount  Athos, 

252 


Nysa,  Alexander  visited,  523 

,  inhabitants  descended  from  Sesostris, 

323 

Oannes,  the  sea-god  of  the  ancients,  15  {note) 

,  Xisuthrus,  or  Noah,  5 

Oaracta,  and  Nearchus  joined  at   by  Ma- 

zanes,  352 
Oasis  Magna,  destruction  of  Cambyses'  army 

in  crossing  the  desert  of,  1 74 
Obailites  in  Arabia  Felix,  45 
Ob'oll'ah,  577 
Ocellis,  part  of,  580 
Ochus,  called  Darius  Nothus,  deposes  Sog- 

dianus  and  ascends  the  throne,  200 
,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Artaxerxes,  200 

suppresses   revolts  of  the  Egjptians, 

Medes,  and  Lydians,  200 

entrusts  Cyrus  with  the  government  of 

Lesser  Asia,  200 

,  son  and  successor  of  Artaxerxes,  250 

puts  his  brother  Ariaspes  to  death,  250 

,  his  government  and  contjuests,  260 

poisoned,  and  is  succeeded  by  Arses, 

260 

,  or  Tedjen,  and  Alexander's  march  to 

the,  318 
,  probably  Ras  Nabend  of  Nearchus, 

now  Bay  of  Alsaloo,  353.' 
Odenatus,  prince  of  Palmyra,  becomes  the 

declared  enemy  of  Sapor,  425 
and  the  Romans  defeat  the  Persians 

under  Sapor,  425 
assumes  the  title  of  king  of  Palmyra, 

426 
appointed  commander  of  the  Roman 

forces,  and  assassinated  at  Heraclea,  426 
Oebazus,  the  execution  of  his  three  sons  by 

Darius,  188 
ffidipore,  great  cistern  at,  660 
Oguz  Khan,  empire  of,  4G8 
■ .  from  whom  the  Hunnish  tribes  sprung, 

4t;8.  469 
,  the   descendants  of  Japhet,  occupied 

Turkistan  in  Abraham's  time,  469 
Okair,  Ttinkh  Ibn,  khaliph,  who  despatched 

the   Moorish  expedition    against  Spain, 

457 
Olpid,  an  early  poet,  552 
Olympia,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus 

and  queen  of  Philip,  255 

divorced  by  Philip,  256 

puts  Philip  and  Eurydice  to  deatli,  383 

,  mother  of  Alexander,  389 

is  put  to  death  by  Cassander,  389 

Oman,  remains  of  the  Amalekites  in,  51 

,  trade  of,  to  China,  5()7 

'Omar  (Abu  Hassan  Ihn  el  Khatib),  succes- 
sor of  Abii  Bekr,  454 
regulated  the  government  of  Arabia, 

his  character,  454 
,  cities  taken  and  mosques  endowed  by, 

455 

,  conquests,  and  death  of,  455 

succeeded  by  'Otlunan  Ibn  Assan,  455 

,  massacre  of  the  Muslims  by  the  Cru- 
saders in  the  mosque  of,  475 


762 


INDEX. 


Omayyim,  or  Omainc,  lost  tribe  from  Ham, 

first  to  become  fixed,  45 
Onesicritus,  the  pilot  of  Alexander's  fleet, 

335 

joins  Alexander  at  Susa,  358 

Ophirian  voyages  of  the  PhcEnicians,  96 
Ophir,  commerce  by  sea  established  by  Solo- 
mon, 1:22 

■ Aurea  Chersonesus  considered  as,  12G 

,  the  name  still  preserved  in  the  island 

of  Sumatra,  126 
,  the  produce  of  Sumatra  similar  to  that 

brought  from  Ophir,  126 
,  the  early  trade  with,  owing  to  the  skill 

of  the  Phoenicians,  127,  128 
Opis,  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  reach,  221 
,    Alexander   proceeds   to,   along    the 

Tigris,  361 
,  probably  near  the  ruins  of  Samarrah, 

361 
,  events   connected  with   Alexander's 

visit  to,  362,  363 
■ ,  and  Alexander's  route  returning  to 

Susa,  364 
Ora,  a  town  near  the  Indus,  captured  by 

Alexander,  321 
Orcheni,  a  branch  of  the  Chaldeans,  54 
Ordon  (see  Cotyora),  237 
Orenburg,  trade  from,  to  central  Asia,'596 
Or'fiih,  Uz,  the  land  of  Job,  probably  in  the 

vicinity  of,  77,  78 
,  advanced  state  of  civilization  in  Job's 

time  in,  79 
Oi-gana,  or  Ormuz,  and  Nearchus'  fleet,  352 
Orgundje,  trade  to,  from  liussia,  596 
Oritaj  defeated  by  the  corps  imder  Leonatus, 

347 
,  Alexander  founds  a  colony  and  builds 

a  city  in  the  country  of,  347 
,  Hormarah  (Kas  Malin),  the  western 

limits  of  the,  347 
,  Nearchus  visits  the   country  of  the, 

347 
Ormazd  (Appendix  B.  and  C.) 
Ormiiz,  Portuguese  establishment,  589 
Orodes  usurps  the  throne  of  Parthia,  407 

,  campaign  against,  by  Crassus,  407 

sends  envoys  to  Crassus,  and  prepares 

to  resist  the  Romans,  408 
,  his  general,  Surena,  defeats  and  de- 
stroys the  Komanarmy,  410,  411 
puts  Surena   to  death,  and  forms  an 

alliance  with  the  king  of  Armenia,  4 12 

,  his  son,  Pacorus,  invades  Syria,  412 

Orontas  the  Persian  sentenced  to  death,  215 
Orontes,  Napoleon's  proposed  expedition  to 

the,  536,  537 
Orpheus,  his  learning  derived  from  Egypt, 

516,517 
,  the  supposed  founder  of  the  Greek  re- 
ligion, 517 

worshipped  in  Scythia,  518 

• introduced  magisni  and  medicine  into 

Greece,  527 
Orsines,  the   satrap  of  Pasagarda,   put   to 

death  by  Alexander,  358 
Ortok,  governor  of  Jerusalem,  473 


Ortok,  his  harsh  treatment  of  the  Christians, 
473 

Ortospana  of  Strabo,  or  Kabura,  308 

,  and  Alexander's  advance  to  the  Indus, 

319 

Orxantes,  or  Jaxartes,  and  its  various  names, 
312 

mistaken  for  the  Tanais,  312 

Osal,  or  Esal,  the  capital  of  Havi'lah,  51 

Osborne,  Sir  Edward,  obtains  a  charter 
from  Queen  Elizabeth,  590-593 

'Osnnin,  founder  of  the  Turkish  empire,  498 

'Osmiinli  branch  of  the  Turks,  origin  of  the, 
497 

Osroene,  ancient,  considered  as  correspond- 
ing with  the  place  of  Job's  trials,  78 

Otanes,  general  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  178 

'Othman,  Ibn  Assan,  successor  of  'Omar, 
conquests  of  the  Arabs,  vmder  455 

,  the  Moorish  dynasty  in  Africa  dates 

from,  455 

succeeded  by  'All  Ben  Ahi  Taleb,  456 

Ottoman  empire,  Syria  and  Palestine  added 
to  the,  486 

Oui',  Sultan,  tract  bestowed  on  Ertoghrul, 
498 

Oungh,  khiin  of  the  Keratites,  and  the  Prester 
John  of  Europeans,  487 

,  Genghis  Khan  usurps  the  throne  of, 

488 

Oxus,  the,  crossed  by  Bessus,  311 

,    crossed    by    Alexander's    army   on 

stuffed  tent  skins,  311 

Oxyarta  surprised  and  captured  by  Alex- 
ander, 316,  317 

,  supposed  to  be  represented  by  Kurg- 

han-Tippa,  317 

Oxyartes,  a  king  of  Bactria  called  Zo- 
roaster, 183 

,  the  Bactrian  chief,  and  his  defence 

against  Alexander,  31 7 

,   his  family  captured   by  Alexander, 

317 

submits,   and    Alexander's   marriage 

with  Roxana,  317 

Oxycanus,  prince  of  India,  submits  to  Alex- 
ander, 341 

OxydracEc,  Alexander  marches  and  subjects 
the,  330,  331 

send  in  their  submission;  Alexander 

marches  through  their  territory,  338 

Ozogardaua,  or  Zar^gardia,  pillaged  and 
burnt  by  Julian  s  army,  436 

Pacorus,  son  and  successor  of  Artabanus  in 

Parthia,  his  embassy  to  Sylla  causes  the 

Parthian  wars,  405,  406 

,  son  of  Orodes,  invades  Syria,  412 

Pactolus  river,  defeat  of  Tissaphemes   by 

the  Lacedaemonians  on  the,  245 
Pagala,  and  the  fleet  of  Nearchus,  347 
Pailhuri,    Cape,   once   the   promontory    of 

Canasta;rum,  252 
Painting,  antiquity  of,  in  use  at  Babylon,  630 
Pala;-Tyrus,  the  ancient  city  of,  278 
,  and  causeway  destroyed  during  the 

siege  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  278 


INDEX. 


763 


Palrc-Tyrus,  temple  at,   to  the  Olympian 

Jupiter,  '278 
Palestine,  the  oceupation  of,  by  the  Shemites, 
01 

,  the    shepherds    were    driven    from 

E<iypt  into.  74 

,  the  Hebrews  settle  in,  112 

submits  to  Ptolemy  Philopater,  403 

subdued  by  Ohosroes  II.,  445 

and  Syria,  the  fuuriii  kingdom  formed 

from  the  Seljukian  territory,  473 

and  march  of  the  I'rusaders,  474,  475 

and  Sahih-ed-din"s  UDSUCcessfuI  cam- 
paign, 478 

united  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  48G 

,  and  expulsion  of  the  Franks  from, 

486 

trades  with  Egypt,  579 

Pallacopas  canal,  supposed  to  have  been  cut 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  160 

,  Alexander's  ascent  of  the,  367 

improved  by  Alexander,  367 

,  and  defects  of  the  old  canal,  367 

Palmyra,  Aurelian's  siege  of,  428,  429 

,  fii,!,'ht  of  Zenobia,  and  fall  of,  429 

^jspoiled  by  the  liomans  under  Aurelian, 

429 
Palmyrean  wars  with  the  Persians  under 

Odenatus,  425,  426 
Panias  or  Banias,  taken  from  tlie  Crusaders 

by  Niir-ed-din,  476 
Panj-ab  and  its  waters  join  the  Indus,  370 

(Pir),  branch  of  the  Hydaspes,  and  its 

source,  371 
Panj-ab,  Taimur's  march  across  the,  494 
Panj-nud,  the  Chinab,  before  falling  into  the 

Indus,  is  called  the,  371 
Paper  brought  from  Samarkand,  583 
Paphlagonia,  descendants  of  Hiphat  settle 

in,  43 
,  the,  ten  thousand  Greeks  collect  plun- 
der from,  237 

,  voyage  of  the  Greeks  along  the  coast 

of,  237 
Papyrus,  boats  of,  640 

and  the  bark  of  trees  used  for  writing, 

630 
Parasang  (see  Farsang),  202 
Paratacene,  and  Alexander's  operations,  316, 

318 
Pareg,  or  Pura,  the  probable  route  of  Alex- 
ander to,  343 
Paradise  and  the  land  of  Eden,  extensive 

countries,  1,  2 
Parmenio,   Philip's  general,   and  his  suc- 
cesses, 255 

commands  the  left  wing  of  Alexander's 

army  at  the  Granicus,  264 
sent  by  Alexander  to  keep  up  a  com- 
munication with  Greece  whilst  wintering 
in  Caria,  266 
• joins  Alexander  at  Gordium  with  re- 
cruits from  Macedonia,  267 

secures  the  Ciliciau  passes,  and  takes 

the  city  of  Issus,  269 

coumiauds  Alexander's  right  wing  at 

the  battle  of  Issus,  272 


Parmenio  captures  Damascus,  &c.,  276 
advises  peace  when  Darius  proposes  it 

for  the  third  time  to  Alexander,  287 
commands  tlie  main  body  of  Alexan- 

ders  army  on  the  march  to  Persia,  299 

,  death  of,  307 

Paropamisus,    the,   and  Alexander's   army 

halts  at  the  foot  of  this  chain,  308 

,  and  its  names,  extent,  &c.,  308,  309 

,  Alexander's  army  enters  the  pass  of 

Khousan,  311 

,  Tyriaspes  appointed  satrap  of  the,  319 

crossed  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

Parsii,    Alexander    advances    towards    the 

Hyphasis  to  conquer  the  Gangarida;,  &c., 

331 
Parthamaspates    declared      king    of     the 

Parthians    by    Trajan   on   the   plain   of 

Ctesiphon,  420 
Parthia,  Arsaces  proclaimed  king  of,  400 

invaded  by  Seleucus  Calliiiichus,  402 

,  Arsaces  defeats  and  captures  Seleucus 

Callinicus,  402 
recovered  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  403, 

404 
,  invasion  of,  by  Demetrius  Nicator  and 

Antiochus  Sidetes,  404,  405 
,  Phraates,    successor   of  Mithridatcs, 

killed    during   the    Scythian    war,    and 

death  of  his  successor,  Artabanus,  405 
,  Phraates  III.,  or  Mithridatcs  II.,  suc- 
ceeds to  the  throne  of,  406 

is  invaded   by  Crassus,  and  the  first 

campaign,  407 

alliance    with    Armenia,    and    sends 

Pacorus  to  invade  Syria.  412 

restores     the    trophies    taken     from 

Crassus,  416 

,  and  Trajan's  expedition  against,  4 1 9 

,  and  campaign  against,  under  Severus, 

421 

invades  the  Roman  territories,  422 

• the  Romans   purchase   peace  of  the, 

422 
Parthicus  Maximus,  title  of  Severus,  421 
Paryadres,  branch  of  the  Taurus,  232 
,  the  ten   thousand  Greeks  reach   the 

village  of,  222 
Parysatis,  mother  of  Cyrus,  Tissaphernes  is 

superseded  through  the  influence  of,  245, 

250 
Pasargada,  Artaxerxes  crowned  at,  203 
,  surrendered  to  Alexander  by  Gobares, 

301 
,  probably  once  Persaganis,  and  now 

Mesjid-i-Madreh  Suleiman,  301 
,  and  Alexander's  visit  to  the  tomb  of 

Cyinis  at,  358 
Pasion  and  Xenias  desert  Cyrus  at  Myrian- 

drus,  212 
Piisin,  or  Pasiana,  district  traversed  by  the 

Aras  or  Phasis,  229  {note) 
Pasira,  village  on  Cape  'Arabah,  trade,  &c., 

of  the  inhabitants  of,  348 
Pasitigi-is  crossed  by  Alexander  to  invade 

tlie  Uxii,  298 
,  supposed  to  be  the  Hiinin,  356,  384 


764 


INDEX. 


Pasitigris   crossed    by    Alexander    on    his 

return  to  Susa,  358 
Passenae,  rocky  promontory  passed  by  Near- 

chus'  ileet,  348 
Pastors  (see  shepherds),  72-74 
Pathnisim,  a  people  living  to  the  south-west- 
ward of  Canaan,  the  Philistines  were  de- 
scended from  the,  20 
Patizithes,  a  Magian,  left  as  deputy  at  Susa 

by  Cambyses,  173 
Pattala,   on   the  Indus,    where  Alexander 
ordered  a  haven  and  docks  to  be  built, 
342 

,  the  fleet  leave,  and   sail  down  the 

Indus  to  Coreatis,  345 
Pausanias,  the  murderer  of  king  Philip,  256 
Pearls  exported  by  the  Arabs,  583 
Pehlani,  a  Shemitic  language,  84-86 
Pekin,  journey  to  from  Western  Asia,  572 
Peltse,  Cyrus  reaches,  Lupercalian  sacrifice 

celebrated  by  him,  at,  206 
Pelasgians,  territories  occupied  by  the,  253 
Pelusium  taken  by  Cambyses,  174 
Pemprama,  and  Alexander's  march  against 

the  Cathsci  and  Malli,  &c.,  330 
Pentateuch,    probable    period  of  its  com- 
pletion, 105 
Percea,  tract  of  country  called,  18 
Perdiccas    and    Hephastion,     generals    of 
Alexander,  build  a  bridge  of  boats  over 
the  Indus,  323 

prevented  hostilities  after  Alex- 
ander's death,  380 

Perdiccas  rules  with  Roxana  after  Alex- 
ander's death,  defeated  by  Ptolemy  in 
Egj'pt,  and  slain  by  his  troops,  381 

Perimula,  part  of  India,  576 

Perisaboras  besieged  and  captured  by  the 
Romans  under  Julian,  437,  438 

,   Tell    'Akhar    probably    represents 

Anbar,  built  on  the  site  of,  438 

Persepolis,  events  of  Xerxes'  reign  recorded 
on  the  monuments  of,  198 

taken  and  sacked,  and  treasure  found 

by  Alexander  in,  301 

,  Alexander  halts  at,  for  four  months, 
301 

,  Alexander  sets  fire  to  the  palace  of 

Xerxes  at,  302 

,  and  the  feast  given  at,  to  Eumenes' 

army  by  Peucestas,  386 

,  excavations  at,  606,   607   (and  Ap- 

pendix  C.) 

,  and  its  monuments,  618-620 

,  inscriptions  at,  connected  with  Xerxes 

{Appendices  C.  and  D.) 

Persia  once  called  Kiish,  32 

,  firmans,  or  laws  of  the  empire  of,  177 

,  Scythia  subjected  to,  ISl 

■ ,  purity  of  worship  maintained  in,  185, 

186 

• ,  power  of,  compared  with  that  of  Mace- 
donia on  Alexander's  accession,  257 

,  the  government  weakened  by  satra- 
pies, 202 

• ,  del'cut  at  the  battle  of  the  Isbus,  274, 

275 


Persia,  her  early  trade  with  India,  China, 

&c.,  310,  571,  577 
,  politically  connected  with  India,  310, 

584 
,    campaign   of   Diocletian's    general; 

Galerius,  in,  430 
,  peace  entered  into  with  the  Romans, 

430 

invaded  by  the  INIassagetre,  432 

invaded  by  the  Romans  under  Julian, 

433-439 
,  Jovian  enters  into  a  treaty  with,  440, 

441 
,   the,    in    the    reign    of  Kobad,    in- 
vaded the  Roman  territories,  and  defeat 

Belisarius,  442 
,  under  Chosroes,   invade  Syria  and 

take  Antioch,  442,  443 

invaded  by  Belisarius,  443 

subdues  Yemen,  450 

divided  into  several  dynasties,  491 

,  southern,  subjected  by  Taimiir,  492, 

493 
,  after  Taimur's  death,  retained  by  his 

son,  496 

partly  subdued  by  the  Turkomans, 

called  the  white  sheep,  496 

and  the  Sophi  dynasty,  496,  497 

,  territory    taken    by    Russia    from, 

497 

partly  subjected  by  Selim  I.,  500 

Persian  empire  at  the  death  of  Cyaxares, 

169 
,  Cyrus'  accession  to  the,  169,  170 

under  Cambyses,  173,  175 

■ government  statistically  managed  by 

Darius,  176 

,  extent  of,  under  Darius,  180 

consolidated  by  Ahasuerus,  198 

empire,  accession  of  Arsaces,  or  Artax- 

erxes,  to  the,  203,  204 
,  nature  of  the  governments  and  satra- 
pies of  the,  243 
■ weakened  by  the  contending  interests 

of  its  satraps,  244 
,  disturbed  state  of,  towards  the  close  of 

Artaxerxes'  reign,  244-250 
,  Ochus,  son  of  Artaxerxes,  ascends  the 

throne  of,  250 

army  defeated  at  Arbela,  and  loss  in 

the  battle,  292-295 

Gulf  entered  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  350 

nobles  appointed  to  commands  in  Alex- 
ander's  anny,  363 

corps,   the  Argyraspides,    raised   by 

Alexander,  363 

empire  established  by  Artaxerxes  on 

the  ruins  of  that  of  Parthia,  422 

provinces  ceded   to  the  Romans   by 

Narses,  430 

wars  with  the  Romans,  vmder  Ilor- 

misdas,  444 

power,  decline  of,  445 

trade  by  sea,  571,  577,  644 

moiiumcuts   at  Uisutiin.  618  {Appen- 
dix (\) 

Gulf,  liuii  laciories  upon,  5b  1 


INDEX. 


765 


Persian  and  Arabian  Gulfs,  trade  from,  to 

India,  593,  597,  598  (and  Appendix  11.) 

of  France,  595  {Appendix  G.) 

from  Constantinopli*,  595 

Persians,  Cushites  called  the  ancestors  of 

the,  33 
empire  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  As- 
syrian, 1 52  ' 
,  pAil-Mcrmlach  causes  war  between 

the  Modes  and,  Itil,  102 
war  with  Greece,  and  defeat  of  the, 

18G-18S 

,  revolt  of  Epj-pt  from,  188 

Cyrus'  promise  to  the,  204 

under  Artaxerxcs,  invade  the  Roman 

territory,  but  are  defeated   before  Atra, 

422,  423 
,  accession  of  Sapor  to  the  empire  of, 

423 
,  Sapor,  defeated  by  Gordian,  retires 

^to,  423,  424 
— — ,  Odenatus  takes  arms  against  the,  425 
,  successful  wars  of  the  Romans  and 

Palmyreans  against  the,  425,  420 

and   Hindus   from  a  common  stock, 

511 

Persis,  or  Fars,  and  Alexander's  advance  to 

the  Persian  Gates,  299,  300 
P^shawur,  probably  Peukelaotis,  319 
Peshawarua,  on  Prophthasia,  506 
Petagjas  warns  Cyrus  of  the  approach  of 

Artaxerxes,  217 
Petchilee  gulf,  journey  to,  572 
Peter  the  Hermit  urges  a  crusade,  473,  474 
Petra,  Wadi,  21 
Petra,  Antigonus'  expedition  against,  390 

391 
Peuce,  on   the  Danube,   where  Alexaader 

experienced  a  slight  check,  259 
Peucestas  appointed  satrap  of  Pasegarda  by 

Alexander,  358 
— —  feasts  the  army  of  Eumenes  at  Per- 

sepolis,  3SC 

dispossessed  of  his   satrapy  by  An- 
tigonus, 388 

Peukelaotis,  possibly  Peshawur,  taken   by 

Alexander's  generals,  319 
Pharacote,  a  son  of  Amassia,  41 
Pharaoh  Necho  commences  a  canal  at  Suez, 

153 

,  his  fleet  circumnavigates  Africa,  154 

,  campaigns  of,  154,  155 

,  canal  continued  by  Darius  Hystaspes, 

189 
Phamabazus  defeated  by  the  ten  thousand 

Greeks  at  Calpae,  240 

extent  of  the  satrapy  of,  243,  244 

and  Tissaphernes  combine  to  expel  the 

Greeks  from  Asia,  244 
,   invasion  of  the  satrapy   of,  by   the 

Greeks  under  Dercyllidas,  244 
Pharnak,  the  Armenian  kingdom  was  con- 
solidated by,  133 
resists  the  invasions  of  the  Assyrians 

and  Babylonians,  133 
Pharos,  probable  intention  of  the  builder  of 

the  towers  of,  80 


Pharos  bnilt  by  Abrahah  or  Dhulmcnar,  SO 

erected  by  Ptolemy  II.,  and  its  cost,  399 

Pharsalia,  413 

Phaselis  (now  Tekrova),   taken   by  Alex- 
ander, 207 
Phasis.  colony  founded  on  the,  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Sesostris,  109 

(see   Aras)    derived   from   Pdsin,   or 

Pasiani  district,  229  (note) 

Phathusse,  or  Anatho,  435 

,  hurricane    encountered    by   Julian's 

army  at,  435 

Phenice,  afterwards  Bezabde,  433 

Pherecydes  and  Pythagoras,  tenets  of,  540 

Philadelphus  (Ptolemy  II.),  399 

Philesius,  general  of  the  ten  thousand 
Greeks,  sent  with  the  aged  from  Terabu- 
ziin,  235 

Philip,  son  of  Amyntas,  and  his  competitors 
for  the  throne  of  Macedonia,  253,  254 

,  his  education   and  policy,  organizes 

the  phalanx  and  improves  the  army,  254 

couquers  the  Illyrians,  &c.,  254,  255 

marries  Olympias,  255 

,  his  conquests,  the  extent  of  his  king- 
dom, and  his  sou  Alexander  born,  255 

,  his  election  as  general  of  the  Amphic- 

tyons  causes  war  with  the  Athenians,  &c., 
255 

gains  the  battle  of  Charonea,  and  his 

moderation  after  the  victory,  256 

is  elected  autocrator  of  Greece,  and 

attempts  the  conquest  of  Asia,  256 

divorces  Olympias,  and  is  assassinated 

by  Pausanius,  250 

succeeded  by  Alexander,  257 

Philip  II.  of  France  assists  the  Crusaders, 
482 

Philistines  were  descended  from  the  Path- 
rusim  and  Casluhim,  20 

Philosophy  of  the  east,  309 

,  how  introduced  into  Europe,  &c.,  310 

and  Chap.  XVI.  " 

Philotas,  Alexander's  general,  300 

executed  for  conspiracy,  307 

Philoteras,  near  Kosseir,  probably  the  port 
through  which  the  early  intercourse  be- 
tween Arabia  and  Egypt  was  maintained, 
91 

Phocians,  commerce  of,  574 

found  Marseilles  and  cities  on  the  coast 

of  Italy,  574 

Phcenica  (sec  Fe'nik  village) 

PhcEuicia  submits  to  Alexander,  276,  277 

,  formerly  a  satrapy  of  Persia,  276 

,  siege  of  Tyre,  the  bulwark  of,  278, 

279 

,  Alexander's  march  through,  towards 

Egypt,  and  furnishes  vessels  for  Alexan- 
der, 284 

,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  Indian  trade 

acquired  there  by  Alexander,  309 

,  caravan  route  connected  with  its  sea 

trade  between  China  and  Persian  Gulf, 
309,  570,  573 

Phoenicia,  and  war  of  Antiochus  the  Great 
in,  403 


766 


INDEX. 


Phoenicia,  early  trade  of,  ^>C>0 

PhcEuicians  emploj  eil  liy  Pharaoh  Nccho  to 

circumnavigate  Africa,  154 
colonies  sent  from  Carthage  to  Ireland, 

&c.,  190 

,  maritime  enterprises  of  the,  190 

Phoenician  language  Shemitic,  84 

,  origin  of,  86 

emigrants  spread  knowledge  to  remote 

countries,  88 

trade  extended  by  the  Tyrians  127, 128 

colonies  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 

128 
voyages  to  the   Baltic,   Britain,   &c., 

128 

trade  in  metals,  128 

Phoenician  remains  in  Malta,  617 
Phoenicians  (from  Pingacsha),  or  the  Yellow 

Hindus,  Lieut.  "Wilford's  supposition  con- 
cerning, 46 
and  Egyptian  Cushites  introduce  the 

arts  and  sciences  into  Europe,  48 
,  caravan  routes,  trade,  and  products  of 

the  early,  92,  93 
,    separate    kingdoms    of    the,    partly- 
dependent  on  Tyre,  and  worshipped  the 

Tyrian  Hercules,  93 
,  the,  founded  colonies  in  Greece,  and 

islands  colonized  by  the,  94,  95 
,  settlement  of  the    shepherds  among 

the,  94 

,  use  of  ships  by  the  early,  94 

route  of  the  Tyriau  Hercules  to  Spain, 

and  back  by  land,  95,  96 

,  and  their  more  distant  enterprises,  96 

,  and  their   settlements  in  Spain,  &c., 

three  centuries  anterior  to  Carthage,  96 
,  and  the  important  settlements  of  Tar- 

tessus,  96 
,  their  trade  by  land  led  to  that  by  sea, 

96 

,  an  inscription  at  Marseilles,  96 

,  the  shepherds  under  Arcles,  or  Certus, 

found  the  kingdom  of  the,  112 

,  early  colonies  in  Spain  of,  114 

,  tlieir  early  knowledge  of  navigation, 

124, 125 
conducted  the  first  voyages  to  Ophir, 

127,  128 
,  and  commencement  of  sea  navigation 

among  the,  394 

first  reach  Britain  from  Cadiz,  575 

Phra  (see  Fur  rah) 

Phraata,  or  Praaspa,  the  Atropatenian  Ec- 

batana,  now  Takliti  Soleiman,  413 

,  Antony's  circuitous  march  to,  413 

,  siege  of,  by  Antony,  and  defeat  of  his 

army  at,  413 
Phraates  II.  succeeds  Mithridates,  405 

defeated  by  Antiochus  Sidetes,  405 

,  his  death,  405 

succeeded  by  Artabanus,  405 

Pliraates  III.  attempts  to  reinstate  Tigranes 

on  the  throne  of  Armenia,  406 

Seeks  an  asylum  with  Tigranes,  406 

,  his  son  Machares  assists  the  Romans 

in  their  invasion  of  Armenia,  407 


Phraortes,  or  Aphaxad,  sncceeds  Dcjoces,  on 

the  throne  of  Media,  146 
,  conquests  of,  and   rebellion  against 

Suosduchinus,  146 
Phrygian  commerce  succeeds  the  Rhodiau, 

573 
Phryxus'  voyage  to  Colchis,  1 1 3 
,  murder  of,  gave  rise  to  the  voyage  of 

the  Argonauts,  113 
Phut,  son  of  Ham,  born  in  Percea,  18 
,  But,  or   Put,  in   Chaldaic,   and  the 

Bhud  of  the  east,  18, 33 
supposed  to  have  been  king  of  Knsdi- 

Khorasan,  18 
Physcus   river,    the  ten    thousand   Greeks 

reach  the,  221 
Phj'sician    sent    from   India  to   Harun-el- 

llashfd,  584 
Pictorial    representations    on  embroidered 

stuffs,  carpets,  &c.,  584 
Picus,  a  name  given  to  Ninus,  king  of  Ly- 

dia,  &c.,  during  his  campaigns  in  Asia,  115 
Pinara  (now  Minara)  taken  by  Alexander 

267 
Pinarus  (now  the  Deli'-chai),  271 
Pingacsha  (Phoenicians).  46 
Pintiyani,  one  mouth  of  the  Indus,  372 
Pinyari  river  forms  one  side  of  the  present 

Delta  of  the  Indus,  372 
Pi«gah,  advance  of  the  Israelites  to  the  foot 

o"!;  105 
Pisidia  subjected  by  Alexander,  267 
Pisidians,  Cyrus'  march  from  Sardis  osten- 
sibly against  the,  205,  206 
Pitch,  mineral,  Cherner,  637 

, ,  in  the  Hamrin  mountains,  637 

Pithon  executed  by  Antigonus,  388 
Plain,  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the,  67 
traditional  accounts  regarding  them, 

68 
Planet  worship  among  the  ancients,  58 
Planets,  Chaldean  names  for,  58 

,  the  messenger  stars  of  the  Chaldeans,58 

,  supposed  influence  of,  59 

Platffia,  Xerxes'  army  under  jNIardouius  de- 
feated at,  196 
Plato  studied  in  Egypt  and  Persia,  524 
,  made    eastern  literature    attractive, 

524,  525 
,  his  philosophy  compared  with  that  of 

Aristotle,  526 
Plato,   Pherecydes,  Pythagoras,  and  other 

sages  connected  with  the  eastern  litera- 
ture, 539 
Podargus  river,  354 
Poetry  the  foundation  of  Arabian  literature, 

543, 552 
introduced  from  Arabia  through  Spain, 

552 

of  the  Arabs  connected  with  love,  554 

Polior  (see  Pylura),  352 

Polysperchon,  competitor  of  Cassander,  for 

the  government  of  Maccdon,  391 

murders  Barslne  and  Hercules,  391 

Polytimetus  river,  descendants  of  the  Mace- 
donians destroyed  by  the  Sogdiaus  on  the, 

314 


INDEX. 


1^1 


Polytimetns,  or  Koliik,  country  on  the  bank? 

of,  dcvastited  by  Alexander,  315 
Poniboditha  (or  Jibbah),436 
Pompciopolis  (Soli),  209 
,  aud  siege  of  by  Soli  Calistus,   the 

Kom;ui  gcuerul,  425  . 

Ponipey  raises  Poutus  and  Syria  to  the  rank 

of  Koiuau  provinces,  4U7 

appointed  governor  of  Spain,  407 

Pontus,  the  Askenazians  settle  in,  43 

becomes  a  Roman  province,  407 

Portnguese  settlements  at  Ormilz,  aud  at 

Malabar,  589 
Porus  and  Chinzius  succeed  Nadiiis  in  the 

government  of  l)al)ylon,  140 

succeeded  by  Judicus,  140 

Porus,  Alexander  promises  Tajtiles  to  invade 

the  territory  of,  324 
posts  his  army  on  the  Hydaspes,  S24, 

325 
,  Alexander,  by  stratagem,  overcomes 

the  vigilance  of,  325-327 

,  dignified  conduct  of,  329 

,  Alexander's  generosity  to,  329,  330 

,   surnamed   the  Coward,    submits   to 

Alexander,  330 

reinforces  Alexander's  army  before 

Sakala,  331 

,  territory  bestowed  on,  by  Alexander, 

334 

,  intended  kingdom  westward  of  the 

Indus,  334 
Poshoon,  Sous,  or  Cape  Bang,  probably  re- 
presents   the   Peninsular   Mesambria   of 
Nearchus'  voyage,  354 
Praaspa  (or  Phraata),  413 
Prester,  John,  or  Oungh  Khan,  487 
Primeval  cities,  i-emains  of,  017 
Privileges  obtained  by  France  from  Persia, 

595  {Appendix  G.) 
Products  of  Kurdistan  and  Mesopotamia, 
(Appendix  A'.) 

of  India,  China,  and  Thibet,  571 

of  Asia  carried  westward,  571 

Pronectus,  and  city  fomided  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians, 95 
Prophthasia,  probably  Pashawarun,  306 
Proven9al  poetry  from  the  Arab,  552,  553 
Proxenus  and  Xenophon  join  Cyrus'  expe- 
dition, 204  I 

beheaded  by  Artaxerxes,  222 

Psammeticus  promotes  the    commerce   of 
Egypt,  153 

succeeds  Amasis   on   the   throne   of 

Egypt,  174 

• is  defeated  by  Cambyses,  174 

Ptolemais,  formerly  Akko,  155 

Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  receives  Bessus  from 

the  satraps  of  Sogdiana  and  the  Daa, 

312 
retains  the  government  of  Egypt  after 

Alexander's  death,  380 

,  Perdiccas,  defeated  by,  381 

,  extent  of  dominion  of,  389 

combines  with  Cassander  and  Seleucus 

against  Antigonus,  389 
— —  victorious  in  Cyrene  and  Cyprus,  390 


Ptolemy  dcfi'atod  by  Antigonus,  and  retires 

to  Egypt,  390 
defeated  by  Demetrius  olT  Cyprus,  and 

returns  to  Egypt,  392 

repulses  Antigonus,  393 

,  opportune  arrival  of  the   licet  with 

supplies  to  the  Khodians,  395 
,  his  possessions  after  tlie  death  of  An- 
tigonus, 398 
,  succeeded  by  Ptolemy  II.,  or  Phila- 

delphus,  399 

Cerannus  murders  Seleucus,  399 

■  II.  (Philadelphius)  erects  the  Pharos, 

and  establishes  the  library  at  Alexandria, 

399 

extends  the  commercial  relations  of 

Egypt,  399 

,  public  works  executed  by,  399,  400 

,  his  war  with  Antiochus  Theos,  400 

■ •    Euergetes    encourages    learning    in 

Egypt,  402 

Philopater  defeats  Antiochus  the  Great, 

and  subjects  Palestine  and  CceloSyria,  403 

visits  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  403 

,  his  woi'ks,  534,  535 

Ptolemy's  system  of  astronomy,  530 
Pul,  or  Sosarmus,  the  thirty-ninth  king  of 
Assyria,  and  the  third  of  the  Median  dy- 
nasty, invades  Judica,  138 

succeeded  by  Tiglath  Pileser,  138 

Pura,  or  Pareg,  Alexander's  route  to,  343 
Pydna  defended  by  Olympias  against  Cas- 
sander, 389 

reduced  by  famine,  and  Olympias  put 

to  death,  389 
Pyla;  pass  reached  by  Cyrus'  army,  214 

,  situation  of  and  distance  from  Carsote, 

214 
Pylura,  now  Polior,  passed  by  Nearchus' 

fleet,  352 
Pyramids,  architecture  of  India  similar  to 
that  of  Assyria,  34 

,  some  of  the,  said  to  have  been  built 

by  the  Himyarite  king  Shedad-beu-'Ad, 
80 
of  Egypt,  remains  found  in  the,  88 

of  Babylon  and  other  countries,  007 

Pyramus  (see  Jaihdn),  211 

Pyrrhus  retreats  after  the  loss  of  the  battle 

of  Ipsus,  398 

expels  Demetrius  from  Macedonia,  398 

Pythagoras  acquires  knowledge  in  Egypt, 

510,  523 

and  countries  visited  by  him  in  his 

search  after  knowledge,  522,  523 

founded  a  school  of  religion  and  phi- 
losophy in  Greece,  523,  524 

and  decline  of  astronomy    after  his 

time,  530 

Pytheus'  liberality  to  Xerxes  and  his  army, 
192 

Kabbah    of   Ammon,  tlic    capital    of  the 

Ammonites,  09 

,  the  Zamzummims  expelled  from,  69 

Rabiah,  Bern',  a  branch  of  the  Bern'  Khakd, 

represent  the  Shemitic  Chaldeans,  55 


768 


INDEX. 


Radbertus,  ambassador  from  Charlemagne  to 

Hanin-el-Rashi'd,  547 
Kafts  in  Central  Asia,  CS^-RSG 
Ragau,   the  Rhages  of    Alexander,  repre- 
sented by  the  ruins  of  Kal'eh  Erig,  148 
Eagouis  river,  station  of  rsearchus'  fleet  at 

the  mouth  of  the,  354 
Raguel,  another  name  for  Jethro,  103 
Rahahi  castle,  pass  forced  by  the  ten  thou- 
sand Greeks,  near  the  ruins  of,  224,  225 
Rat,  emporium  of  trade,  572 

,  routes  to,  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  573 

,  route  from,  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  573 

,  centre  of  Arab  and  Asiatic  commerce, 

582 
Rakkah,  formerly  Necephorium,    built  by 

Alexander,  285 
Rakkah,  formerly  Nicephorium  or  Calleni- 

cum,  434 
Ramadan,  fast  of,  451 
Ramah,  in  Arabia,  50 
Rambacia,  force   left   under  Leonatus   at, 
343 

reached  by  Nearchus'  fleet,  347 

,  Leonatus  defeats  the  Orita;  at,  347 

where  Nearchus  refits  his  fleet,  347 

Rameses,  or  Hierapolis,  position  of,  98 

,  the  Israelites  commence  their  journey 

from,  97 
Ramla  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475,  483 
Ramlek,  cistern  of,  660 
Raphia   (Rafah),  and   loss    of   Demetrius' 
fleet,  393 

' ,  and  defeat  of  Antiochus  by  Ptolemy 

Philopater  at,  403 
Rauwolf's  voyage  to  Babylon,  590 
Ravenna,  and  advance   of  the   Goths   and 

Franks  into  Italy,  425 
Ravi,  Iravati'and  Iraotu  (see  Hydraotes) 
Rawan  Khud  lake,  four  great  rivers  that 

flow  from,  369 ," 
Rawi,  the,  recite  tales  to  Al  Mutawakkel, 

466 
Raymond   of  Toledo    encourages    Arabic 

literature,  556 
Red  Sea,  the  passage  of,  by  the  Israelites 

considered,  99 
■ ,  canal  cut  to,  from  the  Nile,  by  Pto- 
lemy II.,  399 

Ptolemy's  fleets  on  the  Mediterranean 

and  Red  Sea,  400 

crossed  by  ^Elius  Gallus,  415 

,  Trajan  sails  down  the  Tigris  to  the, 

420 

' ,  why  so  called,  420 

,  the,  and  defeat  of  the  Christian  fleets, 

478,  479 
Regillianus  gains  the  throne  of  Rome,  425 
Rehoboam,  the  Hebrew  kingdom  divided  in 
the  reign  of,  132 

,  the  Egyptians  induced  to  invade  Judah, 

132 
Rehoboth,  built   by   Nimriid,    on   the  Eu- 
phrates, below  the  Kliiibiir,  24 

,  excavations  of,  610 

Re\cht, /JanJer,  or  Heratemis.  and  Nearchus' 
fleet,  354 


Religion  of  Noah  and  his  family,  13 

,  traces  in  Great  Britain    of  the  sup 

posed  antediluvian,  15 

,  Haik,  the  first  champion  of  true,  40 

,  planet   worehip,    the  first  departure 

from  Noah,  58 

,  astrology  and  image  worship,  58,  59 

Religions  of  the  Asiatics  had  a  common 

origin,  506 
Rephaim,  tribe  of.  descended  from  Ham,  21 
Resafa,  or  Sergiopolis,  passed  by  Chosroes  I., 

444 
Resen,  built  by  Nimriid,  position  of,  24 

,  ruins  of,  606 

or  Al  Resen,  probably  the  Larissa  of 

Xenophon,  and  represented  by  Nimriid  or 
Aspur,  222, 223 
Reservoirs  and  cisterns.  660 
Rhages  of  Alexander  (see  Ragau),  148 
Rhodamans,  Jewish  merchants,  and  their 

trade,  584 
Rhodes,  and  siege  of,  by  Demetrius,  394, 
395 

,  and  honourable  truce  obtained,  395 

,  an  example  of  the  ancient   attacli  and 

defence,  395,  396 
,  colossal  statue  erected  from  the  re- 
mains of  the  machines  employed  in  the 
siege  of,  396 
■ besieged  by  Suleiman  II.,  and  explo- 
sive mines  used,  396 
Rhodian  and  Dorian  commerce   to  Spain, 

Egypt,  and  Sicily,  573 
Rhyme  introduced  from  Arabia,  552 
Richard  I.  reaches  Palestine  with  reinforce- 
ments, 482 

kills  prisoners  taken  at  'Akka,  482 

defeats  Saluh-ed-diu  at  Arsiif,  483 

treats  with  Salah-ed-din  and  returns  to 

England,  483 
Richel,  one  of  the  six  mouths  of  the  Bagar 

branch  of  the  Indus,  372 
Rigebelis,  king  of  Babylon,  145 
Riphath,  followers  of,  from  Japhet,  38 

,  the  territory  in  which  they  settled,  38, 

43 
Rishathaim-Cushan  subdues  the  Israelites, 

and  rules  over  Mesopotamia,  106 
Rdbbin,  7e/,  village  on  the  plain  of  Zakhii, 

224 
Rock  temples  prevail  in  various  countries, 

612 
Rocks  destroyed  by  fire  in  Egypt  and  China, 

G17 
Rollers  for  raising  water,  652,  653 
Roman  wars  with  the  Persians  under  Hor- 

misdas,  444 
Romans,  and  progress   of  their    power   in 
Asia,  404 

,  the,   enter  into   a    treaty    with    the 

Parthians,  406 

,  and  their  campaign  under  Lucullus  iu 

Armenia,  406 

■ .  and  their   fii-st   campaign  in  Parthia 

imder  Crassus,  407 

,  second  invasion  of  Parthia,  defeat  and 

death  of  Crassus.  409-411 


INDEX. 


'f)0 


Romans,   province    of   Syria    invndod    by 

Pacorus,  412 
,  under  Antony,   invade    Parthia,  and 

are  defeated,  4i;5.  414 
,  expedition  sent  under  iElins  Gailus  to 

South  Arabia  by  Augustus,  414,  415 
,  Augustus  recovers  trophies  from  the 

Partliians  taken  from  Crassus,  4U) 
,  and  their  campaigns  in  Galilee  under 

Vespasian  and  Titus,  41 7,' 418 
invade  Assj^ria  under  Trajan,  4 1 9 

descend    tlie    rivers   Euphrates    and 

Tigris,  419,  420 

commence  the  Nahr  Malka,  419 

,  unsuccessftil  expedition  of  the,  against 

the  Hagarenes,  420,  421 
,  the,  under  Cassius,  defeat  the  Persians, 

421 
,  the,  under  Sevorus,  march  against  the 

Parthians,  and  descend   the   Euphrates, 

421 
,  the,   enter  the  Tigris  by  the   Nahr 

Malka,  and  capture  Ctesiphon,  421 
,  the,  ascend  the  Tigris  to  Upper  Meso- 
potamia, 421 
.  second  and  third  siege  of  Atra  (El 

Hadhr)  by  the,  421,  422 

,  the,  in  Great  Britain,  422 

,  the  invasion  of  their  territories  by  the 

Parthians  and  Persians  under  Artaxerxes, 

422,  423 

,  the,  defeat  Artaxerxes,  423 

,  Borani  Scythians  invade  the  territories 

of  the,  424 
,  the,  defeated  by  Sapor,  and  Valerian 

taken  prisoner,  424 
,  invasion  of  the  European  provinces 

of,  by  the  Goths,  &c.,  424 
,  civil  war,  and  accession  of  Regilliauus, 

425 

provinces  in  Asia  laid  waste  by  the 

Persians  under  Sapor,  425 

,  Odenatus  becomes  the  ally  of  the,  42  5 

,  the,  assisted  by  Odenatus,  defeat  the 

Persians,  425,  42  G 

■ ,  destruction  of  Palmyra  by  the,  428- 

430 

,  the,  after  the  fall  of  Zenobia,  regain 

their  lost  territory,  430 

,  emt)assies  from  king  Hormisdas,  and 

from  China,  &c.,  to  the,  430 

,  Galerius,  Diocletian's  general  of  the, 

defeats  the  Persians,  430 

,  the,  enter  into  a  treaty  with  Persia, 

430 

,  wars  under  Constantius  with  the  Per- 
sians under  Sapor  II.,  430-433 

,  retreat  of  the,  commenced  from  Ctesi- 
phon under  .Tulian,  439 

,  death  of  Julian,  and  nomination  of 

Jovian  by  the,  440 

retreat  under  Jovian,  440,  441 

,  imder  Belisarius,  are  defeated  by  the 

Persians,  442 

,  Antioch  takeu   by  Chosroes  I.  from 

the,  443,  444 

,  the,  defeat  Chosroes,  444 

VOL.  II. 


Romans,  the.  arsis^  Cliosro?s  II.  to  jmt  ilouu 

the  rebtllioii  of  \'eraues,  445 

,  wars  witli  ('liosroes  II.,  445,  44G 

Route  by  tlie  .Nile  to  India,  5SU 

Route  through  B.iibar\,  5ti5 

Aleppo  and  along  the  Euplirates, 

585 
to  Central  Asia,  from  Constantinople, 

585 
through  the  Persian  Gulf  and  along 

the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,   589 
Syria  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  opened 

by  Queen  Elizabeth,  590-593 
Routes  from  Babylonia  to  Greece,  225 

through  Syria  and  Arabia,  5li9,  570 

from  Tyre,  570 

by  sea  to  (^hina,  571 

through  Central  Asia,  571-573 

India  the  Panj-;'ib,  &c.,  572 

to  India  through  Egypt,  585 

from   Asia  by  tlie  rivers  Wolga  and 

Don,  587 
,    commercial,  through    Asia    Minor, 

&c.,  by  Sivaz,JTabriz,  Khoriisan,  &c.,  5S7, 

588 

(see  Caravan  Routes) 

Roxana  married    to    Alexander,    after  his 

capturing  the  hill  fort  of  Oxyarta,  317 
,   advantage  of  lier  alliance  to  Alex- 

andei',  317 
,  her  son  shares  the  government  with 

Aridajus  after  Alexander's  death,  380 
endeavours  to  secure  the  throne,  380, 

381 

and  her  son  Alexander  are  murdered 

by  Cassander,  391 

Ruad,  or  Aradus,  276 

Rudah,  an  ancient  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and 

now  dry,  373 
Rudolph  of  Bruges  inti'oduces  algebra  into 

Europe,  560 
Rum,   or  Anadoli,   a   Seljukian   kingdom, 

473 
Hulakii  extends  his  dominion  over  the 

princes  of.  491 
,  Taimur's  campaign  in,  494 

subdivided  after  the  time  of  Malik 

Shah,  497 

Rum  Kal'ah,  609 

Russia,  and  I5atu's  territories  iu,  named  the 

Kiptshak,  490 
and  the  proposed  combined  march  to 

India,  536,  537 
Russian  wars  with  the  Turks,  502-504 

trade  with  Persia.  595,  59G 

with  Central  Asia,  596 

exports  ard  imports  to  aud  from  Asia, 

507 
Russians,  the,  encourage  trade,  596 

Saba,  the  name  of  Meroe,  47 

,  or  Mareb,  50 

,  Ard-es,  locality  so  called,  83 

,  afterwards  Meroe,  probably  identical 

with  Sheba,  123 
,  or  Sheba,  names  existing  in  Africa 

and  Arabia,  123 

3  E 


770 


INDEX. 


Saba,  the  Abyssinians  claim  the  qneeii  of 
Sheba,  123 

,  Sheba,  or  Asaba,  means  south,  123 

of   Yemeu    probably    identical    with 

Sheba,  123 

,  or  ^Nlareb,  probably  the  Marsyaba  of 

iElius  Gallus,  415 

,  a  nomad  tribe  of  Arabia,  448 

Sabacus,  or  So,  king  of  Egypt,  140 
Sabseans  and  Berbers  of  Ab)  ssiuia,  456 
Sabaei  and  Homeritce  one  people,  46,  47, 123 

and  the  Himyarites  the  same  people, 

73 

,  caravan  routes  of  the  early,  124 

Sabaism,  probably  existed  previously  to  the 

deluge,  15 
,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Seth  and 

Enos,  20 

,  at  one  time  general  in  the  world,  57 

,  Abraham's  conversion  from,  G3 

of  the  shepherd  race  of  Egypt,  74 

of  the  Persians,  1S4 

• ■,  the  ancient  religion  of  Gi'eece,  517 

Sabatha  captured  by  Julian,  438 

Sahbas   or  Sambus,  king  of   the  territorj', 

now  called  Sinde,  submits  to  Alexander, 

338 
Sabean  followers  of  Cush,  called  Chaldeans, 
■^53 

Sabektekin,  a  Turkish  leader,  469 
Sabtah,  in  Arabia,  50 
Sacea,  festival  held  at  Babylon  the  night  of 

its  capture  by  Cyrus,  IGiJ 
Sadder,  the  compendium  of  the  Zend-avesta, 

183 
Saftft,  or  Jotapata,  formerly  Bethuliah,  151 
Saffah  Al,  or  Al  Walid,  458 
Saihun  (formerly  the  Sarus),   crossed   by 

Cyrus,  probably  near  Adauah,  210,  211 
Sa'in  Kal'eh,  413 
Sakiil  Tiitan  (Beard   Catcher),  Cvrus  at, 

211 
Sakala  (see  Sangala) 
Salaam,  'Abd-Allah   Ibn    an  instructor  of 

Muhammed,  452 
Salagassians  subjected  by  Alexander,  267 
Salahed-din's  early  campaigns  against  the 

Crusaders,  476 
assumes  the  chief  command  in  Egypt, 

476 
takes  Gaza,  and  becomes  viceroy  of 

Egypt,  476 
,  his  distribution  of  Al  'Adbed's  trea- 
sure, 477 

,  change  of  character,  477 

,  proceeds     against     Damascus,    &c. ; 

returns  to  Egypt,  and  assumes  the  title  of 

sult.in,  477 
uusuccessful  against  the  Crusaders  in 

Palestine,  and  retreats  to  Egypt,  478 
,  Lis  campaigns  iu  Mesopotamia,  Syria, 

and  Yemen.  478 
,  his  brother  destroys  the  fleets  of  the 

Crusaders  on  the  Ked  Sea,  478,  479 

gains  possession  of  Aleppo.  479 

takes  Til>eriaS,  and  defeats  the  Cru- 
saders near  Ilutti'ii,  479 


Sahih-ed-di'n  takes  Jerusalem,  479 

shows  clemency  to  his  captives,  479, 

480 
improves  the  condition  of  Jerusalem, 

480 

besieges  Tyre  ineffectually,  480 

,  battles  before  'Akka,  480,  482 

withdi'aws  from  "Akka  to  defend  Con- 
stantinople, 481 

defeated  by  Barbarossa,  481 

throws  reinforcements  into 'Akka,  480, 

482 
surrenders  'Akka  to   the   Crusaders, 

482 

defeated  on  the  plains  of  Arsiif,  483 

retires  to  Damascus,  and   his  death, 

483 

,  his  origin,  and  character,  483 ' 

,  extent  of  the  empire  of,  484 

Salamis,  Xerxes'  lieet  defeated  by  that  of  the 

Greeks  at,  195 
Salatis,  the  first  of  the  shepherd  kings  of 

Egjpt,  73  _ 
,  Memphis  the  seat  of  government  of, 

73 
Salem,  the  seat  of  government  of  the  early 

Shemites,  26 

,  Melchizedec's  government,  2n 

Salmonte,  where  Alexander  meets  Nearchus 

on  returning  from  India  with  his  fieet, 

351,  352 
Samarcaud,  the  capital  of  the  empire  founded 

by  the  Himyarites  in  Bactria,  called  after 

Shamar,  an  Arab  prince,  8 1 
,  inscriptions  on  the  gates  of,  resemble 

those  found  at  Yacuta,  81,  84 
Samaritans  interrupt  the  rebuilding  of  the 

temple,  172 
Samarkand,  once  Maracanda,  the  capital  of, 

312 

Alexander  halts  at  Sogdiana,  312 

taken  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 

Tai'mur's  capital,  492 

,  trade  with,  581 

and  Kashmir,  manufactures  of  paper, 

583 
Samarrah,    probably     near  the   niins    of 

Opis,  361 
ruins,  supposed  to  i-epresent  Sambana, 

364     I 

once  the  capital  of  Masabadan,  364 

probably  represents  the  town  of  Su- 

mera,  440 
Sambana,  Alexander's  ainiy  on  march  to- 
wards Media,  halt  at,  3G4 
supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  ruins 

of  Samarrah,  364 
Sambata)  of  Ptolemy,  situation,  &c.  of  the, 

147  inote) 
Samius,  admiral  of  the  Laccdajmonian  fleet, 

sent  to  assist  Cyrus,  204 
Sammarrah,  military  station  at,  46.5 
Samos,  Darius"  expedition  to  reinstate  Sy- 

loson  on  the  throne  of,  178 
Siimsiin,  port  of,  and  trade,  595  (and  Ap- 
pendix N.) 
Sau'a  and  Himyari',  inscriptions  near 


INDEX. 


San'ii,  and  inscriptions  from  Msireb,  83 
Sanam  Jebel,  near  tlie  site  ofTcreilon,  356 
Sanc'-ha-d\vipa,  tlie  last  place  to  which  the 

name  of  Cush  was  applied,  46 
Sandariou  proposes  the  surrender,  to  Aure- 

lian,  of  Palmyra,  429 

murdered  at  Palmyra,  430 

Sandracottus  opposes   the    advance  of  Se- 

leucus  beyond  the  Indus,  treaty  with  him, 

397 
Saugala,  or  Sakala,  capital  of  the  Cathaei 

of  India,  330,  331 

carried  by  storm  and  levelled  to  the 

ground  by  Alexander,  331 

now  the  ruins  of  Ilaripa,  C31 

Sani  Khiiii,  a  Seljukian  district,  497 
Sanpoo,  or  Brahmapootra,  sources  of  the, 

3o9 
Sanscrit,  the  Pehlavi,  and  Greek,  from  one 

root.  84-SG 
Sapau  Tiigh,  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  pass, 

228 
Sapor  I.  succeeds  Artaxerxes  on  the  throne 

of  Persia,  423 

renews  the  war  with  the  Romans,  424 

captures  Autioch,  defeats  the  Romans 

near  Edessa,  and  takes  Valerian  prisoner, 

424 

lays  waste  Mesopotamia,  425 

,  indignity  offered  to  Odenatus  by,  425 

,  campaign  of  the  Romans  and  Palmy- 

reaus  under  Odenatus  against,  425,  426 
succeeded  by  Hormisdas,  430 

II.,  wars    between   Constantius   and, 

430-433 

,  Julian's  invasion  of  Persia  in  the  reign 

of,  433-439 

,  the  Rouiaiis  under  Julian  and  Jovian 

reheat  before.  439, 440 
Saracens,  or  Sharkeyn,  people  so  called,  70 

,  or    Hagarents.    Trajan's   expedition 

against  the,  420 

,  Moors  and  Arabs,  so  called,  4.56 

Saraehus  (see  Chinilidanus) 
Sarah,  or  Iscah,  wife  of  Abraham,  death  of, 
70 

,  the  Saracens  not  called  after,  76 

Saranga  country,  and  Nearchus'  fleet,  346 
SardanapaUi.';,     Esarhaddon,    supposed     to 
have  been,  14% 

founded  Auchialus,  260 

Sardinia  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457 
Sardis  burnt  by  Aristagoras,  182 

,  the  winter  quarters  of  Xerxes"  army 

before  the  invasion  of  Greece.  192 

,  advance  of  Cyrus  from,  20.5 

,  distance  of  Thapsacus  computed,  207 

■  and  ifc;  treasure  surrendered  to  Alex- 
ander, 265 
,  temple  of  Jupiter  erected  at,  by  Alex- 
ander, 26  8 

taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  403 

Sardochffius  (vide  Sassduchinus),  140 
Saree,  formerly  named  Sadracarta,  305 

the  satrap  of  Tapnria  and  oMier  chiefs 

transferred  their  allegiance  to  Alexander 
at,  305 


Sargoti,  of  Is-iiah  (see  Senmcluriii) 
Sarmatians,  descended  from  Gomer,  44 

invade  the  Roman  provinces  in  Europe 

Europe,  424 
Sar-piili-Zohab,  once  Calah,  built  by  Nim- 

riid,  24  (and  iiaii:) 
Sarus,  now  the  Saiiiiiii,  crossed  by  Cyrus, 

probably  near  Adiinah,  210,  211 
Sasauian  remains  at  Sliapur,  6()7,  018 
Sassduchinu.'?,  or  Sardocha;us,  son  of  Esar- 
haddon, carries  the  kingof  Judah  captive 
to  Babylon,  146 
succeeds  Esarhaddon,  146 

conquers  Phraartes,  and  takes  Ecba- 

tana,  146-148 

,  his  organized  army,  149 

,  title  of,  149 

march  of  the  army  of,   under  Hole- 
femes,  to  C'dicia,  149-151 

succeeded  by  Chinilidanus,  151 

Satibarzanes  invades  the    territory  of  the 
ludi,  308 

is  defeated  and  slain,  308 

,  one  of  the  satraps  who    caused   the 

death  of  Darius,  304 

pardoned  by  Alexander,  and  sent  to 

his  seat  of  government  with  distinction, 
306 

,  his  treacherous  conduct  towards  Alex- 
ander, 306 

deserted  by    his    followers  and   flies 

from  his  capital,  30G 

Saturn,  the  Cronus  of  the  Greeks,  58 
Saul,  accessicm  of,  119 

,  wars  and  death  of,  119,  120 

Scaadiuavians  supposed  descendants  of  the 

Trojans.  512 
Scharbabil,  a  kinL'  of  the  Himyarites,  60 
,  and  the  Chaldeans  descended  from, 

53,  54 
Sclavouians,  descended  from  Japhet,  38 
,  and  trade  along  the  Black  and  Caspian 

seas.  5S2 
Scott    Michael,   a  pupil  of  the  school   of 

Toledo,    translates    Aristotle   and    other 

works,  5iJ2,  563 
Sculpture   derived    by    tbe    Greeks    from 

Egypt,  516 

,  architecture,  &.C.,  of  Fran,  604 

of  the  ancients,  621 

Sculptures,   and   other   remains,   found    at 

Khorsabad,  136,  137  (note) 
,  connexion  of  wita  the  history  of  As- 
syria, 136 
■ at  Khorsabad  probably  represent  the 

taking  of  Tyre,  1 '^T  (iiofe) 
Scuthai,  the  Cushiies.  so  called,  37 
Scylax  despatched    by   Darius  to  navigate 

the  Indus,  180 

voyage,  furnished  additional    know- 
ledge of  the  cast,  340 

Scythia  invaded  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  180, 

181 
Scythian  invasions  of  Media  and  Assyria, 

'l  52 

wars  with  the  Parti lians.  405 

Scvthians,  descended  from  Magog,  44 

8e2 


772 


INDEX. 


Scythians  conquered  by  Sesostris,  108,'  109 
;  the,  invade  Persia  and  slaughter  the 

Magi,  183 

,  the,  defeated  by  Darius'  son,  18G 

,  or  Scythiuians,  march  of  the  ten  thou- 
sand Greeks  through  the  country  of  the, 

232 
,  commencement  and  spread  of  their 

power,  232 
send    an    embassy  to   Alexander    iu 

Sogdiana,  313 

of  Asi,  called  Abii,  313 

and  Sogdians  revolt  and  occupy  their 

strongholds,  313 

,  the,  submit  to  Alexander,  314 

,  Borani,  invade  the  Koman  territories 

in  Asia,  42-i 

of  Herodotus,  or  Mongols,  487 

affinity  of,  to  the  American  language 

and  people,  509 
,  early  conquests  of,  their  frugality  and 

martial  spirit,  510 

,  spread  of,  to  Egypt,  511 

the  Kimmerians  and  Celts  spread  into 

Europe,  511,  512 

worshipped  Orpheus  and  Linus,  513 

mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  at  Per- 

sepolis  {Appendix  B.) 
Sebaste   captured    by   the    Komans    under 

Balista,  426 
Secchoo,  or  Lingtee,  tributary  of  the  Indus, 

369 
Seetzen  and  Himyari  inscriptions,  81 
Sefid,  Kul'eh,   defile,  represents  the  Uxian 

pass  and  the  Persian  gates,  299,  300 
Sefi'd,  Kal'ah,  taken  by  Taimiir,  493 
Sehwan,  once  Sindomana,  371 
Seleucia,    afterwards  Antiochia    Margiana, 

and  now  Merw-el-Kud  on  the  riverMurgh- 

ab,  317,  318 

Alexandria  in  Margiana,  afterwards 

named,  317 

Seleucia.  the  port  of  Antioch,  constructed  by 

Seleucus,  399 

(on  the  Tigris)  built  by  Seleucus,  399 

,  and  Surena's  triumph  at,  412 

taken  by  the, Romans  under  Severus,  421 

,  tunnel  of,  G14 

Seleucidtc,  period  of  the  commencement  of 

the.  390 
Seleucus,  governor  of  Babylonia,  Eumenes 

advances  against,  382 
,  his  plan   to   destroy   Eumenes,   but 

enters  into  a  truce  with  him,  383 
and  Antigonus  are  defeated  by  Eumenes 

in  Susiana,  383,  384 

combines  with  Ptolemy,  &c.,  against 

Aniigonus,  389 

flies  from  Babylon  on  the  approach  of 

Antigonus,  389 
,  on  the  defeat  of  Demetrius,  resumes 

his  government  of  Babylonia,  390 
,  commences  the  era  of  the  Seleucidsc, 

390 
proclaims  himself  king,  392 

extends  his  territory  to   India,   and 

returns  to  Babylonia,  3'JJ,  397 


Seleucus  defeats  Antigonus  at  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  in  Cappadocia,  397 

,  and  extent  of  his  territory  after  An- 
tigonus' death,  398 

,  his  generous  treatment  of  Demetrius, 

398 

resigns  his  queen  and  a  part  of  his 

empire  to  his  son,  399 

,  cities  buMt  by,  399 

is  assassinated  by  Ptolomy  Ceraunus, 

399 

,  character  of,  399 

Callinicus'  invasion  of  Parthia,  402 

Ceraunus  succeeded  by  Antiochus  the 

Great,  402 

Philopater  successor  of  Antiochus  in 

Parthia,  404 

Selga;,  Alexander  forms  an  alliance  with, 

267 
Seljukian  dynasty,  rise  and  progress  of  the, 

470 

,  separated  into  four  kingdoms,  473 

,  divided  into  several  districts,  497 

,  conquests  by  Murad,  498 

Seljukians  expelled  from  Karamaniaby  the 

Turks,  499 
Selim  I.  reigns  over  the  Turks,  500 
TL,  his  canal  between  the  Don  and  tlie 

Wolga,  501 
Semiramis,  wife  of  Menon,  Ninus  marries, 

115 

,  greatness  of,  after  Ninus'  death,  115 

,  conquests,  and  public  works  of,  )  1 5, 

116,118 

' ,  founds  the  city  of  Shemiramgerd.  1 1 6 

,  remains  found  near  lake  Van,  relating 

to,  116 
,  inscriptions  at  Bisutuu  relative  to,  116, 

117 
,  Bisutun  identified  as  the  Mount  Ba- 

ghistane  of,  117 

advances  to  the  frontiers  of  India,  118 

resigns  the  throne  iu  favour  of  her  son 

Ninyas,  118 
Semiramis  II.,  the  queen  or  mother  of  Na- 

bonassar,  139 
,  works  carried  on  at  Babylon  by,  139, 

140 

,  successors  of,  140 

,  canal  cut  by,  facilitated  the  diversion 

of  the  river  Euphrates  at  the  capture  of 

Babylon,  166 

voyage  furnished  Alexander   with  a 

knowledge  of  the  east,  340 

encounters  the  lleet  of  Strabrotatus  on 

the  ludus,  576 

Senegal  river,  Carthaginian  voyage  to  the, 
190 

Sennacherib,  son  and  successor  of  Shalma- 
neser,  overthrows  Elibus,  king  of  Baby- 
lon, and  places  his  sou  Esar-IIaddou  on 
the  throne  of  Babylon,  141 

overthrows  the  Greeks,  141 

,  his  first  invasion  of  Judea,  and  period 

of,  142 

,  his  army  destroyed  before  Jerusalc- 

he  flies  to  Nineveh,  and  is  assassinaf 


INDEX. 


I  / 


Silys,  called  the  Jaxartes,  Araxcs,  &c.,  31  u 

Ak'xamler  woiimU'd  near  the,  312 

mistaken  for  the  Tauais,  312 

Sin,  Siuiiu,  or  China,  30,  33 

Sinaar,  also  called  Kusdi  Nimriid,  18 

took  the  name  of  Babel  after  the  dis- 
persion, 18 

Sennacherib,  Berossus'  and  Eusebius'  account 
of  the  death  of,  142,  143 

,  and  Egyptian  account  of  his  destruc- 
tion by  Heroilolus,  143 

,  Egyptian  statue  in  commemoration  of 

the  destruction  of  the  anuy  of,  143 

Serpent,  the,  an  emblem  of  the  sun,  and 
worshipped  in  Phoenicia  and  Chaldea,  20 

and  the  sun,  besides  the  signs  of  the 

zodiac,  are  supposed  to  have  been  repre- 
sented on  the  dome  of  the  tower  of  Babel, 
26 

Sepphoris,  or  El  Buttauf,  plains  of,  479 

Septuagiut  rersion  of  the  Old  Testament 
emanated  from  the  library  established  by 
Ptolemy  II.,  of  Egypt,  399 

Sepulchral  excavations  near  Charmali'k  and 
Narsis,  610-612 

Seriif  trade  to  China,  577 

Serdaubs  of  Persia,  625 

Sergiopolis  (Resafa),  Chosroes  I.  passes, 
444 

Serica,  route  to,  572 

Se'rt,  probably  represents  the  first  of  the 
ten  thousand  Greeks,  227 

Serug,  a  Shemitic  Chaldean,  55 

Seruj  retaken  from  the  Crusaders  by  Nur- 
ed-di'n,  476 

Sesac,  or  Shishak,  107 

Sesostris,  or  Sethos,  king  of  Egj^pt,  or  Ka- 
raeses  II.,  known  by  many  names,  107 

,  his  fleets,  armies,  and   conquests  of, 

107-109 

,  his  works  commenced  after  his  return 

from  Scythia,  109 

,  left  a  colony  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 

Sea,  109 

is  said  to  have  planted  a  colony  in  the 

Caucasus,  109 

and  Armenia  dependent  upon  his  go- 
vernment, 109,  110 

,  and  government  derived  from,  by  the 

inhabitants  of  Nysa,  323 

,  and  Dionysus  or  Bacchus,  323 

,  his  voyage  threw  additional  light  on 

the  knowledge  of  the  east,  340 

Sessac,  king  of  the  Himyarites,  80 

Seth,  and  apostacy  of  his  descendants,  3 

.  his  descendants  acquainted  with  astro- 
nomy, &c.,  9 

,  presumed  books  of,  23 

Setharboznai  ordered  by  Darius  to  rebuild 

the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  177 
Sethos,  king   of  Egypt,   with  -whom  Sen- 

nachei"ib  intended  to  wage  war,  143 
Sevan,  lake  of,  now  called  Goukcha,  built 
by  Gelam's  descendants,  42 

,  several  towns  along  the  shores  of,  42 

Severus,  expedition  against  the  Parthians, 
and  descent  of  the  Euphrates,  42 1 


Severus'  fleet  passes  throngh  the  Nahr  Malku 
into  the  Tigris,  and  captures  Ctesiphon, 
421 

receives  the  title  of  Severus  Maximns, 

421 

,  second  and  third  siege  of  Atra,  421, 

422 

Severus  proceeds  to  Palestine  and  Egypt.  422 

dies  in  Great  Piritain,  when  about  to 

invade  Caledonia,  AJ.-2 

Seuthes,  son  of  Ma;sadcs,  the  10,000  Greeks 
assist,  241 

,  mode  of  paying  the  Greeks,  241 

Shddarwan,  of  Shuster,  and  its  construction, 
C27 

Shahri-Zohak,  or  U'hin  Robat,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  capital  of  the  Arachosi,  307 

Shah  Tamasp  of  Persia,  497 

Shfih  Rokh,  son  of 'iVimiir,  and  h'.s  territory 
retained  by,  496 

Shairacuk  recovers  Egypt  from  the  Cru- 
saders, 476 

Shalmanesser  (or  Arbianes  of  Ctesias)  in- 
vades Israel,  140 

,  his  second  invasion,  and  captivity  of 

the  seven  tribes  of  Israel,  140.  141 

sends  colonies  of  Assyrians  into  Sa- 
maria, 141 

succeeded  by  his  son  Sennacherib,  141 

Shamanun,  or  mountain  of  the,  7,  8 

Shamar,  an  Arab  prince,  and  Samarcand,  81 

Shammar,the,  a  nomad  tribe  of  Arabia,  448 

Shapur,  or  Shawer  river,  by  which  Nearchus' 
fleet  reached  Susa,  357 

Shapur,  remains  at,  607,  618 

Sharezer,  son  and  murderer  of  Sennacherib, 
142 

Shar-in-Shah,  the  title  of  Saosdnchinus,  149 
(note) 

Shash,  commercial  route  through,  572 

Shayuk,  tributary  of  the  river  Indus,  arising 
from  the  Kara  Korum  mountains  in 
Thibet,  369 

Sheba,  in  Arabia,  50 

,  Beni,  from  a  son  of  Joktam,  52 

,  inquiry   concerning  _^the  position  of, 

123 

,  or  Saba,  names  found  both  in  Africa 

and  Arabia,  123 

is  claimed  by  the  Abyssinians,  123 

,  journey  of  the  queen  of,  recorded  by 

ditto,  123 

,  queen  of,  was  succeeded  by  her  son, 

123, 124 

Shechem  the  capital  of  the   kingdom    of 

Israel,  132 
Shediid,  king  of  the  Himyarites,  80 

,  called" Shed-id-ben-' Ad,  80 

SheTir,  Abu  (see  Bushire) 

Sheikhavi,  "S^■adl,  and  Himyari  inscriptions, 

82 
Shem,  his  route  on  separating  from  Noah 
and  his  brothers,  13 

,  high  priest,  chosen  to  the  exclusion 

of  his  brother  Ham,  15 

,  his  descendants  spread  over  Babylonia, 

and  first  possessions  allotted  to  him,  16 


774 


INDEX. 


Shem,  spread  of  his  d'-sccudants  westward,  1 7 

,  the  migration  of  his  and  Ham's  de- 
scendants took  place  about  the  same  time, 
20 

,  his  descendants  driven  by  Ham's  from 

the  plains  of  Shiuar  to  Assyria,  and  the 
higher  parts  of  Mesopotamia,  23 

,  the  true  worship  supposed  to  have  pre- 
vailed among  the  descendants  of,  25 

,  his  descendants  occupied  Upper  Meso- 
potamia and  a  great  part  of  Syria  up  to 
the  time  of  the  dispersion,  20 

,  as  Melchizedec,  considered,  27 

Shemiraragerd,  city  founded  by  Semirarais, 
116 

,  inscriptions  found  at,  relating  to  ditto, 

116 

Shemites,  after  the  dispersion,  regain  part  of 
their  former  allotment;  called  Mesopo- 
tamians,  Arameans,  and  Assyrians ;  Nine- 
veh one  of  the  principal  settlements  of 
the,  1,  2 

,  the  Chaldeans  descended  from  the,  3 

,  the  shepherds  who  conquered  Egypt 

probahly  a  mixed  race  of  Cushites  and, 
73 

,  of  Upper  Mesopotamia  and  seat  of, 

77 

and  Cushites  of  Syria  and  Palestine 

intermingling  gave  rise  to  a  mixed  lan- 
guage, 85 

Shemitic  possessions  after  the  dispersion, 
31,  44 

people  commingle  with  the  descend- 
ants of  Ham  and  Japhet,  39 

possessions   in   Mesopotamia,    Syria, 

Assyria,  Babylonia,  &c.,  44 

people,  two  great  tribes,  possess  most 

of  western  Arabia,  48,  509,  510 

race  ou  the  steppes  of  INIesopotamia 

spoke  the  Babylonian  or  Chaldean  lan- 
guage, 53 

people,  also  the  Sabeau  followers  of 

Cush,  were  designated  Chaldeans,  53 

people,  as  also  the  descendants  of  Ham, 

called  Chasdim,  and  why,  55 

Chaldeans,  represented  by  the  Beni 

Khaled,  55.  509 

philosophy  like  that  of  Aristotle,  526 

Shems,  'Abd-el,  the  worshipper  of  the  sun,  52 
,   a    d'  scendaut    of   Kahtan    succeeds 

Ya'rab,  52 

,  Kaklan  succeeds,  52 

Shepherds,  the,   opposed   to   the    Egyptian 

religion,  and  Sabaism  of  the,  74 
,  the  sixth  king  of,   added  live  inter- 
calary days  to  the  year,  74 
,  kings  of  Arabia,  or  Hyk-sos,  time  of 

their  inroad  and  departure  from  Egypt, 

74,  75 

,  the  earliest  were  Cushites,  75 

■  settled  in  Phoenicia,  112 

■ assist  in  founding  the  city  and  kingdom 

of  Tyre,  112 

become  a  maritime  peopk',  112 

led  by  Arcles  or  Ccrtus  into  Phoeuicia, 

112 


Sheri'at  al   Beidha,   the   presumed  site  of 

the  Sitace  of  Xenophon,  221 
Sherkat,  Kal'ah,  also  called  U'r,  37 
Shesh-bazzar  (see  Zerubbabel) 
Shi'ah,  sect  founded  by  'All,  456 
■  struggles    for    power,    and    division 

caused  by  the,  463,  475,  476 
,  separate  from  the  Sunnies  and  become 

a  distinct  empire,  487 
Shikoftehi-Suleiman,  ruins  near,  probably 

represent  the  Uxian  city  taken  by  Alex- 
ander, 299 
Shinar,  plain  of,  13 
— — ',  and  Eusebius  statement  regarding  the 

sons  of  Noah,  17 
,  the  Hamites  drive  a  portion  of  the 

Shemites    into  Assyria,  and  inhabit  the 

plain  of,  23 
,  supposition  that  it  was  inhabited  be- 
fore the  flood,  23 
.  remarkable  places  within  the  limits  of 

the  land  of,  24 
Shipping   from    India  to  the  Persian  and 

Arabian  gulfs  (^Appendix  H.) 
Shiraz,  a  commercial  city,  taken  by  Taimiir, 

493,581 
Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  invades  Judah,  and 

carries  oft' treasure,  132,  133 
,  or  Amenophis,  the  Bala  of  the  Arabs, 

132 
Shi'z,  Canzaca  (the  Atropatanian  Ecbatana), 

183 
Zerd-husht  (Zoroaster)  commenced  his 

ministiy  at,  183 

,  fire  temple  of,  608 

Shur,  desert  of,  98 

Shushan,  the  residence  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 

172 
rebellion   of  the    Babylonians  during 

Darius'  reign,  on  account  of  the  Court's 

removal  to,  178 
Artaxerxes,  or  Ahasuerus'  banquet  at, 

198 
Shuster,  caves  of,  607 

Siba?,  Sivi,  or  Saivas,  on  the  Akesines,  335 
Siberia,  partly  subjected  by  Taimur,  492 
,  destruction  of  the  cities  in  the  vale 

of,  and  i^trabo's  account  of,  67 
,  the  formation  of  the  lakes  of  Sodom 

and  Gomorrah  in  the  vale  of,  68 
Sidodone  and  Nearchus'  tleet,  352 

,  probably  Duan  or  Mogoo,  352 

Sidou,  the  northern  limit  of  Canaan,  20 
Sidon  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475 
Sidoniau  settlements  in  the  Archipelago,  94 
Sieges  of  fortresses,  comparison  of,  in  ancient 

and  modern  times,  396 
Sigistiln,  subjected  by  the  Arabs,  457 
Signets  of  stone  and  metal  numerous  at  Ba- 
bylon, 630 
Sikkar,  and  changes  in  the  estuary  of  the 

Indus,  373 
Silk  from  China,  583 
Silks,  pearls,  &c..  exported  by  the  Arabs,  583 

and  porcelain  from  China,  583 

,  manufactory  of,    at    Amasi'yaJi  {Ap- 

pendix  N.) 


INDEX. 


775 


Sinaar  Cush,  or  Cutha,  was  king  of,  18 
Sinai,  Mount,  covenant  of,  and  the  Koran, 

452 
Sinde,  Alexander  receives  the  suhniiEsiou  of 

Sabbas,  king  of,  338 
Sindomana  (see  Schwan)  [ 

Sindus,  Sinziug  kampa,  or  Eckhung-choo,   1 

names  of  the  Indus,  308,  369  \ 

Singara,  defeat  of  the  Romans  by  the  Per-   i 

sians  near,  431 

lakeu  by  Sapor  II.,  433 

restored  to  the  Persians  by  the  treaty 

of  Jovian,  441 
Sing-he-tsiu  Chu,  branch  of  the  Indus,  3G9 
Singiticus  Sinus  (see  INIonte  Santo) 
Siujar,  the  presumed  seat  of  the  descendants 

of  Seth,  5 
Sinope,  a  Milesian  colony,  574 
Siolki  mountain,  a  part  of  the  Paropamisus, 

309 
Sippara,  or  Hippara,  mentioned  by  Beros- 

sus,  5 

search  for  the  writings  left  in,  7 

,  proof  that  Sabaism  existed  before  the 

flood,  15 
,  or  Sepharvaim,  colonists  sent  by  Shal- 

nianeser,  141 
Sir,  estuary  of  the  Pinyari  river,  372 
Sirwan,  or  Keiliiu  fsee  Celonae) 
Sisac,  from  whom  the  Sisakans  or  Seunics 

were  named,  42 
,  his  territory  around  the  sea  of  Gelam 

or  lake,  Sevan,  now  Goukcha,  42 
Sisakans,  or  Seunics,  42 
Sisibranum,  fortress  in  Persia,  taken  by  the 

Komans,  443 
Sisygambis  made  captive,  and  honourably 

treated  by  Alexander  after  the  battle  of 

Issus,  275,  270 

takes   Hephaistion  to  be  Alexander, 

275 

intercedes  with  Alexander  in  behalf 

of  the  conquered  Uxians,  299 

Sittace,  the  10,000   Greeks   encamp  near, 

221 
Sittacene,   village    passed    by  Alexander's 

marching  towards  Media,  3';4 
Sitha,  Julian's  army  reach,  43(i 
Sitakus,  a  station  of  Xearchus'  fleet,  353 

■ ,  now  Bushire,  353,  354 

Si'vas  besieged  and  taken  by  Taimiir,  494 
Si'vaz,  proposed  depot  cf  trade,  COl 

,  trade  througli,  5^9,  395 

,  articles  in  demand  at  (Appendix  A^.) 

Siyah,  Viz,  or  Kiih  Siya,  now  Khorran-ubad, 

365 
Si'yahan  (see  Hajamari) 
Skythinians,  or  Scythians,  487,  510,  511 
Smyrna  taken  by  Taimur,  495 
Smerdis  (see  Bardcus) 
Smicres,  the  Thracians  defeat  the  Arcadians 

under,  238 
Sochi,  and  Darius  halt  at,  2G9 

possibly    Ukiiz-Suzle  on  the    Afn'u, 

269 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Strabo's  account  of 
the  formatiou  of  the  lakes  of,  67,  68 


Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  scriptural  and  pro- 
fane accounts  of,  68 

Sogd,  Al,  and  Alexander  lialt  at  Samarkand 
for  supplies,  312 

Sogdi,  and  royal  palace  of  the,  338 

and  Alexander's  march  against  King 

Musicanus,  338 

Sogdiana,  Bessus  retires  into,  before  Alex- 
ander, 31 1 

,  the  satrap  of,  delivers  Bessus  to  Alex- 
ander, 312 

and  Scythia  revolt  against  Alexander, 

313 

conquered  on  the  fall  of  Cyropolis,  314 

again  revolts  against  Alexander,  315 

and  Peucolaiis  appointed  satrap  of,  by 

Alexander,  315 

,  and  Alexanders  plan  of  operations 

against,  315,  316 

,  and|capture  of  the  liill  fort  of  Oxyarta, 

316,  317 

Sogdianus  murders  his  brother  Xerxes  and 
ascends  the  throne,  200 

deposed   and   succeeded  by    Darius 

Nothus,  200 

Sole  taken  by  Alexander,  269 

Soleiman,  successor  of  El  Walid,  457 

,  a  learned  Persian  from  whom  Mii- 

hammed  derived  knowledge,  452 

Soli',   or  Pompeiopalis  (see   Pompeiopolis), 
209 

Solomon  succeeds  David,  extent  of  his  king- 
dom, 121 

,  foreign  artizans,  &c.,  invited  to  Jeru- 
salem by, 121 

,  the  court  and  royal  establishments  of, 

121,  122 

,  materials,  &c.,  collected  for  building 

the  temple  of,  122 

,  the  idolatrous  temple  of,  for  his  Egyp- 
tian queen,  122 

,  store  cities,  and  other  great  under- 
takings of,  1 22 

,  the  queen  of  Sheba's  visit  to,  123,  124 

,  his  son  by  the  queen  of  Sheba  is  said 

to  have  reigned  over  Abyssinia,  1 23,  1 24 

,  the  Ophirian  voyages  in  the  reign  of, 

124-127 

,  people  who  traded  with,  128  (note) 

,  causes  of  discontent  among  the  Israel- 
ites towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of,  132 

introduced  idolatry,  132 

,  his  cisteitis,  660 

Solon  studies  in  Egjpt,  and  visits  Croesus  in 

Lydia,  520 
Solyina,   Melchisedek  king  of,  now  Jeru- 
salem, 66 
Sonmeiiuy  reached  by  Nearchus,  340 

poverty  of  the  people  of,  346 

Sophanems,    one   of  the    generals    of  the 
10,000  Greeks,  conveys   the  sick    from 
Trebizond,  235 
Sophene   ceded   by    the    Persians    to    the 

Komans,  430 
Sophi  dynasty  of  Persia,  497 
Sophlr,  "the  Egyptian  name  for  India,  its  re- 
semblance to  Ophir,  126 


776 


INDEX. 


Sorlings,  or    CassiterideS:    knowu    to    the 

Phoenicians,  575 
Sosarmus,  (see  Pul) 
Souterazi  of  the  Turks,  €59 
Spain,  early  Phoenician  and  Fgyptian  colo- 
nies established  in,  114 
,  Hispal  left  in  charge  of  a  colony  in, 

12S 
,  Cadiz  was  the  principal  port  of  the 

Phoenicians  in,  123 

invaded  by  the  Goths.  424 

invaded  by  the  Moors  under  Turikh 

Ibn  Zerka,   457 
,  and  attempt  of  the  Normans  to  expel 

the  Moors  from,  465 

and  Asiatic  origia  of  the  people,  513 

,  colony  supposed  to   have  settled  in 

Ireland  from,  514 
Spaniards,  the,  infatuated  with  Arabic  litera- 
ture, 553 
Spartans  descended  from  Lelex,  an  Egyptian 

112 
Spasinas,  city,  friendly  reception  of  Trajan 

at,  420 
,   Arabic  literature  and  schools,  &c., 

555 
Spitamenes,  satrap  of  Sogdiana,  retires  with 

Bessus    across   the    Oxus    before    Alex- 
ander, 311 
,  and  the  satrap  of  the  Dace,  deliver  up, 

Bessus  to  Alexander,  311,  312 
and  the  Sogdians  are  blockaded  in  their 

strongholds,  313 
,  Sogdia  submits  to  Alexander  on  the 

fall  of  Cyropolis,  313,  314 
.  activity  against  the  Macedonians,  314- 

316 
defeated  by  Ccenus,  and  his  head  sent 

to  Alexander,  316 
Sree  and  his  followers  proceed  to  Spain  and 

Ireland,  511 
Starki,  Cape.  393 
Statira,   or  Barsine,   wife  of  Alexander's, 

359 

,  murdered  by  Eoxana,  380 

Statianus,  Koman  general  under  Antony  in 

Parthia,  413 

defeated  by  the  Parthians,  413 

Stations  recommended   for  the  Euphrates, 

Tigris,  and  Karun  (Appendix  iV.) 
Statue,  colossal,  at  Babylon,  631 
Steam  vessels  and  locomotive  engines,  565 
Steamers,  the,  removed  from  the  Euphrates 

to  the  Indus,  600 
Steel  of  Khoriisan  and  Damascus,  631 
Stephanus  translates  astronomical  and  philo- 
sophical works  into  Arabic,  544 
Stonehenge,  the  principal  structure  of,  1 5 
Stone  tower,  route  by  the,  to  the  country  of 

the  Seres,  572 
,   commercial,  on  the  Euphrates,  and 

calculation   of    the  outlay   and    returns 

{Appendix  iV.) 
Stratonice,  resigned  by  Selencus  to  his  son 

Autiochus,  399 
Strymon,  river,  Xerxes'  army   advance  to 

the,  194 


Strymonicus  Sinus  (see  Gulf  of  Contessa) 
St.  Gallen,  abbot  of,  encourages  Arabic  lite- 
rature, 551 
Suania    invaded    by    the    Persians     under 

Veranes,  444 
Succoth.  the  fii'st  stage  of  the  exodus,  98 
Suda  Island,  3G7 
Sudrakas  (see  Ovydraca?) 
Suez,  position  of  the  sea  of,  as  regards  the 

passage  of  the  Israelites,  99 
Suez  canal  commenced  by  Pharaoh  Necho, 

153 
completed  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  by 

Ptolemy  II.,  154,  189  {note),  579 
Sukkims  of  Scripture,  supposed  to  have  been 

Ham's  descendants  by  the  African  negroes, 

46 
.  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Cushites, 

called  shepherds,  74 
Suleiman  Ibn  Hesham,  khaliph,  defeated  by 

Coustantine,  &c.,  458 
,  ruler   of  the  Seljukian    kingdom  of 

Kiira,  473 

,  Nebi,  canal,  620 

Sultan  Oui,  the  tract  allotted  to  Ertoghrul, 

498 
Suleiman,  successor  of  Selim  I.  over 

Turkey,  conquests  in  Europe,  and,  trans- 
porting materials  for  a  fleet  to  the  Red 

Sea,  sails  to  India,  500,  501 
,  his  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  island 

of  Diu,  and  his  military  and  civil  organi- 
zation, 501 
Sumatra,  and  the  name  of  Ophir  still  pre  - 

served  in  the  island,  126 
,  the  spices,  &c.,  brought  from  Ophir, 

and  the  coasting  voyage,  time  and  dis- 
tance to,  126,  127 
Sumeisat,  Julians  fleet  collected  at,  433 

,  caves  at,  610 

Sumera   (probably  Samarrah)  reached  by 

the  Romans  when  retreating  from  Persia, 

440 
Sun  and  fire,  only  a  symbol    of  the  deity 

among  the  Magi,  171,  185 
Sunnies  opposed  to  the  Shi'ahs,  457 
and  Al  Mdmun's  attempt  to  unite  the 

two  sects,  464 
celebrate   at  Baghdad  the  extinction 

of  the  Fatimites.  477 
separate  from  the  Shi'ahs  and  form  a 

distinct  empire.  487 
Sura  taken  by  Chosroes  I.,  442 
Surena,  person  and  character  of,  408. 409 
recovers  Mesopotamia,  and  advances  to 

meet  Crassus,  409 

destroys  Crassus  and  his  army,  411 

,  probable  situation  of  the  battle-ground, 

412 
,  his  triumph  at  Seleucia,  and  fate  of, 

412 
Suri,  or  Syrian,  the  written  character  of  the 

Tobbai,  81 

,  specimens  of,  foimd  in  Yemen,  81 

Suriani  (see  Srians"*,  31 

Siis,  bilingual  inscription  at,  028,  G30 

,  mound  once  pyramidal,  606 


INDEX. 


/// 


Siisa,  and  its  treasure  surrendered  to  Alex- 
ander, who  jentrusts  Arclielaus  with  its 
government,  and  advances  from,  to  the 
Pasitigris,  2'J8 

,  probable  course  Nearchus'  fleet  took 
from  Dirodotis  to,  355-357 

,  Alexander's  march  from  Pasagarda  to, 

358 

,  Nearchus  and  Onesicritus  join  Alex- 
ander at,  358 

,  the  satrap  Abulites  and  his  son  ex- 
ecuted by  Alexander  at,  358 

,  and  Alexander's  route  to,  from  Opis, 

364 

,  and  its  treasures,  seized  by  Antigonus, 

388 

Susia,  a  city  of  Ara,  visited  by  Alexander, 
306 

Susiad  rocks  separate  Susiana  from  Persia, 
299 

Susiana,  Darius  quells  a  rebellion  in,  178 

,  the  satrap  of,  surrenders  to  Alexan- 
der, 298 

satrapy  restored  to  Abulites,  298 

,  the  Uxian  territory  added  to  the  sa- 
trapy of,  299 

,  difficulties  encountered  by  Nearchus' 

fleet,  when  coasting,  354 

,  a  separate  independent  government, 

354 

,  occupied  by  Eumenes,  383 

,  commerce  of  { Appendix  IV.) 

Suti,  branch  of  the  Hydaspes,  source,  &c.,  of 
the,  371 

Sutlej,  source  and  course  of  the,  369,  370 

,  or  Hesidrus,    also  called  tlie  Ghara, 

370 

Swanpau,  calculating  board  of  the  Chinese, 
34 

Sydonians  submit  to  Alexander,  277 

Syennesis,  satrap  of  Cilicia,  209 

,  his  visit  to  Cyrus  at  Tarsus,  210 

Syloson,  Darius'  expedition  against  Samos, 
to  reinstate,  1 78 

Symbra  (Nacumbra),  Julian's  army  retreats 
towards,  439 

Synea,  439 

Synnnda  in  Phrygia,  and  Hesham's  defeat 
at,  458 

Syria,  our  knowledge  of,  before  the  flood,  4 

,  the  Assyrians  subject,  65 

invaded  by  Shalmaneser,  who  sends 

colonies  of  Assyrians  into,  141 

taken  by  Parmenio,  276 

,  war  of  Antigonus  in,  402 

^_submits  to  I'tolemy  Philopater,  403 

,  the  progress  of  the  Eoman  power  in, 

404 

,  Demetrius  Nicator,  as  ruler  of  Syria, 

invades  Parthia,  404,  405 

becomes  a  Koraan  province,  and  Crassus 

appointed  governor  of,  407 

,  means  taken   by  Crassus  to  increase 

the  revenue  of,  407 

invaded  by  Orodes'  son,  Pacorus,  412 

,  the  Persians  under  Sapor  invade,  423, 

425 


Syria  invaded  by  Zenobia,  and  Abii  Bekr, 

427,  452 
retaken  by  Sahih-ed-di'n,  480 

and  places  ceded  to  the  Crusaders  by 

the  treaty  of  Frederick  II.,  484,  485 

and  Palestine  united  to  the  Ottoman 

empire,  486 

,  Tainuir's  conquests  in,  495 

partly  subjected  by  the  Turks  under 

Seliui  I.,  500 

,  commerce  through,  594  (and  Appen- 
dix j\'.) 

Syriac,  derived  from  the  Chaldaic,  31,  84 

characters  like  the  Chaldee,  Hebrew, 

and  Phoenician,  629 

Syrians  (Suriani)  or  Assyrians,  called  also 
Arameans,  &c.,  were  descended  from 
Shem,  2,  31 

gates,  description  of,  abandoned  by 

Abrocamas,  at  the  approach  of  Cyrus,  211, 
212 

trade,  and  decline  of,  594,  595 

Syrians,  Luco,  also  called  Chrysor,  36 

,  territory  of,  arts,  &c.,  36 

,  or  Assyrians  of 'Irak  Arabi,  identical, 

52 
Sysimithres  rock,  that  of  Arimazes,  or  the 
hill  fort  of  Oxyarta  captured  by  Alex- 
ander, 317 

,  probably  represented  by  Kurghlan- 

Tippa,  317 

Tab  river  (see  Indian) 

Tabariyeh,  the  Karismians  raze  the  forti- 
fications of,  485 

Taberistan,  formerly  Tapuria,  305 

,  the  chiefs  of,  transfer  their  allegiance 

to  Alexander,  305 

,  the  satrapy  continued  to  Autophra- 

dates,  and  the  territory  of  the  Mardi 
added  to  the  satrapy  of  the  Tapuri,  or, 
305 

Tabol,  river  in  Siberia,  crossed  by  Taimiir, 
493 

Tabriz,  routes  from  and  to,  573 

Tachos  (satrap  of  Egypt),  treatment  of 
Agesilaus  by,  and  supplanted  on  the  throne 
by  Nectanabis,  249 

,  Artaxerxes'  reception  of,  249 

Tadmor,  caravan  routes  through,  93 

Tadmor  built  by  Solomon,  122 

,  caravan  routes  to  Persian  Gulf,  &c., 

passing  by,  124,  125,  570 

Taim,  in  Egypt,  captured  by  Al  Miimiin,  460 

Taiiuur-Bec,  Taimur-Lenk  (the  lame),  our 
Tamerlane,  491 

conquers  Turkistdn,  Persia,  and  Ar- 
menia, and  massacres  the  inhabitants  of 
Ispahpji,  492 

,  his   campaign  against  the  Kiptshak, 

and  subjects  southern  Persia,  liaghdad, 
Armenia,  &c.,  493 

invades    India,    and    campaigns    in 

Georgia,  Anaduli,  Syria,  &c.,  494,  495 

massacres  the  people  of  Baghdad,  de- 
feats and  captures  Bajazet,  returns  to 
Samarkand,  and  death  of.  495 


778 


INDEX. 


Taimur,  compared  with  Alexander,  496 
descendants,    the    great    Moguls    of 

northern  India,  49  G 
Tajah,  Himyari  tablet  in  her  sepulchre  in 

Yemen,  90,  91 
Takhti  Suleiman  (see  Phraata) 
Soleiman,  ruins  of,  probably  the  Me- 
dian Ecbatana,  147 

Suleiman,  608 

Takti-Bostau,  ruins  of,  608 

Talmona,  haven  and  station  of  Nearchus' 

fleet,  349 

,  the  bay  of  Charbar,  or  Choubar,  349 

Tamberan,  a  town  built  by  Shem,  13 
Tamerlane,  Taimur-Bec,  or  Taimur-Lenk 

(the  lame),  titles  and  early  history   of, 

491,  492 
Tanais.  the  Jaxartes  mistaken  for  the,  312 
Tangier,  Africus,  king  of  the  Himyarites, 

extends  his  conquests  to,  80 
Tanjus,  or  Khan,  emperor  of  the  Huns,  468 
Tanka,  or  egg  boat  of  the  Chinese,  647 
Tanks,  Moorish,  at  Gibraltar,  627 
Taoce,  station  of  Nearchus,  near  the  mouth 

of  the  Granis,  and  palace  of  the  Persian 

monarch,  354 
Taochians,    the    Greeks    force    their   way 

through,  and  plunder,  the  country  of  the, 

230 
,  probable  situation  of  the  country  of, 

230  (note) 
Tdok  (see  Tuchi)  230 
Tapuria  (see  Taberistiin) ,  305 
Tarabuziin  (Trebizond),  halt  of  the  10,000 

Greeks  at,  235 

,  port  and  trade  of,  573,  589 

,  entrepot  of  Persian   commerce,    595 

(and  Appendix  G.) 
and  Tarsus  proposed  places  of  trade, 

601  (and  Appendix  IV.) 
Tarichea  taken  by  Vespasian,  417 
Tarsus  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475 
Tartan,   Sennacherib's  general  in  Judsea, 

142 
Tartars,  and  the  use  of  pyramids,  607  (see 

Turks),  463 
Tartary  for  a  time  subjects  Iran,  133 
Taron,  son  of  Shem,  left  by  his  father  at 

Tamberan,  13 
Tarsias,  now  Cape  Certes,  or  Eus  Jerd,  a 

headland  passed  by  Nearchus,  353 
Tarsus  plundered  by  the  Persians  under 

Sapor,  425 
Tartessus,  a  Phoenician  settlement,  90 
Tarous  plundered  by  Menou,  209 

,  Cyrus  halts  at,  210 

Tashkend  and  Khiva,  590 

Tasini  and  Bern'  Tasim,  lost  tribes,  45 

Tatnai.  governor  of  Syria  and   Palestine, 

177 
Taulantians,  the,  invade  Macedonia,  259 

.  the,  defeated  by  Alexander.  259 

Tauric  chain,  the  water-shed  of  Ai'meuia,  2 
Taurus,  Cyrus'  army  rounds  the,  206 

turns  the  pass  of  the,  209 

.Taurus,  one  name  of  the  Paropauiisus,  308 
crossed  by  Taimur,  495 


Taxila,    the   capital  of  Taxiles,    probably 

Manikjala,  324 

,  Alexander's  winter  quarters,  324 

Taxiles,  and  other  Indian  princes,  send  pre- 
sents to  Alexander,  319 
■ ,  or  Mophis,  assisted  in  preparing  the 

bridge  over  the  Indus  at  Attock,  323 
,   Alexander  promises    to   attack    his 

enemy,  Porus,  324 
and  other  Asiatic  satraps  retain  their 

governments  after  the  death  of  Alexander, 

3S0 
Tchildir  district,  the    Chalybean    countrj- 

probably  a  part  of  the,  231 
Tchinistan,  or  China,  33 
Tchorilk-su  (Jorak),  or  Acampsis,  the  Har- 

pusus  crossed  by  the  10,000  Greeks,  231 
Tedjen,  or  Ochus  river,  and  Alexander's 

march  to  the,  318 
Tehiimeh  invaded  by  Asuad  Abii  Kurriib, 

king  of  the  Tobbai,  449 
Tekrit,  the  Tigris  crossed  by  Jovian's  army 

probably  at,  441 

stormed  by  Taimiir,  493 

Tekrova,  formerly  Phaselis,  the  principal 

city  of  Lower  Lysia.  267 
Telade,  probably  built  by  Nimriid  under  the 

name  of  Tunim,  39 
Teleboas,  or  Kara-sii,  reached  by  the  10,000 

Greeks,  227 
,  treaty  with  Teribazus  made  near  the, 

227,  228 
Telegraph,  electric,  565 
Telmissus  (now  Makri),   taken   by  Alex- 
ander, 26 
Templars    nearly   destroyed    by   the   Hos- 

pitalliers,  485 
Temvigin,  original  name  of  Genghis  Khau, 

487 
Terah,  a  Shemitic  Chaldean,  55 
Teredon,  a  port  much  frequented,  supposed 

to  have  been  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 

355 

,  site  of  the  city  of,  355 

Teredon,  or  Diridotis,  the  port  at  which 

Nearchus'  voyage  terminated,  355,  356 
Teredon  built  hy  Nebuchadnezzar,  578 
Terek,  Taimur  defeats  the  Kiptshaks  on  the 

river,  494 
Teribazus  induces  Artaxerxes  to  encounter 

Cyrus,  216 
,  the  Greeks  enter  into  treaty  with,  near 

the  Teleboas,  227 
,  embassies  sent  to  Artaxerxes  by  the 

Lacedieniouians  through,  246 
supplies    the    Laeeda;monians    with 

money  to  equip  a  fleet,  and  is  sent  into 

C^'prus  against  Evagoras,  247 
recalled  and  deprived  of  his  satrapy  of 

Lydia,  248 

restored  to  his  government.  248 

joins  Darius  in  a  conspiracy  against 

Artaxerxes,  and  is  put  to  death,  249 
Thafar,  the  Himyaritic  Dhafar  in  Arabia, 

49,  50 
Thais  induces  Alexander  to  fire  the  palace 

of  Xerxes,  302 


INDEX. 


779 


Thales  studied  in  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  519 
,  philosophy  of,  and  advancement  made 

by  liim  in  science,  519 
and  other  sages  connected  with  eastern 

literature,  539 
Thamud,  supposition   concerning,  and   the 

lost  tribe  of.  :21 
,  the  tract  that  belonged  to  the  tribe  of, 

their  places  of  abode,  and  remains  of  their 

cities,  21 
,  their  destruction  agrees  with  that  of 

the  cities  of  the  plain,  21 
probably  absorbed  in  the  Kahtainites, 

51 
Thamudetes  and  Gianthetes,  21 
Thamudite  giants,  Arab  account  of  the  de- 
struction of  the.  68 
Thapsacus,  its  distance  from  Sardis  and  Cii- 

naxa  computed,  207 

,  its  distance  from  the  Daradax,  2 1 3 

,  Cyrus   acquaints  the  army  with  his 

purpose  at,  213 
abandoned  by  Mazacus,  the  general  of 

Darius,  Alexander's  passage  at,  and  local 

tradition.  285 
T'hat'hah  (Ty.ttah),  at  the  estuary  of  the 

Indus,  372 
Thebans,  the,  request  assistance  from  Persia, 

248 
Thebes  stormed  by  Alexander,  259 
Theches  mountain  (probably  Gaur  Tagh), 

reached  by  the  10,000  Greeks,  232 
Themiscyra,  from  whence  came  the  Ama- 
zons and  Gargareis  (or  Armenians'),  133 
Themistocles'  reception  by  Ahasuerus,  199 
Theodosia,  city  built  by  Seleucus,  399 
Tlieodotus  assumes  the  sovereignty  of  Bac- 

tria,  400 
Theophilus,     campaign    of    Al    Mu'tasem 

against  the  emperor,  462,  4C3 
Theophrastus'  work  on  botany,  531 
Thereban  (see  Apollonia),  Tiberias  taken 

by  Vespasian,  417 
Thermedon     (Thermeh-Sii),     the      10,000 

Greeks  sail  past  the,  237 
,  Xenophon's   mistake   regarding  the, 

238 
Thermopyla;,  Xerxes  gains  the  pass  of,  194, 

195 
Thesos  mount,  and  excavations  at,  617 
Thilsapheta,  Joviaa  passes,  441 
Thilutha,  island  fort  on  the  Euphrates,  now 
'    'Anatelbus,  resists  Julian,  436 
Thimbron,  the  admiral,  enters  the  Laceda- 

monian  service,  242 
Thoth,  son  of  Mizraim,  with   his  father, 

leads  the  Ilamites  into  Africa,  40 
Thrace  subdued  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  181 

,  Xerxes'  army  enter,   193 

,  the  Greeks  assist  Seuthes,  a  king  of, 

241 
Thracians  descendants  from  Tiras,  44 
Thrapsacus,  Crassus,  crosses  the  Euphrates 

at,  409 
Thi'ya;i,  and  Alexander's  campaign  against 

the,  319 
Thrymbrium,  Cyrus  advances  to,  208      , 


Thummosis,  king  of  Egypt,  and  his  exploits 

commemorated  at  Thebes,  108 
Tibarenians,  from  Tubal,  44 
,  the  10,000  Greeks  enter  the  territory 

of  the,  237 
Tiberias,  town  of,   taken  by  Salah-ed-din, 

479 
Tibetan,  nail-headed  letters,  derived  from 

the  Sanscrit.  34 
Tibhath,  a  city  of  Zobah,  from  which  David 

brought  much  brass,  121 
Tiglath-Pileser  (see  Artychus) 
Tigi'anes  replaced  on  the  throne  of  Armenia, 

40G 
,  ungrateful  treatment  of  Mithridates  II. 

by,  406 
,  his  campaign  in  Egypt,  and  consequent 

war  with  the  Romans,  406 
.  the    younger,    assists    the    Romans 

against  his  father,  and  is  appointed  ruler 

of  Syria,  407 
Tigranocerta,  LucuUus  invades,  and  battle 

of,  406 
Tigris,  Naditabirus  defeated  by  Darius  on 

the  banks  of  the,  178 
,  the  10,000  Greeks  choose   the  route 

along  the,  219 
,  the  proposed  passage  of,   near  Jebel 

Jiidi,  declined  by  the  Greeks,  225 
,  the,  regained  by  the  Greeks  near  the 

pass  of  Chelek,  226 
■ •  the  Greeks  approach  the  springs  of  the 

eastern,  227 

,  and  Alexander's  fleet,  360 

,  and  its  connexion  with  the  Eulajus,  361 

,  Alexander  sails  up  to  Opis,  the  bunds, 

&c.,  to  be  removed,  361,  362 
,    Antigonus    crosses    the,    when    ad- 
vancing against  Eumenes,  384 
and  Karuii,  and  defeat  of  Antigonus  by 

Eumenes,  384 
,  the,  passed  by  Xenajtas  and  Antiochus, 

403 

,  Antiochus  the  Great  crosses  the,  403 

,  Ti-ajan  transports  materials  for  a  fleet 

from  Nisibis  to  the,  418 

,  the,  crossed  by  Trajan,  418,  419 

,  the  Roman   fleet  descends  the   Eu- 
phrates, 419 
,  Trajan  transports  his  fleet  from  the 

Euphrates  to  the,  and  his  voyage  to  the 

Red  Sea  by  the,  420 
,  Severus'  fleet  passes  along  the  Nahr 

Malkii,  from  the  Euphrates  into  the,  42 1 
,  army  of  Sapor  II.  crosses  the,  on  three 

bridges,  431 
,  Julian's   fleet    sail  along  the   Nahr 

Malka  into  the,  438 
,  Jovian's  ai-my  cross  the,  on  rafts,  &c., 

441 
,.  Tai'mur's   troops   swim   across   the, 

493 

,  bridge  built  by  Tai'miir  over  the,  495 

.  Kariiu  and  Euphrates,  navigation  of, 

601  (and  Appendix) 
Til,  Armenian  village,  near  the  junction  of 

the  Ceutritcs  with  the  Tigris,  226 


780 


INDEX. 


Tilsit,  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  of,  536, 

537 
Tiras,  from  whom  came  the  Thracians,  44 
Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  leads  an  army 

against  Sennacherib,   142 
Tissaphemes  proceeds  with  Cyrus  to  Susa, 

202 
,  Cyras'  armaments  avowedly  against, 

203 
,  his  subjects  transfer  their  allegiance 

to  Cyrus,  204 
informs  Artaxerxes   of  the  object  of 

Cyms,  205 
,  the  10,000  Greeks    engaged   by   the 

Lacedaemonians  against,  241 
assists  the  Greeks  against  Phamabazus, 

244 
combines  with  Phamabazus  to  expel 

the  Greeks  from  Asia,  244 
,  insincerity  of,  towards  the    Lacedse- 

monians,  245 
defeated   by  Agesilaus   on   the  river 

Pactolus,  245 
is  superseded  and  beheaded  by  Arta- 
xerxes, 245,  250 
Tithranates    makes  a   separate   truce  with 

the  Lacedaemonians,  245 
'         supplies  Agesilaus  with  money  against 

Pharnabaziis,  245 
Titiyah,  oue   of   the  six  estuaries   of  the 

Indus,  372 

,  course,  &c.,  of  the,  372 

Titus,  his  successes  in  Galilee,  and  siege  and 

capture  of  Jerusalem  by,  417 
succeeds  his  father  Vespasian  as  em- 
peror, 418 

,  his  successors,  418 

Tobbai,  Yemen  became  the  seat  of  the,  52 
(see  Himyarites),  state  of  Arabia  under 

the,  80 
,  existence  of  the,  in  Arabia,  and  their 

language  still  spoken  at  Mahrah,  81 
,  written  character  of  the,  called  Suri, 

or   SjTians,   and   inscriptions    found    in 

Yemen,  81 

,  their  settlement  in  Yemen,  &c.,  449 

,  conquests  of  the,  &c.,  449 

,  Christianitj'  and  the  Mosaic  law  intro- 
duced among  the,  449 
Tobit  carried  captive  to  Nineveh,  141 

,  the  purveyor  of  Enemessar,  141 

Togormah,  descendants  of,  38,  41 

occupy  part  of  Cappadocia,  43 

Togormeaus,  or  Haikauians,  41 

Togrul  Bel,  or  Miihammed,  founder  of  the 

Seljukian    dynasty,   his    conquests,    and 

succeeded  by  Alp  Arslan,  470 
Tokiit,   British  articles   in    demand    (,Ap- 

pendix  yY.) 
Toktamish  Khiin,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of 

the  White  Horde.  4'JO 

,  conquests,  and  defeat  by  Ta'imiir  of, 

490,  493 
Toledo,  archbishop   of,  and   translation  of 
the  Koran,  557,  5G1 

,  the   seat  of  Arabic   literature,    5C0, 

561 


Tomb,  Little  (island),  and  Nearchtis'  fleet, 
352 

of  Cyrus    and  its    inscription   {Ap- 
pendix A.) 

Tomerus  (Tonderan),  reached  by  Nearchus' 

fleet,  who  defeats  the  natives  at  the,  347 
Tomyris,  queen  of  the  Massagetae,  173 
,  Cyms  the  Great   said  to  have  been 

slain  when  fighting  against  the,  173 
Toucoush,  or  Tatash,  takes  Jerusalem  and 

Antioch  from  the  Christians,  473 
Tour  or  Keturah's  descendants,' 70,  71  (see 

Keturah.) 
Trade  between  China,  Thibet,  and  India,  571 

• through  Persia  from  Central  Asia,  571 

in  the  time  of  the  Argonauts,  573 

with  the.Massagetae,  573 

along  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  582 

of  Constantinople  with  Central  Asia, 

586 

of  England  commenced  by  Edgar,  586 

of  Venice  and  Genoa  with  the  east,  587 

,  foreign,  favourable  to  England,  588 

of  France  with  Barbary,  589 

to  the  Crimea  and  Danube  from  India, 

590 
of  England  at  the  accession  of  Queen 

Elizabeth,  590 

of  Bokhara,  Khiva,  &c.,  with  Astra- 

chan,  592 

with  Sigistan,  Tartar}-,  &c.,  592 

Elizabeth,  592,  593 
with  India  through  Syria  becomes  very 

advantageous,  593 

with  India  by  sea  from  England,  594 

of  Britain  in  1354  compared  with  1845, 

.594 
of  Russia  with  Central  Asia,  595-597 

(and  Appendix  N.) 

with  Babylon   in  the  time  of  Queen 

of  Syria,  and  its  disadvantages,  596 

of  the  Kirghis  Kazaks  with  liussia  and 

China,  596 
of  India  with  Arabia,  &c.,  in  1831  and 

1836,  598,  COl 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  decline  of, 

598,  599 
Trajsi,  Nearchus'  fleet  arrive  at  the  country 

of  the,  349 
Trajan  elected  emperor  of  Rome,  his  wars 

against  the  Daciaus,  Armenians,  and  Arabs, 

and  his  bridge  over  the   Danube,  near 

Arsova.  418 

advances  against  Parthia,  passes  the 

Tigris,  subdues  Adiabene,  visits  Babylon, 
and  descends  the  Euphrates,  418,  419 

.  commencement  of  the  Nahr  Malka, 

419,  420 
transports  his  vessels  to  the  Tigris,  and 

captures  Ctesiphon,  420 
,   Assyria,    Mesopotamia,   and   Arabia 

declared  Roman  provinces  by,  420 

descends  the  Tigris  to  the  Red  Sea, 

returns  to   Ctesiphon,  and  coronation  of 
Parthamaspates,  420 

— i-  expeditiun  against  the  Ilagarcnes,  siege 
of  Atra,  421 


INDEX. 


781 


Trajan  dies  in  Cilicia,  and  is  succeeded  by 

Adrian,  421 

,  his  throne  at  Zaragardia,  43G 

Trankeys.  or  batillas,  045 

Trausoxiaua,  or  Sogdiuua,  aud  Alexander's 

campaign  in,  312 
■         subjected  by  Genghis  Khun,  489 
,  and  retained  by  Taimur's  descendants, 

49t) 

silver  mines  and  fruit,  592 

Traperus  plundered  by  the  Borani  Scythians, 

424 
Trebizond  (see  Tardbuziin),  235 
Triballiaus,    or    Bulgarians,    defeated   by 

Alexander,  258 
Tripoli  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  475 

taken  from  the  Crut^aders,  486 

Troja  forest  and  Troja-mala  in  Sweden,  512 
Trojan  war,  period  and  cause  of  the,  119 
Trojans,  sons  of  the  Argonauts,  119 

,  aud  people  descended  from,  512 

Trojenburg  palace  in  Sweden,  512 

Tropina,  part  of  India  trade  to,  57G 

Troy,  an  Armenian  contingent  employed  at, 

119 
,  an  Assyrian  contingent  employed  at, 

134, 135 

,  and  Alexander's  sacrifices  at,  263 

Tuatha  De  Daniinn  people  settled  in  Ireland, 

513 
Tubal  and  the  Tibarenians,  44 
Tuchi,   or   Taoutchie   (the   Taok    of    the 

Turks),  230  (note) 
Tufukat,  or  code  of  laws  of  Taimur,  496 
Tunim,  probably  Telane,  built  by  Nimriid, 

39 
Tunis,  Louis  IX.  of  France  dies  at,  485 
Tunnels  at  Babylon,  Samos,  and  in  Greece, 

614,615 
Turahi,  people  settled  on  the  Dou,  511 
Tiiran,  people  of,  the  ancient  Scythians,  510 
Turkey,  and  war  against  Kossia  and  Eng- 
land, 503 
,  and  effects  of  the  reforms  of  Mah- 

miid  II.,  503 
,  or  Levant  Company,  charter  to,  590- 

593 
Turkish  political  and  commercial  relations 

with  Europe,  501 
empire  in  the  time  of  Miihammed  III., 

aud  decline  of  power,  502 

wars  with  the  Russians,  502,  503 

territory  in  Egypt  and  Syria  invaded 

by  Napoleon,  503 
territory  ceded  to  Russia  by  Mah- 

miid  II.,  and  extent  of  empire,  504 
Turkistan  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  457 

conquered  by  Taiinur,  492 

Turks,  expedition  of  the  Arabs  against,  458 

serving  in  the  Muslim  armies,  464 

,  the,  become  powerful  in  Arabia,  4G7 

,  or  Tartars,  origin  of  the,  468,  469 

,    campaign   of   the,    under   Mahmud 

Ghizni,  469 
or  Tartar  branch  of  the  Huns,  or  Mon- 
gols, 487 
' and  Mongols  under  Taimur,  491-495 


Turks,  origin  of  the  Osmanli  branch  of  the, 

497 

under  'Osman,  the  first  sultan,  408 

independent  of  the  Seljukians,  493 

,  coin   money,   aud  formation   of  the 

Janizaries,  498 

,  they  conquer  European  Turkey,  498 

• ,  they  conquer  Karamania,  498,  499 

,  their  wars  under  Muriid  II.,  499 

capture   Constantinople,   and  use   of 

gunpowder,  499,  500 

under  Bayazid,  500 

,  conquests  of,  in  the  reigns  of  Selim  I. 

and  Suleiman,  500 

,  expedition  of,  to  India,  500,  501 

,  navy  of,  in  the  reign  of  Suleiman  and 

Selim  II.,  500,  .'JUl 
subdue  Yemen,  Cyprus,  Georgia,  and 

Diighestan,  501 

. under  Selim  II.  and  Murad  III,  501 

,  and  effects  of  the  battle  of  Navarino, 

504 
Tuthmosis,  king  of  Egypt,  75 
,  the  shepherds  quitted  Egypt  during 

the  reign  of,  75 
Tiiz  taken  by  Genghis  Khan,  489 
Tyana,  the  supposed  Dana,  209 
Tyana  submits  to  Aurelian,  427 
Tyana,  the  Khaliph  Hesham  at,  458 
Types,  moveable,  and  supposed  use  of,  at 

Babylon,  628 
Tyre,  and  the  kingdoms   of  Phoenicia  de- 
pendent upon,  93 
,   its   situation,   rise,    and    prosperity, 

93-95 
,  or  Tzur,  and  settlement  of  the  shep- 
herds, 112 
extends  the  Phoenician  trade  to  Africa 

and  Europe,  128 

,  Abu  Ba'al  its  first  sovereign,  129 

,  colonies  sent  from,  129,  130 

and  its  capture  probably  represented  at 

Khorsabud,  137,  517  (note) 
besieged  and  taken  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 159 
,  Alexander  determines  to  reduce  the 

city,  then  the  bulwark  of  Phoenicia,  278 

,  Palffi-tyrus,  the  ancient  city  of,  278 

,  situation  of,  and  the  bund  of,  278 

,  and  Alexander's  attempt  to  restore  the 

causeway,  278 
taken,  and  the  people  sold  for  slaves, 

279 
.  Alexander  returns  to,  from  Egypt,  and 

route    from    thence    to    Asia,    probably 

through  Phoenicia,  284 
. ,  and   Alexander's    scheme  for    com- 
mercially connecting  Europe  and  Asia, 

339 
besieged  by  Antigonus  and  Demetrius, 

389,  390 
besieged  by  the  Muslims  under  Saldh- 

ed-din,  480 

relieved  by  an  army  of  Crusaders,  480 

,  an  emporium  of  trade,  569 

,  routes  to,  from  Mesopotamia  and  Asia, 

570 


782 


INDEX. 


Tyriacum  {probablj'  I'lghiin),  Cyrus'  army 

reviewed  at,  208 
Tyrian  temples  dedicated  to  Hercules  and 

Astarte,  1-29 
Tyrians,  Solomon  employed  the,  127 

,  Arcles  their  leader,  128 

,  and  commerce  on  the  Red  Sea,  129 

founded  Carthage,  129,  130 

Tyriaspes  appointed  satrap   of  the   Paro- 

pamisus,  319 
Tyrrheneans  descended  fi'om  Ham,  and  their 

possessions,  18 

U'lan  Rohat,  or  Shahri-Zohak,  supposed  to 

have  been  the  capital  of  the  Arachosi, 

307 
U"r,  Aiir,  or  Our,  the  Orchoe  of  Ptolemy, 

identical  with  the  mound  of  Mujayah,  37 

,  three  places  so  called,  37 

,  kingdom  of,  the  principal  seat  of  the 

Shemites,  48 
,  the  country  of  Job,  and  at  a  later  period 

comprises  the   kingdoms  of   Haran   and 

Zobah,  48 

.  Abraham's  departure  from,  61,  62 

of  the  Persians,  probably  the  site  of 

Crena;,  Jovian's  army  at,  222,  441 
Ural  mountains  crossed  by  Taimiir,  493 
Uramiyah,  birth-place  of  Zerd-husht  (Zoro- 
aster), 183 
U'rfah,  also  called  U'r,  37 
Urhu  district,   once    the    country    of   the 

Horites,  and  Aritse,  343-347 
,  privations  of  Alexander's  army  among 

the,  343 
Urklan,  son  and  successor  of 'Osman,  498 

,  conquests  of,  498 

Uxians,  their  territory  added  to  the  satrapy 

of  Susiana.  299 
Uxii  subdued  before  Alexander's  advance 

to  Persis,  and  situation  of  their  city,  299 
Uz,    probable    situation    of   the    land    of, 

climate,  &c.,  77,  78 
Uzal,  son  of  Joktan,  territory  of,  51 
Uzbecks,    the,   expel    the    descendants    of 

Taimiir  from  Khorasan,  &c.,  496 
Uzun  Kazan,  chief  of  the  Turkoman  race  of 

the  White  Sheep,  496 

Valerian,  Roman  territories  invaded  by  the 

Persians  in  the  reign  of,  424 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Sapor, 

near  Edessa,  424 
Van  lake  (Ackthamar  sea),  inscriptions  re- 
lating to  Semiramis  found  near.  116 
,  a  city  built  by  Semiramis  on  the  shores 

of,  116 

taken  by  Taimur,  492 

Vannes,  or  Venets,  trade  -with  Britain,  576 
Varadam,   El,  one  of  the  names  of  Evil- 

Merodach,  IGl 
Varanes'  campaigns   against    the  Romans, 

444 
rebellion  against  Hormisdas  and  Chos- 

roes  II.,  444,  445 
■ is  put  down  -with  the  assistance  of  the 

Romans,  445 


Vascape  (Varna),  the  Hungarians  defeated 

at,  499 
Vasco  de  Gama's  voyage  to  India,  534 
Vashti,  Ahasuerus  divorces,  199  , 
Venice,  rise  of,  a  depot  of  eastern  commerce, 

and  extension  of  its  trade,  586 
and  Genoa  maintain  a  trade  with  the 

east,  586 

,  and  commercial  prosperity,  587 

Venetian  trade  with  India  by  the  Red  Sea, 

534 

trade  with  Egypt  and  India,  588 

Venetians  assist  at  the  siege  of  'Akka,  586 
,  the,  oppose  the  British  trade  in  the 

east,  593 
Versification  introduced  into  Europe  from 

Arabia,  553 
Vespasian's  campaign  in  Galilee,  417,  41 S 

is  succeeded  by  Titus,  418 

Vessels  trading  to  India  from  the  Persian 

Gulf,  and  boats  on  the  Tigris  and  Lower 

Euphrates,  644 

and  junks  of  China.  648 

kept  at  Bir  by  Queen  Elizabeth  for 

trade,  693 
Vikkar.  Bander,  or  Ban'  Gora,  372 
,  trade  on  the  Indus  from  Shikarpiir  to, 

375 

WadiElKari,  21 

Walid,  Al  (surnamed  Al  SafTah),  khuliph  and 
successor  of  Suleiman  Ibu  Hesham,  458 

Walid,  El,  the  Moorish  dynasty  in  Spain 
commenced  in  reigu  of,  457 

,  conquests  of,  457 

Walid  (Khalid)  causes  astronomical  and 
philosophical  works  to  be  translated  by 
Stephanus  and  others,  544 

Wanyani,  another  name  for  the  K'hediwiiri 
branch,  373 

War  or  mandarin  boat  of  China,  648 

Waraka,  nephew  of  Khadijeh,  and  instruc- 
tor of  Miihammed,  452 

Wari,  a  former  mouth  of  the  Indus,  now  dry . 
373 

Water-courses  of  Susiana,  612 

Water,  management  o^  in  the  east,  651,  652 

levers  and  baskets.  652 

raised  by  rollers  and  wheels,  653,  654 

Wathel,  successor  of  Himyar.  80 

Wellsted,  Lieut.,  inscriptions  found  by,  82 

Welsh,  sprung  from  the  Celtic  tribes  of 
Asia,  513 

Werdi,  loss  of  the  Tigris  steamer  in  a  hurri- 
cane near,  436  {note) 

Wheel,  the  Persian  and  Chinese,  654 

Wherry,  or  small  sailing  boat  of  China,  647 

White  Horde,  Toktamish  founds  the  dynasty 
of  the,  490 

Wolg^  river,  commerce  of  the,  582 

Woollen  cloth  exported  by  the  Arabs,  583 

Woollens  exported  from  England  to  the 
Netherlands,  588 

Xandrames,  the  Indian  prince,  near  the 
Ganges,  who  collected  an  army  to  oppose 
Alexander,  332 


INDEX. 


783 


Xathri  prepared   vessels    for    Alexander's 

descent  of  the  Indus,  341 
,  probable  position  of  the  country  of  the, 

341  (note) 
Xenrctfis.    general    of    Antigouus,   war    in 

Mesopotamia,  his  defeat  and  death,  402, 

403 
Xenias  and  Pasiou  desert  Cyrus  at  Myrian- 

drus,  212 
Xenopbon  joins  Cjtus'  expedition,  204 
,  bis  conduct  at  the  passage  of  the  Ceu- 

trites  during  the  march,  227,  229 
,  his  skill  in  defeating  the  Colchians. 

234 
extricates  the  Greeks  when  pressed  by 

theDrillsc,  and  declines  the  sole  command, 

235, 23S 
,  gallantry  in  rescuing    and  reuniting 

the  Greeks  at  Calpaj,  239 

defeats  the   Persians,  and  saves  By- 
zantium, 240,  241 

and  the  Greeks  take  service   against 

Tlssapheruis,  241 
captures  the  wife  and  family  of  Asi- 

dates,  and  resigns  the  command  of  the 

Greelcs,  242 
,  his  tactics  and  those  of  the  Greeks, 

242,  243 
Xerxes  succeeds  his   father  Darius   Hys- 

taspes,  188 
• recovers  Egypt,  prepares  for  war  with 

Greece,  191 
orders  a  bridge  to  be  built  across  the 

Hellespont,  and  a  canal  to  be  cut  through 

Mount  Athos,  191 

proceeds  from    Susa  to  Lydia,   and 

Abydos,  192 

numbers  his  force  on  the  plain  of  Da- 

riscus,  193,  194 

advances  to  Thermopylae,  and  gains 

the  pass  194,  195 

ileet  defeated  at  Salamis,  195 

takes  and  burns  the  citadel  of  Athens, 

and  plunders  the  temple  of  Delphos,  195 
,  retreat  and  privations  of  the  army  of, 

195,196 
leaves  Mardonius  to  carry  on  the  war, 

196 
,  his  flight  from  Sardis  to  Susa,  where 

he   was    murdered,   his    character,    197, 

198 
,  events  of  the  reign  of,  recorded  on  the 

monuments   at  Persepolis,    198    {Appen- 
dices B.  and  C.) 

succeeded  by  Artaxerxes,  198 

.  son  of  Ahasuerus,  or  Artaxerxes,  by 

Esther,  200 

murdered  shortly  after  his  accession 

200 

,  inscriptions  relating  ^to,  at  Persepolis 

{Appendices  C.  and  I).) 

,  at  Hammodiin,  (dilto  C  and  D.) 

Xisuthrus.  Oannes,  or  Noah,  5 
Yaafar,  a  king  of  the  Himyarites,  80 
Yacuta.  the    character   of  the  inscriptions 

found  at  Samarcand,  and  similar  to  those 

of,  84 


Ya'rab  ben  Kahtan,  probably  Jerah,  51 

,  'Abd-el  Shems  succeeds,  52 

Yechi'b  Innak,  or  Iris,  the  10,000  Greeks 

sail  past  the,  237 
Yemen,  some  of  Ham's  descendants  remained 

in,  50 
,  the  Kahtanites  had  their  principal  seat 

in,  51 
.  became  the  seat  of  the  Tobbai  and  the 

Himyarites,  52 
,  advanced  state  of  civilization  about 

Job's  time  in,  79 

. ,  state  of,  under  the  Tobbai,  79,  80 

• ,  Tobbai  inscriptions  found  in,  81 

,  Ilimyari   inscription  relative   to  the 

agricultural  produce  of  Egypt,  90 
,  the  Himyari  power,  and  foundation 

of  the  kingdoms  of  Ghassau  and  Hirdh 

in,  449 

,  Mosaic  ritual  introduced  into,  449 

,  invasions  by  the  Abyssinians  of,  450 

,  the  various  worships  in,  previous  to 

Miihammed's  time,  450 

,  subdued  by  Chosroes   '^e  Persian,  450 

,  campaign  of  Salah-ed-di'n  in,  478 

added  to  the  Turkish  dominions  by 

Selim  II.,  501 
Yesoncay,  a  name  of  Genghis  Khdn,  487 
Yuhaimah,  Mar,  now  the  seat  of  a  Chaldean 

bishop.  225 
Yun,  Ling  Mountains,  a  part  of  the  Paro- 

pami&ian  chain,  309 
Yununui,  or  Ninavi  (Ninevites),   tribe  of 

Syrians,  31 

Zab,  the  hereditary  prince  of  Seistan,  1 34 
,  Persian  treachery  towards  the  10,000 

Greeks  at  the,  222 
(Great),  or  Lycus,  Darius  crosses  the, 

236,  287 
,  the  battle  of  Arbela   fought  in  the 

neighbourhood  of  the,  295 

passed  by  Ileraclius,  445 

Zabatus,  the  10,ii00  Greeks  pass  the  river, 

222 

crossed  by  the  10.000  Greeks,  221, 222 

Zabdus,   general  of   Zenobia,  defeated  by 

Aureliau,  427 
Zadracarta,  the  modem  Sarce,  the  satrap  of 

Tapuria,  and  other  chiefs  of,  transfer  their 

allegiance  to  Alexander,  305 
,  Alexander  gives  himself  up  to  luxu- 
rious amusements,  &c.,  at,  305 
,  Alexander   marches    against   Bessus 

from,  306 
Zagros,  road  through,  612 
Zaitha,  Circeian  camp  and  monument  erected 

to  Gordian  III.,  near.  424,  435 

,  Julian's  army  reach.  435 

Zakhii,  or  Zakko  ( on  the  Khabiir),  reached 

by  the  10,000  Greeks,  224 
Zamzummim,  tribe  of,  descended  from  Ham, 

21 
Zamzumraims  expelled  by  the  Ammonites 

from  Rabb3h.69 
Zanzana,   Darius   defeats    Naditabirus    at, 

near  Babylon,  1 78 


784 


INDEX. 


Zaragardia,    or    Ozogardana,    pillaged    by 

Julian's  army,  436 
Zaraka,  a  town  from  which  the  Arabians 

were  called  Saracens,  76 
Zaranggei,  or  L'raugsD,  and  route  taken  by 

Alexander,  30G 

,  Trajan's  throne  at,  436 

Zariaspa,  or  Bactra,  311,  312 

Zawujah  (in  Kurdistan),  the  Greeks  proceed 

by  the  ravine  of,  •226  ' 
Zedekiah  (once  Mattaniah),  king  of  Judah, 

his  attempt  to  throw  off  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's yoke,  158 

,  prophecy  concerning,  157, 158 

,  Nebuchadnezzar's  treatment  of,  15S 

Zend-avesta,   in   which  are   contained  the 

tenets  of  Zerd-husht,  183 
Zenobia,  on  the  death  of  her  husband  Ode- 

natus,  reigns  at  Palmyra,  426 
defeats  Heraclianus,  and  subjects  some 

of  the  Roman  provinces,  427 

is  defeated  by  Aurelian  at  Imma,  427 

again  defeated  by  Aurelian,  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  42  7 
,  her  defence  of  Palmyra,  and  retreat 

and  capture,  428,  429 

!  her  character,  429 

,  town,  Chosroes  I.  at,  442 

Zenodotia  stormed  by  Crassus,  40  7 

Zerah,  the  Ethiopian  invasion  of  Judea  by, 

134 

,  the  Cush  of,  probably  in  Arabia,  134 

Zerdusht,  or  Zerd-husht,  probably  Zoroaster, 

183, 

reforms  the  Magian  religion,  183, 184, 

Zerka,  Tarikh  Ibn,  leader  of  the  Moorish 

expedition  against  Spain,  457 
Zerrah  lake,  and  Alexander's  halt  at,  307 


Zerubbabel,  or  Zorobabel  (Shesh-bazzar), 
returns  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, 171 

Zhafiir,  or  Dhafar,  the  Himyaritic  Thafar, 
49,  50 

Zigani  mountain,  from  which  the  Euxine  is 
visible,  233 

Pass,  defeat  of  the  Colchians  by  the 

10,000  Greeks  at  the,  234 

Zikr  Ismail.  013 

Zikra  al-aliwiiz  bund,  613 

Zilleh,  commerce  of  {Appendix  i\''.) 

Zobah  (Nisibis)  and  Haran  formed  the 
Chaldean  kingdom  of  U'r,  48 

,  probably  Nisibis,  121 

,  David  defeats  the  king  of,  and  takes 

much  brass  from  the  cities  of,  121 

Zohruy,  a  boat  used  on  the  Indus,  and  how 
constructed,  &c.,  375 

Zohiik,  Zohac,  or  Zohauk,  the  Nimnid  of 
the  Persians,  24,  58 

Zolakert,  a  son  of  Amassia,  41 

Zopyrus  enables  Darius  to  recapture  Baby- 
lon, 179 

Zoroaster,  his  doctrines,  170,  171,  1S3-IS6 

(named  Archiraagus)  and    the  Magi 

slaughtered  at  13alkh  by  the  Scythians,  183 

,  four  prophets  who  bore  the  name  of, 

183 

,  place  of  his  birth,  &c.,  183,  184 

,  his  reliffiou  promoted  by  Ahasuerus, 

200 

,  his  mythology,  probably  that  of  the 

Celts,  513 

Zummara,  the  Eomans  defeat  the  Persians 
at,  439 

Zuzein  Rephaim,  &c.,  21 

Zuzim,  tribe  of,  descended  from  Ham,  21 


London :  Printed  by  William  Clowes  and  Sons,  Stamford  Street. 


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V.2 


Chesney,  Francis  Rawdon 

The  expedition  for  the 
survey  of  the  rivers  Euphrates 
and  Tigris 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY